CHAPTER V Protection, Support, and Movement

LECTURE 1 The Integumentary System

The integumentary system is an organ system that forms the protective covering of an animal and
comprises the skin (including glands and their products), haircoat or feathers, scales, nails, hooves and
horns. It distinguishes, separates, protects and informs the animal with regard to its surroundings

Learning Outcomes;

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Describe various representative integumentary systems

2. Explain the structures and functions of the various integumentary systems

3. Identify accessory organs and their functions.

Integument: the external covering of an animal.

 Protects the animal from: mechanical and chemical injury, and invasion of microorganisms.

 Evolutionary adaptations:

1. regulation of body temperature

2. excretion of waste materials

3. vitamin D3 formation via UV radiation

4. reception of environmental stimuli (pain, temperature, and pressure)

5. locomotion

6. movement of nutrients and gas

THE SKIN

Vertebrate integument

Largest organ, Grows with the animal

Epidermis: outer layer of epithelial tissue and is several cells thick.

Dermis: connective tissue beneath the epidermis and is made up of collagenous, reticular, and
elastic fibers.
 Hypodermis: below the skin and separates the skin from deeper tissues, loose connective
tissue, adipose tissue, and nerve endings.

The skin of a jawless fishes

Lampreys and hagfishes

Relatively thick

Many glandular cuticles, but one secretes a protective cuticle.

Hagfish: slime glands which produce copious amounts of slime that covers the body
surface.

Slime functions: protection from parasites and prey capture.

The skin of cartilaginous fishes

Sharks and Rays

 Multilayered and contains mucous and sensory cells.

 Dermis: placoid scales called denticles (“little teeth”)

Denticles: contain blood vessels and nerves

Grows with animal

New denticles are produced to maintain enough of these protective layers.

Once they reach maturity, they do not grow, but wear down and are lost.

Sandpaper texture

The skin of bony fishes

Scales are composed of dermal bone and are not shed. They grow at the margins and over
the lower surface.

 Thin layer of dermal tissue, overlaid by the superficial epidermis typically covers the scales.

 Scales have growth rings = used to age fish

 Skin is permeable and functions in gas exchange

Rich with capillary beds to help facilitate respiration.

 Epidermis also has mucous glands= prevents bacterial and fungal infections, as well
as reduces friction when the fish swims.

 Granular glands= secrete an irritating / poisonous alkaloid

 Teleosts: fish that live in the deep sea have photophores /light emitting organs, that
facilitate species recognition, act like lures, or send warning signals.
 The skin of Amphibians

Stratified epidermis and a dermis, containing mucous and serous glands, along with
pigmentation cells.

 Early amphibians were actually covered in bony scales, and are considered to be
transitional species between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates.

 Faced a lot of problems, such as desiccation, UV damage, and physical abrasions

Throughout evolution amphibians started adapting, and their outer skin layers began
developing more keratin (tough, impermeable protein that protects the skin).

 Increased amounts of keratin also functions in protecting the cells, especially the
nucleus from UV light.

 The mucous glands help prevent desiccation, aid in gas exchange, and make the body
slimy; which is advantageous when trying to escape predators.

Some amphibians have poisonous glands within their dermis.

 Poisonous glands produce fluid that can be unpleasant in taste and toxic, which functions as a
predator deterrent.

 “Warts” of toads are specialized sensory structures.

The skin of Reptiles

Stratum corneum= outer layer of the epidermis, it is thick, lacks glands, and is modified into
keratinized

scales / scutes (thick scales), beaks in turtles,

rattles on snakes, and claws, plaques, and spiny crests on others.

Thick, keratinized layer, functions in protection, slows down dehydration, and resists
abrasions.

Reptiles, such as snakes and lizards, shed or molt the outer layer of the epidermis,
diffusion of fluid between the layers assists in this molting process.

Molting process is also known as ecdysis.

Skin has no respiratory function.

Skin does excrete pheromones that function in sex recognition and defense.

Ecdysis - Molting / shedding

  No blood supply in the epidermis, therefore the outer epidermal layers lose contact
with the blood supply and die.

 Lymph moves between the inner and outer epidermal layers loosens the outer
epidermis.

 Ecdysis typically begins around the head and come off in one piece (snakes and most
lizards).

 Some shed in little pieces- skin simply flakes off.

Chromatophores

Dermal in origin

 Functions: cryptic coloration, mimicry, and aposematic coloration (warning coloration).

 Color and color change can also occur during sexual recognition, as well as when the animal
is trying to thermoregulate.

Lizards: lack integumentary glands, which make them really dry.

 Snakes: large belly scales, which provide contact with the substrate during locomotion.

Skin of Aves

Show many reptilian features, but lack epidermal glands.

 Only have the uropygial or preen gland. This gland functions in oil production and is
located in the back, near the base of the tail.

 Oil gland is most developed in aquatic species.

Aquatic species need to have a more develop oil gland

Preen Gland

Rub their bill over the gland / pore and transfer the oil all over their body and

feathers.

May function in improving the health of the feathers, the bill, and the scales
of the legs and feet.

Some research suggests that the oil may contain a substance that came from

Vitamin D, which came from sunlight.

Epidermis of Birds
 Thin, typically two or three cell layers thick

 Outer layer is very soft

 Most prominent feature of the epidermis are the feathers.

 Dermis contains lots of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves, and sensory bodies.

 Air pockets in the dermis that aid in thermal regulation.

 Lots of dermal smooth muscle fibers that control the positioning of the feathers.

 Aquatic birds may have fat deposits in the hypodermal layer, which may store energy
and insulate the body

Feathers / Plumage

Most complex of the vertebrate stratum corneum (outer layer of the skin).

 Three primary functions:

1. Form the flight surfaces that provide lift and aid steering.

2. Prevent excessive heat loss= allowing the endothermic maintenance of high

metabolic rates.

3. Roles in courtship, incubation, and waterproofing.

Two types: pennaceous feathers and plumulaceous feathers.

Pennaceous feathers: flattened and tightly closed to promote aerodynamics.

Wings and tails.

 Prominent shaft (rachis): barbs branch off

 Barbules branch off the barbs and overlap one another.

 Hamuli (tiny hooks) interlock with grooves from nearby barbules to keep the
feather firm and smooth.

 Modified to meet the needs of the bird:

 Flight feathers: line the tip and trailing edge of the wing and are
asymmetrical

 Contour feathers: symmetrical, line the body and cover the base of
the flight feathers.

 Provide: waterproofing, insulation, and streamlining (allows speed)

Plumulaceous Feather

 Barbs and barbules do not interlock and they give the feather a wispy
appearance.
  Example down feathers  Down feathers provide insulation and lie below
contour feathers

Feather Formation

1. Epidermal cells grow, and form an elongated tube called the feather sheath.

2. Epidermal cells at the base of the sheath grow downward, creating a ring-like
follicle that grows into the dermis.

3. Epidermal cells that line the sheath form the barbs of the feather. In pennaceous
feathers, the barbs spiral around each other and form the shaft. In
plumulaceous feathers, the barbs do not spiral and the shaft forms at the
base of the feather.

4. The feather emerges and a tube-like structure called the calamus forms at the base.

Mammalian Skin

Distinguished features:

1. Hair

2. Huge variety of epidermal glands (more than any other vertebrate)

3. Highly stratified, cornified epidermis

4. Dermis that is many times thicker than the epidermis.

Epidermis= stratified squamous epithelium and a variety of cells.

- Cell division is quick: deeper cells reproduce and push up towards the surface
of the skin.

- As the cells move toward the surface they produce a “waterproofing”

glycolipid, die, and become keratinized.

- Keratinized= protein keratin

Keratin: tough, water resistant protein found in the epidermal cells of mammals, birds, and
reptiles; in structures such as hair, nails, feathers, hooves, claws, bills, etc.

 Insoluble in water

 Prevents dehydration

 First line of defense against many toxic substances and microorganisms.

 Huge evolutionary adaptation= the ability to prevent dehydration allows them to

colonize terrestrial environments
Dermis  Made up of:

Blood vessels

Lymphatic vessels

Nerve endings

Hair follicles

Sensory receptors

Small muscles

Glands

Hypodermis

Under the dermis: this is where you and your pets get many injections
(hypodermic needle).

 Different from other vertebrates: made up of loose connective tissue, adipose

tissue, and skeletal muscles.

 Adipose tissue: stores energy in the form of fat and provides insulation.

 Skeletal muscle: allows the skin above it to move somewhat independently

of underlying tissues.

Skin Regulation through pores

Skin regulates body temperature by opening and closing pores and releasing
sweat / perspiring.

 Not all mammals maintain body temperature through sweat glands

(controlled by the hypothalamus).

 Skin also screens out harmful UV radiation while absorbing some of the
beneficial components, which are then converted into Vitamin D3.

 Example: humans and horses  Humans have between 2-5 million sweat
glands  The only animals that really sweat profusely.

The ability to sweat allows us to run faster and longer than other mammals.

 This adaptation allowed humans to hunt during the hot days, while other animals
rested and slept, making primates a huge predator.

 Some research suggests that this adaptation allowed humans to evolve a bigger,
hotter brain.

Horse sweat has a natural detergent called latherin.

  Latherin, a protein, actually lathers and functions much like soap, and acts like a
surfactant.

 Evolutionarily speaking: It is thought that latherin was first found in horse saliva to
assist in the breaking down of dry food. As their bodies evolved and became
larger, the function moved to their skin as well.

 Latherin wets the oily pelt / hairs to facilitate water flow and evaporation.

What do other mammals do?

1. Pooping: large birds such as storks and vultures, defecate on their legs to keep cool. When
the fecal matter dries, heat is carried away from the body, and temperature decreases.

2. Mud: pigs, hippos, boars, and buffalo are some “wallowing” examples. Water from the
mud evaporates from the animals skin, carrying heat way, and decreasing temperature. Water in
mud evaporates a lot slower than clear water, allowing the animal to stay cooler, longer.

3. Ears  Examples: Jack rabbits and elephants  Have a large network of blood vessels in their
ears that regulate body temperature.  Too cold: constrict to conserve heat  water so moisture isn’t
lost.  Elephants: also flap their ears like fans, as well as spray their ears with water. This can drop
their temperature up to 14F.

4. Throat vibrations:  Gular fluttering / vibrating muscles /bones in the throat of birds. 
Increases evaporation through membranes in the throat. The more the bird vibrates, the more
moist throat membranes are exposed to the air.  Examples: pelicans, owls, herons, doves, quail,
nighthawks

5. Estivation - Animals are dormant through excessively hot or dry temperatures.

By “sleeping,” it allows animals to lower their metabolism so that they don’t need to eat. Ex-
lungfish: lives underground for months during the dry season.

Bees, snails, earthworms, salamanders, frogs, earthworms, crocodiles, tortoise, etc.

Survival adaptation.

6. Panting:  Expelling hot air and taking in cooler air.

 Cooler air comes in contact with the moist lining of the lungs and throat, which lowers body
temperature.

 Dogs and cats also use their paws

 Other primates, like chimps and gorillas, pant to release excess body heat.

 They take in air and use that air to dissipate body heat.

Fur serves as a barrier between the glands and the environment, which allows them to maintain more
constant body temperatures.
 Primates that are not human- they do have sweat glands.

 Cats- some sweat glands, but the fur minimizes the amount of cooling sweat can provide.  They
do have some sweat glands on their paw pads.  Lick their bodies to distribute saliva that will
evaporate to cool them down.  Spread out- get as flat as possible.

Glands on the Skin

Sudoriferous glands: sweat glands

 Sweat is secreted via perspiration

 Perspiration is how humans maintain homeostasis through evaporative cooling

 Eccrine glands: release watery secretions in evaporative cooling

 Apocrine glands: secrete a mixture of salt, urea, and water, which microorganisms on the
skin convert to odorous products.

Sebaceous glands: simple glands connected to hair follicles in the dermis.

 Lubricate and protect by secreting sebum.

 Sebum: oily, skin softening agent that acts as a barrier for protection. It can
also act as a pheromone.

 Makes skin and hair “waterproof.”

Some sweat glands produce pheromones.  Pheromones: chemical that an animal

secretes and that communicates with other members of the same species to elicit certain
behavioral responses.  Scent or musk glands:  Located around the face, feet, or anus 
Secrete pheromones  Function: defense, species recognition, sex, and territorial behavior.

Mammary Gland

Only functional in female mammals.

 Secrete milk that contains water, carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals, and antibodies.

 May be derived from apocrine glands and usually contain fatty deposits.

 Monotremes (egg layers, such as the duck billed platypus and four species of echidna, aka
anteaters) have mammary glands but lack nipples. The glands discharge milk into depressions on
the belly and the young lap it up.

 Other mammals have nipples or teats, which are suckled for nourishment.

Pigments : Color is due to pigments or to anatomical structures that absorb or reflect light. 
Location: within the cells of the epidermal layer, in hair, or in specialized cells like
chromatophores.
 Color:  Some skin color is due to the color of blood in superficial blood vessels reflected
through the dermis.  Bright colors: venomous, toxic, or bad tasting animals

Camouflage- to hide  Colors serve as a means of communication, identification among like

species, sex, reproductive status, or social rank.

Hair

Composed of keratin and dead cells

 Hair shaft: hair that protrudes from the skin

 Root: embedded beneath the skin

 A coat of hair= pelage, typically consisting of long guard hairs that protect a dense
coat of shorter, insulating under-hairs.

 Hair is mostly dead, therefore molting or shedding has to occur.  Fall: many mammals grow
a thick coat of insulating under hair, and the pelage changes color.  Example: Arctic fox: in
the fall it takes on a white or cream color, which helps it blend into the snowy environment. In
the spring , it molts and its pelage takes on a gray and yellow color.

Arrector pili muscle: smooth muscle, attaches to the connective tissue sheath of a hair follicle
surrounding the bulb of the hair root. When the muscle contracts, it pulls the follicle and its hair to an
erect position.  “Goose bumps” in humans  Other mammals: helps warm them by producing an
insulating layer of warm air between the erect hair and skin.  If hair is erect because the animal is
afraid, it makes the animal look more intimidating, larger, and less likely to get attacked.

Mechanical displacement of hair stimulates nerve cells associated with the roots.

 Guard hairs are sometimes modified into vibrissae, which are thick shafted hairs.

 Roots are extremely sensitive and richly innervated (lots of nerve)  Legs  Nose  Mouth
 Eyes

Nails

Modifications of the epidermis

 Flat, horny plates (fingers and toes in primates)

 Claws and hooves  Horns (not to be confused with antler, made of bone)

 Baleen plates in whales

Post Test

1. Which of the following is / are notable features of mammalian skin?

A. the presence of hair

 B. a greater variety of epidermal glands than in any other vetebrate class

C. a highly stratified, cornified epithelium

D. A dermis many times thicker than the epidermis

E. All of these are notable features

2. How does the structure of skin relate to its functions of protection, temperature control,
waste removal, water conservation, radiation protection, vitamin production, and environmental
responsiveness?

LABORATORY ACTIVITY

BODY PLANES AND DISTINCTIONS ( Answer Lab. Manual page 17)

THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF A FROG ( Answer Lab. Manual page 20)

Laboratory Manual No. 6

BODY PLANES AND DISTINCTIONS

Introduction
 All animals are multicellular and are shaped by their particular habitat and way of life. As to
body plans, they are characterized by the type of arrangement of most of their external parts.
This is symmetry –the correspondence in size and shape of body parts on the opposite sides of
a median plane.

OBJECTIVES: After the laboratory period students should be able to:

1. To be able to describe the body plan of an animal

2. To be able to identify anatomical directions
3. Too be able to know and understand the different body cavities

ACTIVITY PROPER:

With the drawing shown below, examine the picture of a frog. Review as to symmetry and
the anatomical directions and planes.
A. The anatomical directions and planes of the frog.

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B. Choose the best answer. Write the answer on the space before the number.

_____1. Involves the division of the animal through a sagittal plane, resulting in two
mirror image, right and left halves.
a. Bilateral Symmetry b. Radial Symmetry
c. Parasymmetry d. Round Symmetry
_____2. It is the arrangement of the body parts around a central axis.
a. Bilateral Symmetry b. Round Symmetry
c. Parasymmetry d. Radial Symmetry
_____3. Having disproportionate arrangement of parts.
a. Asymmetry b. Round Symmetry
c. Parasymmetry d. Radial Symmetry
_____4. Which best describes an animal’s body plan?
 a. It’s symmetry b. It’s size
c. The organization of individual features
d. Whether or not it has coelem
e. All are correct
_____5. Which is a type of symmetry found in animals?
a. Parasymmetry b. Round symmetry
c. Bilateral symmetry d. Archival symmetry
e. Genetic symmetry
_____6. Which term do we use to describe the region of the body that contains an
animal’s head?
a. Posterior b. Anterior
_____7. An animal’s body plan includes all the following except
a. Internal organization b. Shape
c. Size d. Symmetry
_____8. The presence of a true body cavity (coelom) allows
a. Direct change of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment
b. Specialization of the gut
c. Cephalization
d. Bilateral symmetry
_____9. Which of the following organisms do not have cells organized into tissues?
a. Hydras b. Sea Urchins
c. Sponges d. Sea anemones
_____10. Which of the following does not have nerve cells?
a. Hydra b. Jellyfish
c. Sponge d. Flatworm

C. Fill in the blanks.

________________ 1. It encompasses symmetry, segmentation, and limb disposition.
_________________2. Important feature that differentiate animals is whether or not they
have a true body cavity
_________________3. The anatomical term used for the tarsus.
_________________4. The common term for thorax.
_________________5. The term “pertaining the head”
_________________6. The cranial entrance into the chest cavity.
_________________7. Divides the body into right and left portions.
_________________ 8. Divides the body exactly in the middle, making two equal right
and left halves.
_________________ 9. Separates the front from the back.
_________________10. Divides the animal into upper and lower portions.
 D. Discuss briefly the three body plans and give an example.

ASYMMETRICAL

RADIAL SYMMETRY

BILATERAL SYMMETRY

Laboratory Manual No. 7

THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF A FROG

Introduction

The rice field frog, Rana limnocharis vittigera (Wiegmann), is the species that is
commonly used in the laboratory that demonstrate the typical vertebrate structure and its
functions. The body of an adult frog is divided, into axial and appendicular regions. The axial
region is composed of the head and the trunk. While the appendicular region shows the
forelimbs, hump, anus, hind limbs foot, ankle and webbed toes.
Phylum Chordate. The animal has no notochord at sometimes in its development
(embryonic stage) gills slits at the pharyngeal wall, and a tubular nervous system dorsal to
digestive track.
OBJECTIVES: After the activity period students must be able to:
1. Locate and identify the different parts of the frog.
2. Describe the parts and functions of the frog’s hindlegs and forelegs.
3. Distinguish male from female frog.
MATERIALS:
Live frog Dissecting pan Dissecting set

ACTIVITY PROPER:
1. Bring a live frog to class. Put inside a big transparent wide mouth glass/ plastic jar with
cover. Bore some holes on the plastic cover to allow air to enter and to avoid frog
suffocation.
2. Examine the whole body of your frog including the pigments and take note of the
different parts. Make sure that you can label properly the picture below.
3. If you have a male frog, look for a group with a female frog. Compare the structure
and characteristics of the male and female frog .Record the differences.
A. Label the following external parts of the frog.

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B. What are the 3 features that distinguish male and female frogs ?
C. Give the 2 regions of the external body of a frog and enumerate the parts located in
each region.

D. Identify and write your answer on the space provided.

____________ 1. A pair of teeth-bearing bones on the posterior order of the upper
jaw.
___________ _2. A pair of bone that protects the brain.
___________ _3. A pair of narrow membrane bones that form the dorsal roof of the
skull joined by sharp sagittal suture.
____________ 4. Tooth less bone found in the posterior part of the maxillae
____________ 5. The pair of triangular bones posterior to pre maxillae.
____________ 6. It is a thin, transparent membrane adhering to the outer surface of
the eye.
___________ 7. It is where the eye is contained
____________ 8. Circular membrane posterior to the eye.
____________ 9. Protruding on the dorso-lateral sides of the head
_____________10. Transparent membrane above the lower eyelid