1.

Model Question Paper-1 with solution (2022) scheme

a
Explain the working principle of Conductometric sensors (Conductometry), and Optical
sensors (colorimetry)
Conductometric Sensors
It involves the determination of the concentration of analyte based on the measurement of changes occur
in electrolyte solution. Conductance is depending on
✔ No. of ions
✔ Mobility of ions
Electrode used is conductivity cell. It is made up of two platinum foils with unit cross sectional area
and unit distance between them. Conductance of unit volume of the solution is called specific
conductance and it is given by
1 𝑙
𝑘 = 𝑅×𝑎
Here l/a is known as cell constant, R is resistance.
Applications:
1.Used to estimate acid, base and mixture in the sample
2.Used to check ionic impurities in water sample 07M
3. Used to measure acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water
4. Conductometric biosensors are used in biomedicine, environment monitoring, biotechnology and
agricultural related applications.
Optical Sensors:
These sensors based on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the chemical species.
Commonly UV-Visible-Infrared electromagnetic radiations are used. In an optical sensor, the optical
signal arises from the interaction of the analyte with an incident radiation. This interaction could results
in absorption, emission, scattering and reflection of light. The intensity of the radiation gives the
information on the concentration of the analyte.
1. Optical sensors are used to determine the concentration of coloured solution. It is based on the
measurement of absorbance of the coloured solution at particular wavelength. It is governed by Beer-
Lambertz law.
2. The optical sensors components are light source, filters, photocell and display system.
Schematic diagram is as follows

Applications:
● Used in the determination of any chemical species which can interact with electromagnetic
radiations
● Can be used in environmental, pharmaceuticals, food related applications
b What are Electrochemical Sensors? Explain its application in the measurement of Dissolved
Oxygen (DO)
Electrochemical Sensors:
These sensors use electrode as transducer component. The main components of electrochemical sensors
are working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter and reference electrode. Electrolyte is a part of
the electrochemical Sensors and role is to transport charge within the sensors, contact all electrode
effectively, it is stable under all conditions.
Electrochemical Sensors:
In electrochemical sensors, two electrodes are used.
 Anode: Zn, Pb or any other active metal
Cathode: Working electrode-Ag
Electrolyte: KOH, NaOH or any other inert electrolyte
Membrane: Teflon

Working: 07M
The difference in potential between the anode and the cathode should be
at least 0.5V.
When electrode is dipped in water to measure DO, anode undergoes oxidation liberating electrons
2𝑍𝑛 → 2𝑍𝑛2+ + 4𝑒 −
At cathode, DO undergo reduction. Ag cathode is inert, it only passes electrons to oxygen for reduction.
𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 − → 4𝑂𝐻−
Overall reaction is
2𝑍𝑛 + 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2
The current produced by the reduction of oxygen at cathode is proportional to the oxygen in the water
sample.

c Describe the construction, working and applications of Lithium-ion batteries and mention any
four applications
Composition of the battery:
Reactive species at anode : graphite
Reactive species at cathode : LiCoO2
Electrolyte : Lithium salt such as LiF6P, LiF4B, LiClO4
Separator : Polypropylene
Output Voltage : 3.6V
The cell can be represented as: LiC | LiX in ethylene carbonate | Li-MO2

Construction:
⮚ Anode is made of carbon material (graphite) with
a high energy density and large doping capacity
of lithium ion.
⮚ Cathodes are metal oxide material containing
lithium with capable of dedoping lithium ion
during charging and undergo lithium doping
during discharging
⮚ Electrolyte is made of lithium salts (LiPF6,
LiBF4or LiClO4) dissolved in organic solvents 06M
such as ether.
⮚ Separator used is polypropylene.
⮚ The output voltage of this battery is 3.6V.

Working of LIB:
During charging lithium ions in cathodic side (positive electrode) is migrated and move towards
anodic side (negative electrode)
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 → 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + + 𝑥𝑒 −
 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + + 𝑥𝑒 − + 6𝐶 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶 ↔ 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6
During discharging lithium ions move from anode to cathode.
𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6 → 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + + 𝑥𝑒 − + 6𝐶
𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖 + + 𝑥𝑒 − → 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐿𝑖(1−𝑥) 𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖𝐶6 → 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 6𝐶

Applications of LIB:
The Li - ion batteries are used in mobile phones, cameras, calculators, LCD TVs, pagers, to operate
laptop computers, in aerospace applications.

OR
Explain the working principle of Electrochemical sensors, and mention its applications
a Electrochemical Sensors:
These sensors use electrode as transducer component. The main components of electrochemical sensors
are working or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter and reference electrode. Electrolyte is a part of
the electrochemical Sensors and role is to transport charge within the sensors, contact all electrode
effectively, it is stable under all conditions.
Following steps are involved in working of an electrochemical sensor
1.Diffusion of the analyte to the electrode/electrolyte interface (in the liquid form)
2.Adsorption onto the electrode surface
3.Electrochemical reaction with electron transfer 06
4.Desorption of the product
5. Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to the bulk of electrolyte or gas phase.

Applications:
1. The oxygen sensors are used to determine dissolved oxygen in boiler water and to monitor dissolved
oxygen concentrations in hydrogen fuel cell.
2. Used in security and defense applications like detection of toxic gases.
3. Used in water analysis and environmental monitoring.
4. Used in diagnostic and health care applications.
5. Used in soil parameter analysis and in agricultural applications.
b Describe the application of Electrochemical gas sensors in sensing SOx and NOx
Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx.

Filters: Used to prevent unwanted contaminants, mainly particulate matter

Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to regulate the
gas flow into the sensors. It allows only analyte gas to pass and
prevent the leakage of the electrolyte.
Electrodes: two or three electrodes are used on the requirement.
Working or sensing, counter and reference electrode. 07
Electrolyte: Electrolyte should be ionic conductor and
chemically stable. Main role is, it transport charge within the
sensor, contact all electrodes effectively and solubilise the
reactant and product for efficient transport.
Working of electrochemical gas sensors.
⮚ The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte on to
the surface of sensing electrode.
⮚ Adsorption of analyte gas molecules on the surface of sensing electrode.
⮚ Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, liberating electrons.
⮚ Desorption of product from the electrode surface.
⮚ Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to bulk of electrolyte.

Sensors for SOX:

The sensors contains two or three electrodes
Sensing electrode: Au/Nafion
Electrolyte: 0.5M H2SO4

Working:
⮚ The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte on to
the surface of sensing electrode.
⮚ Adsorption of analyte gas molecules on the surface of sensing electrode.
⮚ Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, liberating electrons.
⮚ Desorption of product from the electrode surface.
⮚ Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to bulk of electrolyte.
𝑆𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑆𝑂42− + 4𝐻 + + 2𝑒 −

Sensors for NO2:

The sensors contain two or three electrodes.
Sensing electrode: Au, Pt/Nafion.
Electrolyte: 10 M H2SO4

Working:
⮚ The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte on to
the surface of sensing electrode.
⮚ Adsorption of analyte gas molecules on the surface of sensing electrode.
⮚ Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, liberating electrons.
⮚ Desorption of product from the electrode surface.
⮚ Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to bulk of electrolyte.
𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑂 + 4𝐻 + + 2𝐻2 𝑂

Sensors for NO:

 The sensors contain two or three electrodes.
Sensing electrode: Au/NASICON.
Electrolyte: NaNO2

Working:
⮚ The diffusion of gas analyte through filter, membrane and then finally through electrolyte on to
the surface of sensing electrode.
⮚ Adsorption of analyte gas molecules on the surface of sensing electrode.
⮚ Oxidation of analyte on the surface of sensing electrode, liberating electrons.
⮚ Desorption of product from the electrode surface.
⮚ Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to bulk of electrolyte.

𝑁𝑂 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑂32− + 4𝐻 + + 3𝑒 −

c What are Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s)? Explain the working Principle,
Properties and Applications.
QUANTUM DOT SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS (QDSSC)
⮚ Quantum dots are considered to be artificial atoms.
⮚ Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor particles a few nanometres in size,
having optical and electronic properties that differ from those of larger particles.
⮚ A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell that uses quantum dots as the absorbing
photovoltaic material.
⮚ It is used to replace bulky materials such as silicon, or copper indium gallium selenide.
⮚ Quantum dots have band gaps that are adjustable through a wide array of energy levels by
changing the size of the dots.

Construction: 07
⮚ Photo Anode: It is conducting glass over which semiconductor is coated (TiO 2). Outer layer of
photoanode is coated with quantum dots (QDs).
⮚ Electrolyte: Photo anode is contact with redox electrolyte. It is hole conductor. Polysulphide is
used as electrolyte.
⮚ Cathode Electrode: It is used to regenerate electrolyte and complete the circuit.
Working:
QDs are exposed to sunlight.
QDs absorb solar energy, electrons move from valence band to conduction band. These electrons
are transferred to semiconductor, leaving behind holes on the surface of QD’s
1. Electrolyte take up the holes from the surface of QD’s and get reduced.
𝑆 2− + 2ℎ+ → 𝑆
2−
𝑆 + 𝑆𝑥−1 → 𝑆𝑥2− (𝑥 = 2 𝑡𝑜 5)
2. Electrons flows from anode to cathode through external circuit.
3. At cathode, electrolyte is regenerated taking up electrons from cathode.
2−
𝑆𝑥2− → 𝑆 + 𝑆𝑥−1
𝑆 + 2𝑒 → 𝑆 2−
−

Advantages of QDSSC:
The following are the benefits of quantum dot solar cells.
⮚ They have a favorable power to weight ratio with high efficiency.
⮚ Their power consumption is low.
⮚ There is an increase of electrical performance at low production costs.
⮚ Their use is versatile and can be used in windows, not just rooftops.
 Disadvantages of QDSSC:
⮚ Cadmium selenide-based quantum dot solar cells are highly toxic in nature and require a very
stable polymer shell.
⮚ Cadmium and selenium ions which are used in the core of quantum dots are known to be
cytotoxic.
Applications of QDSSC:
⮚ Used for biological labeling.
⮚ Imaging and detection and as efficient fluorescence resonance energy transfer donors.
⮚ It is used as light-emitting diodes, photoconductors, photodectors and photovoltaic.
⮚ It is used in biomedicine and environment.
⮚ It is used in catalysis and other reactions

Module-2
3. Explain the types of organic memory devices by taking p-type and n-type semiconductor 07
a materials

The p-Type Organic Semiconductor Material “Pentacene”

An Organic molecule with π conjugated system and possesses holes as major charge carrier is called
p-type semiconductor.
Ex: Pentacene
These molecules show bistable states when external field is applied i.e. ON and OFF state.
It is linearly fused aromatic compound with five benzene rings.
It can be obtained in crystal and thin film form.
It shows good hole mobility, hence it behaves as a p-type semiconductor.

The n-type organic semiconducting material Perfluoropentacene

When all the hydrogen atom of pentacene is replaced by Fluorine atoms, it formed Perfluoropentacene.
Basically Fluorine is electron withdrawing nature. Hence it converts this molecules into n-type
semiconductor.
b What are photoactive and electro active materials and explain their working principle in 06
display system
Photoactive and electro active organic materials
Organic semiconductors used in electronic and optoelectronic devices are called as electroactive and
Photoactive materials. Photoactive and electroactive organic materials are the semiconductors
composed of π-electron systems.
Advantages
1. Light weight and flexible
2. Easily synthesized by chemical method.
3.Production cost is less
4. Used in thin-film flexible devices
5. Properties can be fine-tuned by structure modification
Photoactive Process:
1. Absorption and emission of light radiation in the wavelength region from ultraviolet to near
infrared.
2. Photo generation of charge carriers (photons of light creates electron-hole pair in the
semiconductor)
3. Transport of charge carriers (Charge carriers are particles or holes that freely move within a
material and carry an electric charge)
Electro active Process
Injection of charge carriers from the electrode (The process whereby light is emitted at the junction of
N- and P-type semiconductors when an external electric source is applied to drive the electrons and the
holes into the junction)
Transport of Charge carriers
c What are nanomaterials? Explain any four properties of Polythiophene (P3HT) suitable 07
for optoelectronic devices.
Nanomaterials (Silicon Nanocrystals) for Optoelectronic devices
Nanomaterials can be defined as materials possessing, at minimum, one external dimension
measuring 1-100 nm. The definition given by the European Commission states that “the particle size
of at least half of the particles in the number size distribution must measure 100nm or below”.
Organic materials for Optoelectronic devices [Light absorbing materials –Polythiophene
(P3HT)
Polythiophene are an important class of conjugated polymers, environmentally and thermally stable
material. Chemical structure of P3HT Poly (3-hexylthiophene) is a polymer with chemical formula
(C10H14S)n. It is a Polythiophene with a short alkyl group on each repeat unit.
Highly ordered (P3HT) are composed of closely packed, p–p stacked (p–p distance of 0.33nm) fully
extended chains which are oriented perpendicular to the substrate.
 Structure of P3HT

Structures of (i) Polythiophene, and (ii) P3HT

Properties:
1. P3HT is a semiconducting polymer with high stability and exhibits conductivity due to holes
therefore considered as p-type semiconductor.
2. Poly-3-hexylthiophene (P3HT) has great capability as light-absorbing materials in organic
electronic devices.
3. P3HT has a crystalline structure and good charge-transport properties required for Optoelectronics.
4. P3HT has a direct-allowed optical transition with a fundamental energy gap of 2.14eV.
5. Fundamental band gap of P3HT is 490nm visible region, corresponding to π→π* transition, giving
electron-hole pair.
6. P3HT indicates that an increase in the conductivity is associated with an increase in the degree of
crystallinity.
OR
4. What are Memory Devices? Explain the Classification of electronic memory devices with 06
a examples.
An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in response and compact
in size, and can be read and written when coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor).
OR
A memory device is a piece of hardware used to store the data. Most of electronic devices such as
computers, laptops, mobile phones have a storage device that stores data.

Classification of Electrical (electronic) Memory Devices: Electronic memory devices can be divided
into 4 types depending the type of material it is made of.
1.Transistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices
2.Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory Devices
3.Resistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices
4.Charge Transfer Type Electronic Memory Devices
 Transistor-Type Electronic Memory
Transistors are made from silicon, a semiconductor. It is converted to p-type and
n-type semiconductor by doping trivalent and pentavalent impurities. Transistors
are made using p-type and n type semiconductor. A transistor is a miniature
electronic component that can work either as an amplifier or a switch. A computer
memory chip consists of billions of transistors; each transistor is working as a
switch, which can be switched ON or OFF .Each transistor can be in two different
states and store two different numbers, ZERO and ONE. Since chipis made of
billions of such transistors and can store billions of Zeros and ones ,and almost
every number and letter can be stored.

Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory

A capacitor consists of two metal plates which are capable of storing an electric charge. It is used to
store data. It is like a battery that holds data based on energy. If the capacitor is charged, it holds the
binary numeral,“1” and holds “0” when the cell is discharged.
If the parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by dielectric layer, charges dissipate slowly and
memory would be volatile. On the other hand, if the medium between the electrodes is ferroelectric in
nature, can maintain permanent electric polarization that can be repeatedly switched between two stable
states (bistable) by an external electric field. Thus, memory based on ferroelectric capacitors (FeRAM)
is non-volatile memory.

Resistor-Type Electronic Memory

Memory devices containing switchable resistive materials are classified as resistor-

type memory, or resistive and random access memory(RRAM).Resistor-type
electronic memory usually has a simple structure, having a metal-insulator-metal
structure generally referred to as MIM structure. The structure comprises of an
insulating layer(I) sandwiched between the two metal(M) electrodes and supported
on a substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic or metal foil).Initially, the device is
under high resistance state or “OFF” and logically “0”state, when resistance
changed or under external applied field changes to lowers resistance state or “ON”
logical value“1”.

Charge Transfer Effects Type Electronic Memory

A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an electron donor– acceptor (D–A) complex,
characterized by an electronic transition to an excited state in which a partial transfer of charge occurs
from the donor moiety to the acceptor moiety. The conductivity of a CT complex is dependent on the
ionic binding between the D–A components.
b Mention any four properties and applications of LC-displays 07
Properties
⮚ Liquid crystal can flow like a liquid, due to loss of positional order
⮚ These are elongated and have some degree of rigidity
⮚ They have less orientational order
 ⮚ Transition from crystalline solids to liquid crystals caused by a change of temperature.
Applications of liquid crystals:
1. Liquid crystals are used in watches, calculators, mobile telephones, laptops, computers etc.
2. These are used in blood pressure instrument, digital thermometers and TV Chanel indicators.
3. These are used in potentiometer, conductometer, Colorimeter etc.

c Mention any four properties and applications of QLED 07

Properties:

1. Accurate and vibrant colors: QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate and vibrant colors
due to their use of quantum dots, which emit light of a specific colour when they are excited by a
light source or an electrical current.
2. Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays because they do
not require as much backlighting.
3. High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the difference between
hedarkestandbrightestareasofthedisplayisgreater,resultinginmoredetailedandlifelikeimages.
4. Long lifespan: QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays because they do not
suffer from the same issue soft back light burn outer colour fading overtime.
Applications
1. Flat-panel TV screen
2. Digital cameras
3. Mobile phones
4. laptops

Module-3
5. Define metallic corrosion? Describe the electrochemical theory of corrosion taking iron as an 07
a example.
 Definition: “The spontaneous deterioration and consequent loss of a metal/alloy due to
chemical/electrochemical attack by the environment”.
Electrochemical theory of corrosion:
According to this theory,
1. When a metal is in contact with moist air or when dissimilar metals are contact with each other in
a solution, large numbers of galvanic cells are formed with the existence of anodic and cathodic
area on the metal.
2. In this corrosion, oxidation of the metal and reduction of
species present in solution takes place.
3. The anodic part of the metal undergo oxidation and
suffers from corrosion, cathodic part undergo reduction and
protected from corrosion.
4. The electrons are transferred through the metal from
anode to cathode.
5. During corrosion the following reactions takes place.
At anode (oxidation reaction) : 𝑀 → 𝑀𝑛+ + 𝑛𝑒 −
The reaction at cathode (reduction reaction) depends on the nature of the environment: If the medium
is acidic,
1
In the presence of dissolved oxygen: 2𝐻 + + 2 𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 𝑂
In the absence of dissolve do xygen: 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2

If the medium is alkaline/neutral,

1
In the presence of dissolved oxygen: 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2 𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −
In the absence of dissolved oxygen:2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 − + 𝐻2 ↑
Example: Rusting of an Iron in the presence of moist air Anodic
Reaction: 𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 −
1
Cathodic reaction∶ 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2 𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −
Products of anode & cathode: 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑂𝐻 − → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2
1
In the presence of oxygen: 2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2 𝑂2 → 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 . 2𝐻2 𝑂
(Rust)

b Explain: (i) Differential metal corrosion & (ii) Water-line corrosion 06

Differential metal corrosion (Galvanic corrosion)
1) When two dissimilar metals are in direct contact with one another and exposed to a corrosive
medium, the metal with lower electrode potential becomes anode and suffers from corrosion,
whereas the metal with higher electrode potential becomes cathode and protected from corrosion.
This type of corrosion is known as differential metal corrosion or galvanic corrosion.
2) The rate of corrosion depends mainly on the difference in the position of the two metals in galvanic
series.
 3) Higher the difference, faster is the rate of corrosion.
Example: Electrode potential of iron (-0.44 V) is less than that of copper (0.34 V). Therefore when
iron is in contact with copper, iron becomes anodic and undergoes corrosion, whereas copper becomes
cathodic and protected from the corrosion.
𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒: 𝐹𝑒 → 𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑒 −
1
𝐴𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 ∶ 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −
2
𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2𝑂𝐻 − → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2
1
2𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 . 2𝐻2 𝑂
2

c Describe galvanizing and mention its applications. 07

Galvanization
Coating of zinc on iron or steel by hot dipping process is called galvanizing. (M.P of Zn=419 °C) It
is carried out as follows,
1.The iron sheet is subjected to pretreatment by degreasing with organicsolvent.
2.The sheet is passed through dilute H2SO4 to remove anyrust.
3.Washed with distilled water and dried by supplying hotair.
4.Then iron sheet is dipped in molten bath of Zn at 419 °C and surface is covered with NH4Cl flux which
prevents the oxidation of Zn metal.
5.The excess of coated metal is removed by passing through a pair of hot rollers and cooled gradually.

OR
6. Explain: i) corrosion control by Anodization & ii) Sacrificial anodic method. 06
a Anodizing
Anodizing is the process of oxidation of outer layer of metal to its metal oxide by electrolysis. Oxide
layer formed over the metal itself acts as protective layer.

Anodizing of aluminium

Anode : Aluminium
Cathode : Cu/Steel/Lead
Electrolyte : 5-10% Chromic acid or 10% H2SO4
Temperature : 35°C
Current Density : 100 A/m2
Voltage : 40 V
Aluminum is made as anode and copper or steel is used as cathode. The electrodes are immersed in
an electrolyte consisting of 5-10% chromic acid. The temperature is maintained at 30-40 °C. Potential
of 0-40 V is applied which oxidizes outer layer of Al to Al2O3 and that get deposited over the metal.
The reactions involved are as follows

𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒: 2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙 ) → 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) + 6𝐻+ + 6𝑒 −

𝐴𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒: 6𝐻 + + 6𝑒 − → 3𝐻2 (𝑔)
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙 ) → 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) + 3𝐻2 (𝑔)
The anodized coatings are thicker than the natural oxide film and possess improved corrosion
resistance as well as resistance to mechanical injury.

Sacrificial anodic protection:

1. The metal to be protected is connected to a more anodic metal using a metallic wire.
2. The more active metal gets corroded while the parent structure is protected from corrosion.
3. The more active metal so employed is called sacrificial anode.
4. The sacrificial anodes to be replaced by fresh ones as and when it is required.
5. Commonly used sacrificial anodes are: Mg, Zn, Al etc.
Example: steel pipe is protected by connecting it to a block of Zn. In such cases steel acts as a cathode
and is unaffected or protected from corrosion and Zn act as anode and undergoes sacrificial corrosion.
 Corrosion Penetration
Rate (CPR)

b Explain the construction and working of Calomel electrode 07

Calomel Electrode:
Construction:
1) Calomel electrode consists of long glass tube with two side tubes.
2) One at the top to fill saturated KCl solution and the other side tube is connected to the salt bridge.
Mercury is placed at the bottom which is covered with a layer of Hg and Hg 2Cl2 (calomel) paste.
3) The remaining portion is filled with saturated KCl solution.
4) A platinum wire is dipped into the mercury and is used to provide external electrical contact.
⮚ The calomel electrode is represented as,Cl-/Hg2Cl2 /Hg

Working:
Calomel electrode behaves as anode or cathode depending upon the nature of another electrode. The
half-cell reaction when it acts as an anode is
2𝐻𝑔 + 2𝐶𝑙 − → 𝐻𝑔2 𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑒 −

The half-cell reaction when it acts as a cathode is

𝐻𝑔2 𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝐻𝑔 + 2𝐶𝑙 −

The electrode reaction is,
𝐻𝑔2 𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑒 − ↔ 2𝐻𝑔 + 2𝐶𝑙 −
 Applying Nernst equation,
0.0591 [𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠]
𝐸 = 𝐸0 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑛 [𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠]
0.0591 [𝐻𝑔2 𝐶𝑙2 ]
𝐸 = 𝐸0 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑛 [𝐻𝑔]2 [𝐶𝑙 ]2−
2
Since [Hg2Cl2] = [Hg] = 1, the above equation becomes
0.0591 1
𝐸 = 𝐸0 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 −
2 [𝐶𝑙 ]
The calomel electrode potential is depending on the concentration of chloride ions in KCl. If the
Concentration of chloride ions increases, the potential decreases and vice versa. (The potential of
calomel is inversely proportional to the concentration of chloride ions)
The potential of calomel electrode is measured with respect to SHE and it depends on concentration
of KCl solution used.

Conc. KCl 0.1N 1N Saturated KCl

Potential (V) 0.334V 0.281V 0.242V
Applications:
1) Used to determine the potential of the other electrodes.
2) It is commonly used as reference electrode in all potentio metric determinations.

⮚ .
c 2
What is CPR? A thick brass sheet of area 400 inch is exposed to moist air. After 2 years of 06
period, it was found to experience a weight loss 375 g due to corrosion. If the density of brass is
3
8.73 g/cm . Calculate CPR in mpy and mmpy.

Corrosion Penetration Rate (CPR)

The corrosion penetration rate (CPR) is defined as “the speed at which any metal in a specific
environment deteriorates due to chemical reactions when it is exposed to a corrosive environment” or
the amount of corrosion loss per unit time in thickness or the speed at which corrosion spreads to the
inner portions of a material.

To calculate CPR in mpy

Given CPR in mpy
K 534
W (wt loss) 375 g 375 x1000 mg
Ρ 8.7g/cm3 8.7g/cm3
A 400 inch2 400 inch2
T 2.5 years 2.5x365x24 hrs
 𝑘×𝑊
𝐶𝑃𝑅 = 𝐷×𝐴×𝑇

534×375
𝐶𝑃𝑅 = 8.73×400×2.5×365×24

CPR= 2.61mpy

To calculate CPR in mmpy

Given CPRin mmpy
K 87.6
W (wt loss) 375 g 375 x1000 mg
ρ 8.7g/cm3 8.7g/cm3
2
A 400inch 400 x6.45cm2
t 2.5year 2.5x365x24 hrs
1 inch2=6.45 cm2
1cm2=0.155 inch2

87.6×375
𝐶𝑃𝑅 =
𝐷×𝐴×𝑇

87.6×375
𝐶𝑃𝑅 = 8.73×400×6.45×2.5×365×24

CPR=3.027X10-3 mmpy

Module- 4
7 A polydisperse sample of polystyrene is prepared by mixing three monodisperse samples in the 07
. following proportions. 1g of 10000 molecular weight, 2g of 50000 molecular weight and 2g of
a 100000 molecular weight. Determine number average and weight average molecular weight.
Find the index of polydispersity.
Number average molecular mass:

Mn 
 NiMi
 Ni
N1 M 1  N 2 M 2  N 3 M 3

N1  N 2  N 3...

1 X 10000  2 X 50000  2 X 100000


1 2  2
 =62000g/mol

N M  N2M 2  N3M 3
2 2 2

MW  1 1
N1 M 1  N 2 M 2  N 3 M 3

1 X (10 4 ) 2  2 X 5(10 4 ) 2  2 X (105 ) 2

MW   670967.74 g / mol
1X 10000  2 X 50000  2 X 100000

Mw 670967.74
   10.82
Poly dispersity index, PDI Mn 62000

b 07
Explain the synthesis of Polyacetylene and mention its applications
From Acetylene: In this method polyacetylene is synthesized by using monomer gaseous acetylene
in the presence of Ziegler-Natta catalyst such as Titanium isopropaxide (Ti(OPr))4) and triethyl
aluminium (Al(C2H5)3).

CH=CH Ti(OPr)4/Al(C2H5)3
Acetylene polyacetylene

Commercial Applications of Polyacetylene:

1. Used in the manufacture of chemical sensors, corrosion inhibitors.
2. Used in compact electronic devices such as polymer based transistors, LEDs etc.

c Explain the generation of hydrogen by Alkaline water 06

Alkaline water electrolysis
⮚ It consists of two electrodes i.e. anode and
cathode.
⮚ Both electrodes are made up of Ni based metal,
because it is more stable during the oxygen
evolution.
⮚ These electrodes are immersed in KOH
solution (25-35%).
⮚ Both electrodes are separated by porous
diaphragm prevent gases crossover and allows
only hydroxide ions.
⮚ Cell voltage is 1.3 – 2 V
⮚ When electricity is passed, at anode hydroxide
ions lose electrons and forms water molecules.
 1
Anode: 2𝑂𝐻− → 2 𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 −
⮚ At cathode, water molecules accept electrons and liberate hydrogen gas and forms hydroxide ions.
⮚ These hydroxide ions move from cathode to anode through diaphragm and process continues.
Cathode: 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 + 2𝑂𝐻−

Total reaction :2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2

Advantages
⮚ Low cost and well established technology
⮚ Long Stability and stacks in the megawatt range
⮚ Non-noble catalyst

OR
8. 07
a Describe the hydrogen production by photo catalytic water splitting method.
Generation of hydrogen by electrolysis of water
It is the process of splitting of water into oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis.
⮚ It consists of two electrodes i.e. anode and cathode.
⮚ Both are separated by membranes.
⮚ When electricity is passed, oxidation takes place at
anode, it gives H+ ions and electron, also liberates
Oxygen gas.
At Anode: 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4e−
⮚ The H+ ions move into cathodic compartment
through membranes and electrons move from anode
to cathode through external circuit.
⮚ At cathode the H+ ions accepts electrons and forms
H2 gas. This liberated hydrogen gas is used as a fuel
⮚ At Cathode : 4H+(aq) + 4e− → 2H2(g)

b Preparation, properties, and commercial applications of Kevlar. 07

Kevlar: Kevlar is synthesized in solution of N-methyl-pyrrolidone & calcium chloride from the
monomers 1, 4-phenylene-diamine (para-phenylenediamine) & terephthaloyl chloride through a
condensation reaction with liberation of HCl as a byproduct.

Properties:

1. It has very light weight.

 2. It has high tensile strength and stiffness.
3. It has very good corrosion resistance.

Applications of Kevlar:

1. It is used to make light weight boat hulls

2. aircraft fuselage panels, pressure vassals, high performance race car, bullet proof vests,
3. Used in puncture resistance bicycle tyres etc.

c Explain the construction and working of photovoltaic cells. 06

The device, which converts solar energy into electrical energy, is called photovoltaic cell and the
phenomenon is called photovoltaic effect.

Construction, working and applications of PV Cell:

Principle: The principle involved is the ejection of electrons from metal surface by striking with
photons of solar radiation.

1. The device consists of p-n junction diode coated with anti reflective layer (TiO2).
2. Two electrical contacts are provided, one in
the form of metallic grid at the top of the
junction and the other is a layer silver on the
bottom of the cell.
3. The antireflective layer coated in between
the metallic grids allows light to fall on the
semiconductor.
Working:
The photons of solar radiations enters n-type
semiconductor breaks barrier potential and
moves to p-type semiconductor where photons
knocks the electrons in p type to form electron hole pair. The free electrons so formed will travels
through the circuit from n-type and recombines with holes again in p-region. The movement of
electrons from n type to p type generates electric current. The electrical energy produced from the
solar cell is used for various applications.

Advantages of PV cells:
1. Eco friendly energy conversion device.
2. Do not undergo corrode
3. No moving parts in PV cell, hence no wear and tear.
Disadvantages of PV cells:
1. Installation cost is high.
2. Produced only during the day time.
3. It generates only DC current.
 Applications:
1. Used in toys, watches, remote lighting systems
2. Used in water pumping, water treatment.
Used in emergency power, satellites etc

Module-5
9. Mention the sources of e-waste and explain the need for e-waste 07
a Sources of electronic waste (e-waste):
The main sources of electronic waste (e-waste) include:
1. Consumer electronics such as smart phones, laptops, televisions, and household appliances.
2. Office equipment such as computers, printers, copiers, and fax machines.
3. Medical equipment such as X-ray machines, monitors, and diagnostic equipment.
4. Electronic toys and games.
5. Military and government surplus equipment.
6. Obsolete technology such as outdated computer equipment and VCRs.
7. Discarded or broken electronic devices.
8. Colleges often use electronic equipment such as projectors, computer equipment, and audio-
visual equipment in classrooms and laboratories.

Need of E- Waste Management:

E-waste management is necessary because it helps to address several environmental, health, and
resource-related concerns, including:
Protecting the environment: E-waste contains toxic substances, such as lead, mercury, and cadmium
that can have harmful effects on the environment and human health if not properly managed.
Conserving resources: E-waste contains valuable resources, such as metals, that can be recovered
and reused through proper recycling.
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions: The production of new electronic products releases greenhouse
gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere. Proper recycling and disposal of e-waste can
reduce the environmental impact of electronic products.
Reducing land filling: land filling of electronic waste can result in the release of toxic materials into
the environment and contribute to soil and water pollution.
Protecting public health: Improper handling and disposal of e-waste can expose workers and the
general public to hazardous materials and cause serious health problems.
E-waste can be toxic, is not biodegradable and accumulates in the environment, in the soil, air, water
and living things.
Causes air pollution, Soil pollution and water pollution.
Electronic Recycling Promotes Soil Fertility and Maintain Nutrient.
E-waste management programs aim to promote responsible recycling and disposal of electronic
waste and minimize the release of hazardous
Materials into the environment. This helps to protect the environment, conserve resources, and
promote public health and safety.
b Explain the recycling of e-waste 07

E- Waste recycling:
The process of e-waste recycling typically involves the following steps:
1.Collection and transportation: E-waste is collected from various sources such as households,
businesses, and recycling facilities. It is then transported to a recycling plant for processing.
2.Sorting and dismantling: E-waste is sorted into different categories based on the type of material
and the manufacturer. The recyclers then dismantle the devices to separate the valuable materials
from the hazardous components.
3.Shredding: The e-waste is shredded into smaller pieces to make it easier to separate the different
materials. The shredded pieces are then sorted into different categories based on their composition.
4.Separation: The valuable materials, such as metals, plastics, and glass, are separated from the
other components through a series of physical and chemical processes.
5.Processing: The separated materials are processed to remove any impurities and contaminants,
and to prepare them for reuse. For example, metals are smelted to produce pure metal alloys, while
plastics are melted and molded into new products.
6.Disposal of hazardous waste: The hazardous components of e-waste, such as batteries and LCDs,
are properly disposed of to prevent pollution and health hazards.
c 06
Explain the extraction of gold from e-waste
Extraction of gold from e-waste (Explain the Principle and experimental procedure):

Principle: The principle behind the extraction of gold from e-waste is based on the fact that gold is
a relatively non-reactive metal, which allows it to be recovered from complex electronic waste
matrices through a series of chemical and physical processes.
Experimental procedure:
1. Collection and segregation of e-waste: The first step involves collecting and segregating the e-
waste into different categories, such as computer motherboards, cell phones, and other electronic
devices.
2. Physical separation: The e-waste is physically separated into different components, such as
plastics, metals, and glass.
3. Leaching: The metals, including gold, are leached from the e-waste using a suitable reagent, such
as aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid), to dissolve the gold.
Au + HNO3 + 4HCl → HAuCl4 + NO + 2H2O
4. Precipitation: The dissolved gold is then precipitated out of the solution through the addition of a
suitable reducing agent, such as sodium metabisulfite.
2H[AuCl4] + 3Na2S2O5 + 3H2O → 2Au + 3SO2 + 3Na2SO4 + 8HCl
5. Purification: The precipitated gold is then purified through processes such as ion exchange,
electro-winning, or distillation, to remove impurities and improve its quality.
6. Recovery: The purified gold is then recovered for reuse
OR
10 Explain the ill effects of toxic materials used in manufacturing electrical 07
.a and electronic products
Health hazardous due to exposure of e waste:
Exposure to electronic waste (e-waste) can have serious health consequences, including:
Poisoning: E-waste can contain toxic substances, such as lead, cadmium, and mercury that can cause
poisoning if they enter the body.
Respiratory problems: Exposure to dust and fumes generated during the dismantling and disposal
of e-waste can cause respiratory problems, such as asthma and bronchitis.
Neurological effects: Exposure to toxic substances in e-waste, such as lead and mercury, can cause
neurological effects, including memory loss, tremors
and coordination problems.
Reproductive problems: Exposure to toxic substances in e-waste, such as cadmium, can cause
reproductive problems, including infertility and birth defects.
Cancer: Exposure to carcinogenic substances, such as dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
found in e-waste, can increase the risk of cancer
It is important to effectively manage e-waste to minimize the exposure of workers and the
public to hazardous materials and to prevent serious health problems.

b Explain the pyrometallurgical and direct recycling methods. 06

Pyrometallurgical methods E-waste recycling:

E-waste pyrometallurgical methods refer to the process of extracting valuable metals and other
materials from electronic waste using high temperatures. These methods include:
1. Smelting: The e-waste is melted in a furnace and then separated into individual metals and other
materials.
2. Refining: The metals from the smelted e-waste are further processed to remove impurities and
improve their quality.
3. Incineration: Electronic waste is burned at high temperatures to reduce its volume and recover
metals.
Pyrometallurgical methods are effective at recovering valuable metals from e- waste, but they also
generate hazardous byproducts and require significant energy inputs. Additionally, these methods
can pose a risk to the environment and human health if not properly regulated and monitored.
Direct recycling of e waste:
Direct recycling of e-waste refers to the process of recovering valuable materials from electronic
waste without the need for intermediate processing steps. This can include processes such as
shredding, granulating, and sorting, which are used to separate the different components of e-
waste, such as metals, plastics, and glass. The separated materials are then processed to extract the
valuable components and prepare them for reuse.

c Write a brief note on role of stakeholders for example; producers, consumers, recyclers, and 07
statutory bodies.
Role of stakeholders - producers, consumers, recyclers, and statutory bodies.
In the management of electronic waste (e-waste), the following stakeholders play important unique
role in the management of e-waste:
1. Producers - are responsible for designing and producing electronic products and may also be
involved in the collection and recycling of e- waste.
2. Consumers - play a crucial role in the responsible disposal of e-waste and making informed choices
about the purchase of electronic products.
3. Recyclers - are responsible for safely and responsibly managing e-waste, including the collection,
dismantling, and recycling of electronic waste.
4. Statutory bodies - such as governments, are responsible for creating and enforcing regulations
and policies to manage e-waste and promoting public awareness and education about e-waste
management.