THE SYSTEMS UNIT: PROCESSING AND

MEMORY
Introduction to Computer Concepts and
Application

Mr. Shan Zafar

Govt. Graduate College of Commerce (GGCC) AIT,

Lahore
Learning Objectives
1. Understand how data and programs are represented to a
computer and be able to identify a few of the coding systems
used to accomplish this.
2. Explain the functions of the hardware components commonly
found inside the system unit, such as the CPU, memory, buses,
and expansion cards.
3. Describe how new peripheral devices or other hardware can be
added to a computer.
4. Understand how the computer system’s CPU and memory
components process program instructions and data.
5. Name and evaluate several strategies that can be used today
for speeding up the operations of a computer.
6. List some technologies that may be used in the future
computers.
Overview
• This chapter covers:
• Explain how computers represent data and program instructions.
• Explain how the CPU and memory are arranged with other
components inside the system unit.
• Explain how a CPU performs processing tasks.
• Identify strategies that can be used today to create faster and
better computers in the future
Data and Program Representation
• Digital Data Representation
• Coding Systems
• Used to represent data and programs in a manner understood by the
computer

• Digital Computers
• Can only understand two states, off and on (0 and 1)

• Digital Data Representation

• The process of representing
data in digital form so it can be
understood by a computer
 Digital Data Representation
• Bit
• The smallest unit of data that a
binary computer can recognize (a
single 1 or 0)
• Byte = 8 bits
• Byte terminology used to express the
size of documents and other files,
programs, etc.
• Prefixes are often used to express
larger quantities of bytes: kilobyte
(KB), megabyte (MB), gigabyte
(GB), terabyte (TB), etc.
Representing Numerical Data
• The Binary Numbering System
• Numbering system
• A way of representing numbers

• Decimal numbering system

• Uses 10 symbols (0-9)

• Binary numbering system

• Uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all possible
numbers
• In both systems, the position of the digits
determines the power to which the base number
(such as 10 or 2) is raised
The Binary Numbering System
 Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

• ASCII and EBCDIC

– ASCII (American Standard Code
for Information Interchange):
coding system traditionally used
with personal computers
– EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded
Decimal Interchange Code):
developed by IBM, primarily for
mainframe use
Coding Systems for Text-Based Data

• Unicode: newer code (32

bits per character is
common); universal coding
standard designed to
represent text-based data
written in any ancient or
modern language
• Replacing ASCII as the
primary text-coding
system
Coding Systems for Other Types of Data
• Graphics Data (still images such
as photos or drawings)
• Bitmapped images
• Image made of up of a grid of
small dots called pixels
• Monochrome graphic can only be
one of two colors
• Requires just one bit for color
storage
• Images with more than two colors
• Can use 4, 8, or 24 bits to store the
color data for each pixel
• More bits = more colors
Coding Systems for Other Types of Data

• Audio data: Must be in digital form in order to be stored on

or processed by a computer
• Often compressed when sent over the Internet
• MP3 files

• Video data: Displayed using a collection of frames, each

frame contains a still image
• Amount of data can be substantial but can be compressed
 Representing Software Programs
• Machine language
• Binary-based language for representing computer programs the
computer can execute directly
• Early programs were written in machine language.
• Today’s programs still need to be translated into machine language
in order to be understood by the computer
• Most programs are written in other programming
languages
• Language translators are used to translating the programs into
machine language
Quick Quiz
1. Another way to say “one million bytes” is
a. one kilobyte
b. one gigabyte
c. one megabyte
2. True or False: MP3 files are stored using 0s and 1s.
3. The numbering system is used by
computers to perform mathematical computations.
Answers:
1) c; 2) True; 3) binary
Inside the System Unit

• System unit:
• The main case of a computer
• Houses the processing hardware for a computer
• Also contains storage devices, the power supply, and cooling fans
• Houses the CPU, memory, interfaces to connect to peripheral
devices (printers, etc), and other components such as CD/DVD
drives
• With a desktop computer, usually looks like a rectangular box
Inside the System Unit
 Inside the System Unit
• The Motherboard
• Computer chip
• A very small piece of silicon or other semi-conducting material onto
which integrated circuits are embedded
• Circuit board
• A thin board containing computer chips and other electronic
components
• System board
• The main circuit board inside the system unit to which all devices
must connect
• External devices (monitors, keyboards, mice, printers) typically
connect by plugging into a port exposed through the exterior of
the system unit
• Wireless devices connect through a transceiver or wireless
networking technology (like Bluetooth)
 Inside the System Unit
• Drive Bays
• Rectangular metal racks inside the system unit that house storage
devices
• Hard drive, CD/DVD drive, flash memory card reader
• Connected to the motherboard with a cable

• Processors
• The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
• Circuitry and components packaged together and connected directly to the
motherboard
• Does the vast majority of processing for a computer
• Also called a processor; called a microprocessor when talking about
personal computers
 Inside the System Unit
• Dual-core CPU
• Contains the processing components (cores) of two separate
processors on a single CPU
• Quad-core CPU
• Contains four cores

• Multi-core processors allow computers to work on more than

one task at a time
• Typically, different CPUs for desktop computers, portable
computers, servers, mobile devices, consumer devices, etc.
• Personal computer CPU often made by Intel or AMD
• Media tablets and mobile phones use processors made by other
companies such as ARM
The CPU
The CPU
Inside the System Unit
• The GPU (graphics processing unit)
• Takes care of the processing needed to display images (including still
images, animations) on the screen
• Can be located on the motherboard, on a video graphics board, on in the
CPU package
Processing Speed

• CPU clock speed: One measurement of processing speed

• Measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz)
• Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions processed per second
• Alternate measure of processing speed is the number of
instructions a CPU can process per second
• Megaflops, gigaflops, teraflops
• Benchmark tests: Can be used to evaluate overall
processing speed
Word Size and Cache Memory
• Word size: The amount of data that a CPU can
manipulate at one time
• Typically 32 or 64 bits

• Cache memory: Special group of very fast memory chips

located on or close to the CPU
• Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3
• More cache memory typically means faster processing
• Usually internal cache (built into the CPU)
• Often some cache dedicated to each core; may also have some
shared cache accessible by any core
 Bus Width, Bus Speed, and Bandwidth

• Bus
• An electronic path over which data
can travel
• Found inside the CPU and on the
motherboard

• Bus width
• The number of wires in the bus over
which data can travel
• Bus width and speed determine the
throughput (or bandwidth) of the
bus
• The amount of data that can be
transferred by the bus in a given
time period
Memory

• Refers to chip-based storage located inside the system unit

• Storage refers to the amount of long-term storage available to a
computer, refers to chip-based storage
• RAM (random access memory): Computer’s main memory
• Consists of chips arranged on a circuit board called a memory module
plugged into the motherboard
• Stores essential parts of an operating system, programs, and data the
computer is currently using
• Adequate RAM is needed to run programs
• Volatile: Contents of RAM is lost when the computer is shut off
• Most personal computers use SD-RAM
• ROM and flash memory are non-volatile
• Measured in bytes Amount installed depends on the CPU and operating
system being used
• Most personal computers use SD-RAM
• MRAM and PRAM - non-volatile RAM under development
Memory
Memory
• Each location in memory has
an address
• Each location typically holds one
byte
• Computer system sets up and
maintains directory tables to
facilitate retrieval of the data
Memory
• Registers:
• High-speed memory built into the CPU
• Used to store data and intermediary results during processing
• Fastest type of memory
• ROM (read-only memory):
• Non-volatile chips located on the motherboard into which data or
programs have been permanently stored
• Retrieved by the computer when needed
• Being replaced with flash memory for firmware
• Flash memory:
• Type of Nonvolatile memory chips that can be used for storage
• Have begun to replace ROM for storing system information
• Now stores firmware for personal computers and other devices
• Built into many types of devices (media tablets, mobile phones, and
digital cameras) for user storage
 Cooling Components

• Fans
• Fans used on most personal computers to help cool the CPU and
system unit
• Heat is an ongoing problem for CPU and computer manufacturers
• Can damage components
• Cooler chips run faster

• Heat Sinks
• Small components typically made out of aluminum with fins that
help to dissipate heat
 Cooling Components

• Cooling Systems
• Liquid cooling systems
• Cool the computer with liquid-filled tubes

• Immersion cooling
• Hardware is actually submerged into units filled with a liquid cooling
solution
• Notebook cooling stand
• Cools the underside of a notebook computer

–Other cooling methods, such as ion pump cooling

systems, are under development
Fans, Heat Sinks, and
Other Cooling Components
 Expansion

• Expansion Slots, Expansion Cards, and Express Card

Modules
• Expansion Slot
• A location on the motherboard into which expansion cards are inserted

• Expansion Card
• A circuit board inserted into an expansion slot
• Used to add additional functionality or to attach a peripheral device
• Express Card Modules
• Designed to add additional functionality to notebooks
Expansion
Buses

• Bus
• An electronic path within a computer over which data
travels
• Located within the CPU and etched onto the motherboard
• Expansion Bus
• Connects the CPU to peripheral (typically input and output)
devices
• Memory Bus
• Connects CPU directly to RAM
• Frontside Bus (FSB)
• Connects CPU to the chipset that connects the CPU to the rest
of the bus architecture
Buses

• PCI and PCI Express (PCIe) Bus

• PCI has been one of the most common types
• Today, PCI Express bus, which is extremely fast, has
replaced the PCI bus
• Universal Serial Bus (USB)
• Extremely versatile
• Allows 127 different devices to connect to a computer
via a single USB port
• FireWire Bus
• Developed by Apple to connect multimedia devices to a
computer
Ports and Connectors

• Port
• A connector on the exterior of a computer’s system unit
to which a device may be attached
• Typical desktop computer ports include:
• Power connector, Firewire, VGA monitor, Network, USB, Audio, and HDMI
• Others include IrDA and Bluetooth ports, eSATA ports,
Thunderbolt ports (Apple devices)
• Most computers support the Plug and Play standard
Ports and Connectors
Ports and Connectors
• Portable computers have ports similar to desktop
computers, but often not as many

• Smartphones and mobile devices have more limited

expansion capabilities
• Usually have a USB port, HDMI port, and/or flash memory card slot
• Flash memory cards often use the Secure Digital (SD) format
• MiniSD and microSD cars are smaller than regular SD cards
Ports and Connectors
Quick Quiz
1. Which type of memory is erased when the power
goes out?
a. ROM
b. RAM
c. flash memory
2. True or False: The CPU can also be called the
motherboard.
3. A(n) electronic path within a computer over which
data travels is called a(n) .
Answers:
1) b; 2) False; 3) bus
How the CPU Works
• CPU (Central Processing Unit)
• Consists of a variety of circuitry and components
packaged together
• Transistor: Key element of the microprocessor
• Made of semi-conductor material that acts like a switch
controlling the flow of electrons inside a chip
• Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of
transistors; the number doubles about every 18 months
(Moore’s Law)
Inside the Industry Box

• Moore’s Law
• In 1965, Gordon Moore
predicted that the number of
transistors per square inch on
chips had doubled every two
years and that trend would
continue
• Moore’s Law is still relevant
today for processors as well as
other computer components
How the CPU Works

• Typical CPU Components

• Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
• Performs arithmetic involving integers and logical operations
• Floating Point Unit (FPU)
• Performs decimal arithmetic
• Control Unit
• Coordinates and controls activities within a CPU core
• Prefetch Unit
• Attempts to retrieve data and instructions before they are needed for
processing in order to avoid delays
How the CPU Works
• Decode Unit
• Translates instructions from the prefetch unit so they are understood by
the control unit, ALU, and FPU
• Registers and Internal Cache Memory
• Store data and instructions needed by the CPU
• Bus Interface Unit
• Allows the core to communicate with other CPU components
Typical CPU Components
The System Clock and the Machine Cycle
• System Clock
• Small quartz crystal on the motherboard
• Timing mechanism within the computer system
that synchronizes the computer’s operations
• Sends out a signal on a regular basis to all computer
components
• Each signal is a cycle
• Number of cycles per second is measured in hertz
(Hz)
• One megahertz = one million ticks of the system clock
The System Clock and the Machine Cycle
• Many PC system clocks run at 200 MHz
• Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the
system clock speed
• A CPU clock speed of 2 GHz means the CPU clock
“ticks” 10 times during each system clock tick
• During each CPU clock tick, one or more pieces of
microcode are processed
• A CPU with a higher clock speed processes more
instructions per second than the same CPU with a lower
CPU clock speed
 The System Clock and the Machine Cycle

• Machine cycle
• The series of operations involved in the execution of a single
machine level instruction
• Fetch: The program instruction is fetched
• Decode: The instructions are decoded so the control unit, ALU, and
FPU can understand them
• Execute: The instructions are
carried out
• Store: The original data or the
result from the ALU or FPU
execution is stored in the CPU’s
registers
 Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in the Future

• Improving the Performance of Your System Today

• Add more memory
• Perform system maintenance
• Uninstall programs properly
• Remove unnecessary programs from the Startup list
• Consider placing large files not needed regularly on external storage
• Delete temporary files
• Error check and defrag the hard drive periodically
• Scan for viruses and spyware continually
• Clean out dust once or twice a year
• Buy a larger or second hard drive
• Upgrade your Internet connection
• Upgrade your video graphics card
 Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in the
Future
• Strategies for Making Faster and
Better Computers
• Improved Architecture
• Smaller components, faster bus speeds,
multiple CPU cores, support for
virtualization
• Improved Materials
• Flexible electronic components
• Copper, high-k, graphene chip
Making Computers Faster and Better Now and in the
Future
• Pipelining
• Allows multiple instructions to be processed at one time

• Multiprocessing and Parallel Processing

• Use multiple processors to speed up the processing
Pipelining
Future Trends
• Nanotechnology
• The science of creating tiny computers and
components less than 100 nanometers in size
• Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) used in many
products today
• Nanofilters and nanosensors
• Future applications may be built by working at
the individual atomic and molecular levels
Future Trends
• Quantum Computing
• Applies the principles of quantum physics
and quantum mechanics to computers
• Utilizes atoms or nuclei working together
as quantum bits (qubits)
• Qubits function simultaneously as the
computer’s processor and memory and
can represent more than two states
• Expected to be used for specialized
applications, such as encryption and code-
breaking
Future Trends
• Optical Computing
• Uses light, from laser beams or infrared beams, to perform digital
computations
• Opto-electronic computers use both optical and electronic
components
• Silicon Photonics
• The process of making optical devices using silicon manufacturing
techniques
• Possible low-cost solution to future data-intensive computing
applications—telemedicine, cloud data centers
Future Trends
• Tera-Scale Computing
• The ability to process one trillion floating-point operations per
second (teraflops)
• Terascale research is focusing on creating multi-core processors
with tens to hundreds of cores
• Intel has created a Single-chip Cloud Computer which contains 48
cores on one silicon chip
• Expected to be needed for future applications
Future Trends
• 3D Chips
• Contain transistors that are layered to
cut down on the surface area required

• Created by layering individual silicon

wafers on top of one another

• Being used with memory, flash

memory, and CPUs
Quick Quiz
1. Optical computers use which of the following to
transmit and process data?
a. Liquid
b. Light
c. Silicon
2. True or False: If your computer is running slowly,
adding more memory might speed it up.
3. A quantum bit is known as a(n)
.
Answers:
1) b; 2) True; 3) qubit
Summary
• Data and Program Representation
• Inside the System Unit
• How the CPU Works
• Making Computers Faster and Better Now and In the
Future
Credit
• This lecture notes are based on the following resources:

• Chapter 2, Understanding Computers: Today and

Tomorrow by Deborah Morley and Charles S. Parker,