Direct link: The term direct link is used to refer to the transmission path

between two devices in which signals propagate directly from transmitter to

receiver with no intermediate devices, other than amplifiers or repeaters used to
increase signal strength.

Transmission mode:
Simplex: In simplex transmission, signals are transmitted in only one direction;
one station is the transmitter and the other is the receiver.
Half-duplex: In half-duplex transmission, both stations may transmit, but only
one at a time.
Full-duplex: In full-duplex transmission, both stations may transmit
simultaneously.

Transmission media: In a data transmission system, the transmission media is

the physical path between transmitter and receiver.
Transmission media can be classified as Guided or Unguided.
Guided media: Guided media transmission means the data signals are guided
along the path like cabling system, they don’t have any other path except wires:
1. Twisted pair cable: a twisted pair cable consists of two conductors each
of them has own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is
used to carry signals to the receiver and the other is used only as a ground
reference. The receiver uses the differences between the two. Sender use
one of the wires and noise or crosstalk may affect both wires and create
unwanted signals. By twisting the pairs, no unwanted signals will be
produced.
UTP: the most common twisted pair cable used in communications is
referred to as unshielded twisted-pair or UTP.
STP: shielded twisted-pair.
Application: Telephone network.
Communications within buildings.
2. Coaxial cable: carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable. It has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire
enclosed in an insulating sheath. It is used to transmit both analog and
digital signals.
Application: Television distribution.
Long distance telephone transmission
Short-run computer system links
Local area networks.
3. Fiber-optic cable: A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and
transmits signals in the form of light.
Applications: Telecommunications.
Military applications.
Unguided/wireless media: Unguided media transmission means the transfer of
data without any physical means to define the path it takes. The data travel in the
form of signals.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
1. Ground propagation: In this radio waves travel through the lowest
portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals
emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the
curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the
signal. The greater the power, the greater the distance.
2. Sky propagation: In this, higher frequency radio waves radiate upward
into the ionosphere where they reflected back to earth. This type of
transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.
3. Line-of-sight propagation: In this very high frequency signals are
transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas
must be directional, facing each other and either tall enough or close
enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth.

We can divide wireless transmission into 3 broad groups:

1. Radio waves: electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3
KHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves. They are omni-
directional.
Application: in multicasting.
2. Micro-waves: electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 1
GHz and 300 GHz are normally called radio waves. They are
unidirectional i.e. send out signals in one direction. The sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned. Two types of antennas are used for
microwave communications:
Characteristics:
- Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.
- Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
- Microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz.
- For using band requires permission from authorities.
Application: unicast communication.
3. Infrared waves: electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between
300 GHz and 400 THz are normally called infrared waves. They can be
used for short-range communication. The main advantages of this is
having higher frequencies prevent interference between one system and
another.
Application: transmit data with a very high data rate.
Difference between point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communications:
Point-to-point communications Point-to-multipoint
communications
The channel is shared between two The channel is shared among multiple
devices devices or nodes
One transmitter and one receiver One transmitter and many receivers
Entire capacity of the link is reserved The entire capacity of the channel is
for transmission between these two shared, either spatially or temporally.
devices

Difference between Guided media and Unguided media:

Guided media Unguided media
Signal requires a physical path for Signal is broadcasted through air or
transmission sometimes water
It provides direction to signal for It does not provide any direction
travelling
Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and Radio wave, micro-wave and infrared
fiber optic cable
Used for shorter distance Used for longer distance

Difference between twisted pair cable, coaxial cable and optical fiber cable:
Twisted pair cable Coaxial cable Optical fiber
Low noise immunity Higher noise immunity Highest noise immunity
Twisted pair cable can Less affected due to Not affected due to
be affected due to external magnetic field external magnetic field
external magnetic field
Cheaper Moderate Expensive
Low bandwidth Moderately high Very high bandwidth
bandwidth
High attenuation Low attenuation Low attenuation
Installation is easy Installation is fairly easy Installation is difficult

Difference between UTP and STP:

UTP STP
Unshielded twisted pair Shielded twisted pair
Low cost High cost
Does not require a grounding cable Requires a grounding cable
High crosstalk Low crosstalk
Does not require much maintenance Requires more maintenance
More noisy Less noisy
Easier installation Installation is difficult
Used to establish connection between Used to establish connection between
short distance long distance
DTE: Data terminal equipment is a generic term used to describe a place where
information originates or terminates. DTEs are the data communications
equivalent to the person in a telephone conversation.
DTE can be terminal devices, personal computers, mainframe computers,
frontend processors, printers or virtually any other piece of digital equipment.
DCE: Data communications equipment is a generic term used to describe
equipment that interfaces DTE to a transmission channel. It converts signals
from a DTE to a form more suitable to be transported over a transmission
channel. A DCE can also converts those signals back to their original form at the
receive end of a circuit. The output of the DTE can be digital or analog,
depending on the application. DCE are also called Data circuit-terminating
equipment (DCTE).

UART: A UART is used for asynchronous transmission of serial data between a

DTE and a DCE. Asychronous data transmissiob means that an asychrnous data
format is used, and there is no clocking information transferred between the DTE
and DCE.
Functions:
i. Serial-to-parallel and parallel-to-serial conversions.
ii. Error detection by inserting parity bits in the transmitter and checking
parity bits in the receiver.
iii. Insert and detect unique data synchronization characters.
iv. Formatting data in the transmitter and receiver.
v. Provide transmit and receive status information to the CPU.
vi. Voltage-level conversion between the DTE and serial interface and
vice versa.
vii. Provide a means of achieving bit and character synchronization.
USRT: A USRT is used for synchronous transmission of serial data between a
DTE and a DCE. Sychronous data transmissiob means that an sychronous data
format is used, and there is clocking information transferred between the DTE
and DCE.
Functions:
viii. Serial-to-parallel and parallel-to-serial conversions.
ix. Error detection by inserting parity bits in the transmitter and checking
parity bits in the receiver.
x. Insert and detect unique data synchronization characters.
xi. Formatting data in the transmitter and receiver.
xii. Provide transmit and receive status information to the CPU.
xiii. Voltage-level conversion between the DTE and serial interface and
vice versa.
xiv. Provide a means of achieving bit and character synchronization.