Introduction to biology (a) Cells are basic structural and physiological units of

all living organisms

I. Nature of biology (b) Cells are both distinct entities and building block of
more complex organisms
Studying biology makes us aware of the realms of the
living world.
2. Living organisms: undergo metabolism
(a) Nanobe- smallest organism Require Energy
(b) Blue whale- largest organism (a) Cells use nutrients to supply energy and build new
(c) Wolffia globosa- smallest flower structures
(d) Rafflesia arnoldii- largest flower (b) Metabolism: the sum total of chemical reactions that
occur in an organism
Knowledge of physics, mathematics and chemistry
helps us understand biology 3. Living organisms: respond to stimuli
Respond
A. Biology as a science of life (a) helps ensure the survival of an organism
It is through understanding of what makes such (b) allows an organism to carry on daily activities
creature an organism
4. Living organisms: possess a capacity to grow…
Biology- the science of living things; has become a reproduce
frontier of sciences; the study of life. It is a scientific Reproduce and Develop:
field that is interested in the form, function, and (a) asexual reproduction (clonal reproduction): produce
behavior of all living things. exact replica of themselves
(b) sexual reproduction (many strategies): exchange of
B. Brief history of biology
genetic material between organisms
Humans began studying biology in their desire to
triumph over creation; initially based on superstition
5. Living organisms have: heritable genetic
information… through natural selection, adapt to their
(a) Hippocrates- wrote a book of diseases
environment
(b) Aristotle- listed 500 species of animals
Heredity
(c) Theoprhastus- founded botany and 500 species
(a) genome – all DNA molecules in a cell
of plants
(b) adaptation – an organism’s modification in structure,
(d) Galen- last real biologist of the ancient world
function, or behavior suitable to the environment
(e) Andreas Vesalius- inaugurated the modern era
natural selection- When adaptations are so beneficial
of western medicine
that they are inherited in subsequent generations
(f) Leonardo da Vinci- an artist studying
physiological and anatomical details
6. Living organisms have: complex organization
(g) Anton van Leeuwenhoek- initiated microscopy
Life Science
(h) Charles Darwin- on the origin of species
(a) biology is the scientific study of life

C. Importance of Biology
B. Characteristics of living things
(a) discover the relationships among humans,
(a) cellular organization
animals, and plants
(b) Locomotion
(b) Learn to value life
(c) Irritability
(c) Learn about sustainable development
(d) Matabolism
(d) Learn about the need to conserve
(e) Growth
(e) Enables us to realize economic importance
(f) Reproduction
(f) Enhances our interests and appreciation
(g) Adjustment, integration, adaptation,
coordination
II. What is a living thing?

What are the characteristics of life? C. Life is complex!

Living organisms are a carbon- and water-based
1. There are levels of life:
cellular form with complex organization and heritable
small molecules- large molecules- cells- tissues- organs
genetic information. They undergo metabolism, possess
- organ system- complex organisms
a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce, and,
through natural selection, adapt to their environment in
2. There is diversity of life:
successive generations.
a. Prokaryotes: single-celled organisms. each cell is an
A. Properties of life individual organism that can live and function
independently.
1. Living organisms are: a carbon- and water-based
cellular form. (1) Domain Bacteria- consists of all the bacterial
Cell Theory organisms
(2) Domain Archaea- contains the descendants of the C. The Theory of Heredity:
most primitive organisms on Earth (a) The genes of any organism are inherited as discrete
units
b. Eukaryotes: multi-celled organisms (b) Those genes are packaged up in chromosomes
(3) Domain Eukarya
Gregor Mendel – Mendelian segregation; first scientist to
(a) Kingdom Protista- first group to develop
suggest how genes are inherited
multicellularity
(b) Kingdom Plantae D. The Theory of Evolution:
(c) Kingdom Fungi (a) Organisms that can respond to the challenges of
(d) Kingdom Animalia living will leave more offspring
(b) Descent with modification!
3. There is taxonomic order to life:
domain- kingdom- phylum- class- order- family- genus- Charles Darwin – first scientist to present this idea;
species living organisms are related to one another

4. There is ecological order to life:

biosphere- region- landscape- ecosystem- community-
population- individuals V. Scientific Method

The Scientific Method is a process used to find answers

5. Life is interconnected and interdependent: to questions about the world around us.
a. Producers
b. Consumers The 7-step process to scientific investigations
c. Decomposers
(1) Formulate a question.
What do you want to know or explain? Use
III. The scientific process observations you have made to write a question that
To understand such a complex subject, scientists addresses the problem or topic you want to investigate.
developed the scientific method:
(2) Research the question.
(a) allows scientists to modify and correct their Researching your question lets you know if
beliefs as new observations and information others have done this same experiment before and if
becomes available so, what their data suggests. If they had a widely
accepted conclusion, you may want to try a different
(b) if well supported > theory! angle with your experiment or test a different variable.
Observations- hypothesis- experiment/observation-
conclusion- scientific theory (3)Form a hypothesis.
What do you think will happen? A hypothesis is
your prediction for the outcome of the experiment. It is
based on your observations and should be testable!
IV. Core Ideas of Biology
(4) Conduct an experiment to test your hypothesis.
A theory is a unifying explanation that has been well
Design a procedure that tests your hypothesis
supported time and time again; statement of fact that
to see if your prediction is correct. Record all of your
has not been disproven scientifically.
data and observations and put them into a table that is
There are four major unifying themes in the study of neat and organized.
life.
(5) Analyze data.
A. The Cell Theory: Is your data reliable? Does it make sense? Put
(a) All organisms are composed of cells your data into a chart or graph and look for any trends.
(b) All cells come from other cells
(6) Draw Conclusions.
Robert Hooke– named cells; the first scientist to identify Do your data and observations support your
a cell; honeycomb hypothesis? If you cannot make a definite conclusion,
you may need to try the experiment again. This means
Anton van Leeuwenhoek– the first to identify bacterial
you may either need to rewrite your procedure if it was
cells, and he called them “wee animalcules.”
not specific enough; you may need to change your
B. The Gene Theory: hypothesis.
(a) All organisms have a genome
(b) An organism’s genes determine what it will be like (7) Communicate results.
(secret code!) Report the results of your experiment to let
others know what you have learned. This will be
James Watson and Francis Crick – discovered DNA represented as either a lab report, oral presentation, or
structure Science Fair display board.
The Cell Theory and the Microscope 3. All basic chemical & physiological functions are
carried out inside the cells.(movement, digestion,etc)
Some Random Cell Facts 4. Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular
(a) The average human being is composed of around structures within the cell(organelles, nucleus, plasma
100 Trillion individual cells.. membrane)
(b) It would take as many as 50 cells to cover the area How Has The Cell Theory Been Used? The basic
of a dot on the letter “i” discovered truths about cells, are the basis for:
Disease/Health/Medical Research and Cures(AIDS,
Cancer, Vaccines, Cloning, Stem Cell Research, etc.)
Discovery of Cells

Robert Hooke- 1665; English Scientist, discovered cells

while looking at a thin slice of cork; He described the Early Microscopes
cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb; He thought that
cells only existed in plants and fungi Early microscope lenses made images larger but the
image was not clear
Anton van Leuwenhoek- 1673; used a handmade
microscope to observe pond scum & discovered single- Zacharias Janssen - made 1st compound microscope; a
celled organisms; He called them “animalcules”; He also Dutch maker of reading glasses (late 1500’s)
observed blood cells from fish, birds, frogs, dogs, and
humans; Therefore, it was known that cells are found in Leeuwenhoek- made a simple microscope (mid 1600’s)
animals as well as plants magnified 270X

Between the Hooke/Leuwenhoek discoveries and the Leeuwenhoek's microscope

mid 19th century, very little cell advancements were
made. This is probably due to belief in Spontaneous
Generation. Examples: Mice from dirty clothes/corn
husks; Maggots from rotting meat

Louis Pasteur- Conclusively disprove spontaneous

generation A) a screw for adjusting the height of the object being
examined
B) a metal plate serving as the body
C) a skewer to impale the object and rotate it
Development of Cell Theory
D) the lens itself, which was spherical
Matthias Schleiden- 1838, German Botanist, concluded
that all plant parts are made of cells
Modern Microscopes
Theodor Schwann- 1839, German physiologist, who was
Lens- makes an enlarged image & directs light towards
a close friend of Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues
you eye
are composed of cells.
Magnification- the change in apparent size produced by
Rudolf Virchow- 1858, German physician, after
a microscope
extensive study of cellular pathology, concluded that
cells must arise from preexisting cells. total magnification- powers of the eyepiece (10X)
multiplied by objective lenses

simple microscope- has one lens; Similar to a

The Cell Theory Complete
magnifying glass
The 3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory were now
compound microscope- has multiple lenses (eyepiece &
complete:
objective lenses)
1. The cell is the basic unit of life in all living things.
(Hooke)(1665)
2. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
(Schleiden & Schwann)(1838-39)
3. All cells are produced by the division of preexisting
cells. (Virchow)(1858)

Modern Cell Theory

Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in addition

Stereomicroscope- creates a 3D image
to the original Cell Theory:
1. The cell contains hereditary information(DNA) which Electron microscope- More powerful; some can magnify
is passed on from cell to cell during cell division. up to 1,000,000X; Use a magnetic field in a vacuum to
2. All cells are basically the same in chemical bend beams of electrons; Images must be
composition and metabolic activities.
photographed or produced electronically (b) Cell Wall- surrounds the plasma membrane of the
cells of plants, bacteria, and fungi; Plant cell walls
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)- produces realistic contain cellulose while fungi cell walls contain chitin.
3D image ; only the surface of specimen can be
observed 2. Controls

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)- produces 2D (a) Nucleus- Regulates cell function; Surrounded by a
image of thinly sliced specimen; detailed cell parts (only double-layered membrane (nuclear enveloped) with
inside a cell) can be observed large pores that allow materials to pass in and out of
the nucleus; Contains chromatin – long tangles of DNA.
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)- able to show
arrangement of atoms (b) Nucleolus- Found in the nucleus and responsible for
ribosome production. Ribosomes are the sites of
A View of the Cell protein production.
Cellular Organization 3. Assembly
(1) Cell- basic unit of an organism
(2) Tissue – group of cells functioning together. (a) Cytoplasm- The jelly-like material that surrounds the
(3) Organ – group of tissues functioning together. organelles.
(4) Organ System – group of organs functioning
together. 4. Transport
(5) Organism – group of organ systems functioning (a) Endoplasmic reticulum- Folded membrane that
together. acts as the cell’s delivery system.
Smooth E.R. contains enzymes for lipid synthesis.
Microscopes and Cells Rough E.R. is studded with ribosomes for protein
synthesis.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek- 1600’s; first described living
cells as seen through a simple microscope. (b) Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body)- A series of flattened
sacs where newly made lipids and proteins from the E.R.
Robert Hooke- used the first compound microscope to are repackaged and shipped to the plasma membrane.
view thinly sliced cork cells; was the first to use the
term “cell”. 5. Storage

Mathias Schleiden- 1830’s; identified the first plant cells (a) Vacuoles- A sac of fluid surrounded by a membrane
and concluded that all plants made of cells. used to store food, fluid, or waste products.

Thomas Schwann- made the same conclusion about (b) Lysosomes- Contain a digestive enzyme; Can fuse
animal cells. with vacuoles to digest food, or can digest worn cell
parts; Also known as “suicide sacs” because they can
also destroy the whole cell.
Cell Theory: 6. Energy Transformers
(1) All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
(2) The cell is the basic unit of organization of all (a) Mitochondria- Produce the energy for the cell; Also
organisms. known as the “powerhouse of the cell; Has a highly
(3) All cells come from other cells all ready in existence. folded inner membrane (cristae).

(b) Chloroplasts- Found in plant cells and some protists;

Two Basic Cell Types Transforms light energy into chemical energy which is
stored in food molecules; Contain chlorophyll – a green
1. Prokaryote- Lacks internal compartments; No true pigment that traps light energy and gives plants their
nucleus; Most are single-celled (unicellular) organisms; green color.
Examples: bacteria
7. Support
2. Eukaryote- Has several internal structures
(organelles); True nucleus; Either unicellular or (a) Cytoskeleton- A network of thin, fibrous materials
multicellular; unicellular example: yeast; multicellular that act as a scaffold and support the organelles.
examples: plants and animals Microtubules – hollow filaments of protein.
Microfilaments – solid filaments of protein.

8. Locomotion
The Parts of The Eukaryotic Cell
(a) Cilia- Short, numerous, hair-like projections from the
1. Boundaries plasma membrane; Move with a coordinated beating
(a) Plasma Membrane- serves as a boundary between action.
the cell and its external environment; Allows materials
to pass in and out of the cell. (b) Flagella- Longer, less numerous projections from the
plasma membrane; Move with a whiplike action.
9. Cell Division the completion of the next division.

(a) Centrioles- made of protein; play a role in the The cell cycle of eukaryotic cells is classified into
splitting of the cell into two cells; found in animal and
fungi cells. 1. Interphase- the preparatory phase during which the
cell is metabolically very active and prepares itself for
the division.

Three important processes occur in interphase,

a. replication of chromosomal DNA, synthesis of RNA
and the basic nuclear proteins (histones)
b. synthesis of energy rich compounds which provide
energy for mitosis and
c. in animal cells, division of the centriole.

On the basis of DNA synthesis, interphase is subdivided

into following three stages:
a. G1 (Gap1) : It starts immediately after the previous
division. Therefore G1 is called gap phase or first growth
phase. Synthesis of proteins and RNA takes place. The
cell grows in volume.
b. S phase (Synthesis phase) : It is the period during
Cell Division which DNA synthesis occurs, i.e. replication of
chromosomal DNA takes place. This results in doubling
The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. New of the chromosomal threads.
cells arise from the preexisting ones. The process by c. G2 (Gap 2) : It is the last part of interphase and
which new cells are formed from the pre-existing cells is occurs just before the new cell division. Hence G2 is
called cell division. called pre-division gap phase or second growth phase. It
begins after completion of DNA synthesis in the S phase
In unicellular organisms, the cell division directly and ends when new division (karyokinesis) commences.
produces two individuals and thus, represents a type of During G2, synthesis of proteins and RNA takes place
reproduction (multiplication). and the nuclear volume increases.
In multicellular organisms, there are two types of cells;
2. Karyokinesis- the division of the parent nucleus into
the somatic cells or the body cells (which form the body
daughter nuclei.
of the organism) and the reproductive cells (such as
gamete-producing cells and-spore producing cells). 3. Cytokinesis- the division of the cytoplasm. It occurs
after karyokinesis and divides the parent cell into
The somatic cells divide by mitosis (equational division)
daughter cells.
and the reproductive cells divide by meiosis (reduction
division). Mitosis helps in growth and development of an Karyokinesis and cytokinesis together form the M phase
organism. Meiosis produces gametes in sexual (i.e. cell division).
reproduction and spores in asexual reproduction.
The total duration of a cell cycle varies greatly in
All eukaryotic organisms, plants as well as animals, different organisms and under different conditions, e.g.
show great regularity as well as similarity in the cell it may be as short as 20-30 minutes in the bacterium
divisions. Generally, a cell increases in size before Escherichia coli or may take 12-24 hours as in most
dividing. This is mainly due to the synthesis of proteins, higher plants and animals.
RNA and DNA. This is followed by division of the cell
nucleus (karyokinesis) and finally the division of the cell The time required for completion of each phase in the
cytoplasm (cytokinesis). All these events collectively cell cycle varies greatly. In general, actual cell division
form a cell cycle. (M-phase) occupies only a short span of the total cycle
while the major span is occupied by the interphase.
Normally, time duration of S and G2 phases is more or
less equal. The duration of G1 is longer in cells which do
not divide frequently, and is very short in cells which
divide repeatedly in close succession.

G0 stage : It is a stage during which cell cycle is

arrested for an indefinite period.

Significance of cell cycle

(1) In multicellular organism, the 'cycling type' of cells
(dividing cells) help in reproduction, growth and
The cell cycle, also called generation time, is the
sequence of events in the life of a cell. The cell cycle replacement of dead cells, healing of wounds, etc.
starts immediately after one cell division and ends with (2) The interphase allows time for synthesis and growth
of the dividing cell.
(3) Properly controlled and regulated cell cycle results in
normal and proportionate growth of organisms.
(4) Loss of control over the cell cycle can lead to
cancerous growth

Mitosis-division of somatic (body) cells.

Meiosis-division of gametes (sex cells)

Mitosis

"Mitosis is an equational division, dividing the mother

cell into two daughter cells which are identical to each
other and also to the original mother cell in every
respect. In mitosis, the chromosomes of the mother cell
are duplicated and distributed equally to the two
daughter cells."

Stages of Mitosis (IPMAT)

1. Interphase- phase of mitosis where the cell performs

its normal activities for life; DNA is in the chromatin
state; Interesting things happen!

(a) Cell preparing to divide Summary of mitosis

(b) Genetic material doubles (1) It can take place in haploid as well as diploid cells.

2. Prophase- Chromosome pair up! (2) Both the daughter cells formed through mitosis
receive similar characters and number of chromosomes
(a) Chromosomes thicken and shorten; become visible; as that of the mother cell.
2 chromatids joined by a centromere (3) The original structure of the chromosomes remains
(b) Centrioles move to the opposite sides of the nucleus unchanged in both the daughter nuclei.
(c) Nucleolus disappears (4) Hence, it is an equational division and the resulting
(d) Nuclear membrane disintegrate daughter cells are identical qualitatively and
3. Metaphase-Chromosomes meet in the middle! quantitatively.

(a) Chromosomes arrange at equator of cell

(b) Become attached to spindle fibres by centromeres
(c) Homologous chromosomes do not associate
Significance of Mitosis
4. Anaphase- Chromosomes get pulled apart; Spindle (1) It is an equational division which maintains equal
fibres contract pulling chromatids to the opposite poles distribution of the chromosomes after each cell cycle.
of the cell (2) The resulting daughter cells inherit identical
5. Telophase- Now there are two! chromosomal material (hereditary material) both in
quantity (i.e., number) and quality (i.e., genetic make
(a) Chromosomes uncoil up or characters).
(b) Spindle fibres disintegrate (3) Mitosis maintains a constant number of
(c) Centrioles replicate chromosomes in all body cells of an organism.
(d) Nucleur membrane forms (4) It helps to maintain the equilibrium in the amount of
(e) Cell divides DNA and RNA contents of a cell, as well as the nuclear
and cytoplasmic balance in the cell.
Stages of mitosis (5) Dead cells are replaced by newly formed cells
(1) Early prophase- DNA begins to condense through mitosis. It thus helps in the repair of the body.
(2) Late prophase- centriole pairs move apart; nuclear (6) It helps asexual reproduction, growth and
envelope starts to break up development of organisms.
(3) Transition to metaphase- spindle apparatus form
(4) Metaphase- chromosomes line up at the spindle
equator. Meiosis
(5) Anaphase- sister chromatid (DNA) move apart In the sexually reproducing organisms, two important
(6) Telophase- cytoplasmic division occurs phenomena regulate the number of chromosomes in the
(7) Interphase- cytokinesis; after mitosis, two diploid life cycle. These are meiosis and fertilization. Meiosis is
daughter cells have formed. the reduction division in which the diploid (2n) number
of chromosomes is reduced to haploid (n) during
gamete formation (or spore formation). Whereas, in
fertilization, the two haploid gametes fuse to form a
diploid zygote. In this way, the diploid condition is
restored again in the life cycle.

"Meiosis is a special type of division characteristic of

reproductive cells in which the diploid number of
chromosomes is reduced to haploid in the daughter
cells. In meiosis, chromosomes divide once while the
nucleus (and in some cases the cytoplasm also) divides
twice. Four haploid daughter cells result from one
diploid mother cell. These differ from each other as well
as from the mother cell."

Meiosis- 4 daughter cells produced; Each daughter cell

has half the chromosomes of the parent; 2 sets of cell
division involved

Summary of Meiosis
1. Meiosis occurs in reproductive cells only.
2. It occurs in diploid cells.
3. The karyokinesis of meiosis consists of two complete
nuclear divisions called first meiotic division (Meiosis-I
or M-I) and second meiosis division (Meiosis-II or M-II). The Chemical Basis of Life
4. M-I is reduction division involving separation of
homologous chromosomes. ATOMS AND MOLECULES
5. M-II is equational division like mitosis which involves
duplication of chromosomes. 2.1 The emergence of biological function starts at the
6. The four daughter nuclei are haploid due to the chemical
reduction division (M-I). Moreover, they differ from each  Everything an organism is and does depends on
other in the characters of chromosomes due to ’crossing chemistry
over’ during Prophase-I of M-I.  Chemistry is in turn dependent on the arrangement
7. Cytokinesis may be successive or simultaneous of atoms in molecules
dividing the diploid mother cell into four haploid  In order to understand the whole, biologists study
daughter cells. the parts (reductionism)
 Molecules and ecosystems are at opposite ends of
the biological hierarchy;
-Each level of organization in the biological
hierarchy builds on the one below it;
 - At each level, new properties emerge  Atoms of each element are distinguished by a
specific number of protons
- The number of neutrons may vary
- Variant forms of an element are called isotopes;
Some isotopes are radioactive

2.6 Electron arrangement determines the chemical

properties of an atom
 Electrons are arranged in shells
-The outermost shell determines the chemical
properties of an atom
-In most atoms, a full outer shell holds eight
electrons
 Atoms whose shells are not full tend to interact
with other atoms and gain, lose, or share electrons

2.7 Ionic bonds are attractions between ions of

opposite charge
 When atoms gain or lose electrons, charged atoms
called ions are created
- An electrical attraction between ions with opposite
charges results in an ionic bond
 Sodium and chloride ions bond to form sodium
2.2 Life requires about 25 chemical elements chloride, common table salt
 A chemical element is a substance that cannot be
broken down to other substances by ordinary 2.8 Covalent bonds, the sharing of electrons, join atoms
chemical means into molecules
 About 25 different chemical elements are essential  Some atoms share outer shell electrons with other
to life atoms, forming covalent bonds
 Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up - Atoms joined together by covalent bonds form
the bulk of living matter, but there are other molecules
elements necessary for life  Molecules can be represented in many ways
 Goiters are caused by iodine deficiency - molecular formula, electron configuration,
structural formula

2.9 Water is a polar molecule

 Atoms in a covalently bonded molecule may share
electrons equally, creating a nonpolar molecule
 If electrons are shared unequally, a polar molecule
is created
 In a water molecule, oxygen exerts a stronger pull
on the shared electrons than hydrogen
- This makes the oxygen end of the molecule
slightly negatively charged
- The hydrogen end of the molecule is slightly
positively charged

2.10 Overview: Water’s polarity leads to hydrogen

bonding and other unusual properties
2.3 Elements can combine to form compounds  The charged regions on water molecules are
 Chemical elements combine in fixed ratios to form attracted to the oppositely charged regions on
compounds; Example: sodium + chlorine  sodium nearby molecules
chloride - This attraction forms weak bonds called hydrogen
2.4 Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons bonds
 The smallest particle of an element is an atom  Like no other common substance, water exists in
 Different elements have different types of atoms nature in all three physical states: solid, liquid, gas
 An atom is made up of protons and neutrons
located in a central nucleus 2.11 Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive
 The nucleus is surrounded by electrons  Due to hydrogen bonding, water molecules can
 Each atom is held together by attractions between move from a plant’s roots to its leaves
the positively charged protons and negatively  Insects can walk on water due to surface tension
charged electrons created by cohesive water molecules
 Neutrons are electrically neutral
2.12 Water’s hydrogen bonds moderate temperature
 It takes a lot of energy to disrupt hydrogen bonds
- Therefore water is able to absorb a great deal of
heat energy without a large increase in
temperature
- As water cools, a slight drop in temperature
releases a large amount of heat
- A water molecule takes a large amount of energy
with it when it evaporates; this leads to evaporative
cooling

2.13 Ice is less dense than liquid water

 Molecules in ice are farther apart than those in
liquid water
- Ice is therefore less dense than liquid water,
which causes it to float
- If ice sank, it would seldom have a chance to thaw
- Ponds, lakes, and oceans would eventually freeze
solid

2.14 Water is a versatile solvent

 Solutes whose charges or polarity allow them to
stick to water molecules dissolve in water
- They form aqueous solutions

2.15 The chemistry of life is sensitive to acidic and

basic conditions
 A compound that releases H+ ions in solution is an
acid, and one that accepts H+ ions in solution is a
base
 Acidity is measured on the pH scale: 0-7 is acidic ,
8-14 is basic ; Pure water and solutions that are
neither basic nor acidic are neutral, with a pH of 7

 Cells are kept close to pH 7 by buffers

 Buffers are substances that resist pH change
- They accept H+ ions when they are in excess and
donate H+ ions when they are depleted
- Buffers are not foolproof

2.17 Chemical reactions rearrange matter

 In a chemical reaction:
- reactants interact
- atoms rearrange
- products result
- Living cells carry out thousands of chemical
reactions that rearrange matter in significant ways