CHAPTER 1 SPEAKING IN PUBLIC • Take a couple slow, deep breaths before

you start to speak.

Public Speaking- is a process of speaking
to a group of people in a structured, • Work especially hard on your introduction.
deliberate manner intended to inform,
influence, or entertain the listeners. • Make eye contact with members of your
audience.
“orator” to designate someone with special
skills in public speaking. • Concentrate on communicating with your
audience rather than worrying about your
Similarities Between Public Speaking stage fright.
and Conversation
• Use visual aids.
1. Organizing your thoughts logically.
Public Speaking and Critical Thinking
2. Tailoring your message to your audience.
critical thinking – focused, organized
3. Telling a story for a maximum impact. thinking about such things as the logical
4. Adapting to listener feedback. relationships among ideas, the soundness of
evidence, and the differences between fact
Differences Between Public Speaking and opinion.
and Conversation
The Speech Communication Process
1. Public speaking is more highly structured.
1. Speaker. Speech communication begins
2. Public speaking requires more formal with a speaker.
language.
2. Message. It is whatever a speaker
3. Public speaking requires a different communicates to someone else.
method of delivery.
3. Channel. It is how a message is
Developing Confidence: Your Speech communicated. Examples are television,
Class radio, and a direct channel.
stage fright – the anxiety over the prospect 4. Listener. The listener is the person who
of giving a speech in front of an audience. receives the communicated message from
adrenaline – a hormone released into the the speaker.
bloodstream in response to physical or frame of reference – the sum of a person’s
mental stress. knowledge, experience, goals, values, and
positive nervousness – controlled attitudes. No two people can have the same
nervousness that helps a speaker for her or frame of reference.
his presentation. 5. Feedback. Communication is a two-way
Six (6) Ways to Turn Nervousness from a process. Feedback is the message, usually
Negative Force into a Positive One nonverbal, sent from a listener to a speaker.

1. Acquire Speaking Experience. 6. Interference. It is anything that impedes

the communication of a message.
2. Prepare, Prepare, Prepare. Interference can be external or internal to the
listeners.
3. Think positively.
internal interference – this comes from
4. Use the Power of Visualization.
within your audience. Examples are an
5. Know that Most Nervousness is Not audience having a toothache, pain, worrying
Visible. about a test in the next class period, or
someone could be brooding about an
6. Do not Expect Perfection.
argument with his girlfriend.
Tips to Dealing with Nervousness in Your
external interference – these happens
First Speeches
outside you audience such as traffic outside
• Be at your best physically and mentally. the building, the clatter of a radiator, students
conversing in the hall, and a room that is
• As you are waiting to speak, quietly tighten stifling or freezing cold.
and relax your leg muscles, or squeeze your
hands together and then release them.
7. Situation. It is the time and place in which plagiarism – presenting another person’s
speech communication occurs. language or ideas as one’s own.

CHAPTER 2 ETHICS AND PUBLIC Kinds of Plagiarism

SPEAKING
1. Global plagiarism. The most blatant –
ethics – the branch of philosophy that deals and unforgivable – kind of plagiarism. It is
with issues of right and wrong in human grossly unethical. It is stealing your speech
affairs. entirely form another source and passing it of
as your own.
ethical decision – sound ethical decisions
involve weighing potential course of action 2. Patchwork plagiarism. Unlike global
against a set of ethical standards or plagiarism, in which a pirates an entire
guidelines. speech from a single source, patchwork
plagiarism occurs when a speaker pilfers
GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL SPEAKING
from two or three sources.
1. Make sure your goals are ethically sound.
3. Incremental plagiarism. It is when the
2. Be fully prepared for each speech. entire speech is cribbed more or less
verbatim from a single source or a few
3. Be honest in what you say. sources. It occurs when the speaker fails to
The following violates the speaker’s duty give credit for particular parts – increments –
to be accurate and fair in presenting of the speech that are borrowed from other
information: people.

• juggling statistics 3.1. Quotations. Whenever you quote

• quoting out of context someone directly, you must attribute the
• misrepresenting sources words to that person. It would make a strong
addition to your speech as long as you
• painting tentative findings as firm
acknowledge the owners/authors.
conclusions
• portraying a few details as the whole 3.2. Paraphrases. When you paraphrase an
story author, you restate or summarize her or his
• citing unusual cases as typical in your own words. You need to acknowledge
examples the author or the person because still, with
• substituting innuendo and half-truths just a fair amount of his/her language, you
for evidence and proof are still using his/her opinions, ideas, and
judgment.
4. Avoid name-calling and other forms of
abusive language. GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL LISTENING

name-calling – It is the use of language to 1. Be courteous and attentive.

defame, demean, or degrade individuals or
2. Avoid prejudging the speaker.
groups. Such terms have been used to
debase people because of their sexual 3. Maintain the free and open expression of
orientation, religious beliefs, and ethnic ideas.
background. It includes epithets.
CHAPTER 3 LISTENING
epithets – words such as “fag”, “kike”,
“nigger”, “honkey”, “wop”, “jap”, “chink”, and Hearing is a physiological process, involving
“spic” the vibration of sound waves on our
eardrums and the firing of electrochemical
5. Put ethical principles into practice. impulses from the inner ear to the central
auditory system of the brain.
PLAGIARISM
Listening involves paying close attention to,
Plagiarism comes from plagiarius, the Latin
and making sense of, what we here.
word for kidnapper.
Four kinds of listening:
Plagiarize means to present another
person’s language or ideas as your own – to • Appreciative listening – for pleasure or
give the impression you have written or enjoyment, as we listen to music, to a
thought yourself when you have taken it from comedy routine, or to an entertaining speech.
someone else.
• Empathic listening – to provide emotional 6. Focus your listening.
support for the speaker, as when a
6.1. Listen for Main Points.
psychiatrist listens to a patient or when we
lend a sympathetic ear to a friend in distress. 6.2. Listen for Evidence.

• Comprehensive listening – to understand 6.3. Listen for Techniques

the message of a speaker, as when we
7. Develop note-taking skills.
attend a classroom lecture or listen to
directions for finding a friend’s house. key-word outline – an outline that briefly
notes a speaker’s main points and
• Critical listening – to evaluate a message
supporting evidence in rough outline form.
for purposes of accepting or rejecting it, as
when we listen to the sales pitch of a used- CHAPTER 4 SELECTING A TOPIC AND A
car dealer or the campaign speech of a PURPOSE
political candidate.
Choosing a Topic
Critical thinking involves a number of
The first step to speechmaking is choosing a
skills. The following skills are central to
topic.
comprehensive listening:
topic – it is the subject of the speech.
• summarizing information
• recalling facts Here are examples of speech topics
• distinguishing main points from based largely on the students’ personal
minor points knowledge and experience:

Other skills of critical thinking are • The Basic of Backpacking

especially important in critical listening. • Making a Difference: The Peace
These are: Corps - A Tour of Old Jerusalem
• Performing with the Native American
• separating facts from opinions
Dance Troupe
• spotting weaknesses from in
• How to Have a Successful Job
reasoning
Interview
• judging the soundness of evidence
BRAINSTORMING FOR TOPICS
FOUR CAUSES OF POOR LISTENING
brainstorming – a method of generating
1. Not concentrating.
ideas for speech topics by free
spare brain time – the difference between association of words and ideas.
the rate at which most people talk (120 to 150
1. Personal Inventory. First, make a
words a minute) and the rate at which the
quick inventory of your experiences,
brain can process language (400 to 800
interests, hobbies, skills, beliefs, and so
words a minute).
forth.
2. Listening too hard.
2. Clustering. If the first method does not
3. Jumping to conclusions. work, try to use clustering – wherein you
take a sheet of paper and divide it into
4. Focusing on delivery and personal nine columns as follows: people, places,
appearance. things, events, processes, concepts,
HOW TO BECOME A BETTER LISTENER natural phenomena, problems, and plans
and policies. Then, in each column, list
1. Take listening seriously. the first five or six items that come to
2. Be an active listener. mind.

active listening – giving undivided attention 3. Reference Search. This is done by

to a speaker in a genuine effort to understand browsing through an encyclopedia, a
the speaker’s point of view. periodical database, or some other
reference work until you come across
3. Resist distractions. what might be a good speech topic.
4. Do not be diverted by appearance or 4. Internet Search. Another possibility is
delivery. to connect a subject-based search
5. Suspend judgment.
 engine such as google, Yahoo!, or the residual message – what a speaker wants
Librarians’ Index to the internet. the audience to remember after it has
forgotten everything else in a speech.
DETERMINING THE GENERAL
PURPOSE Guidelines for the Central Idea

specific purpose – a single infinitive 1. should be expressed in s full

phrase that states precisely what a sentence;
speaker hopes to accomplish in his/her 2. should not be in the form of a
speech. question;
3. should avoid figurative language;
Example: Topic: Music therapy
and,
General Purpose: to inform 4. should not be vague or overly
general.
Specific Purpose: to inform my audience
about the benefits of music therapy for CHAPTER 5 ANALYZING THE AUDIENCE
people with psychological or cognitive
audience-centeredness – keeping the
disabilities.
audience foremost in mind every step of
Tips for Formulating the Specific speech preparation and presentation.
Purpose Statement
To be audience-centered, you need to
1. Write the purpose statement as a full keep several questions in mind when you
infinitive phrase, not as a fragment. work on your speeches:

2. Express your purpose as a statement, not • To whom am I speaking?

as a question. • What do I want them to know, believe,
or do as a result of my speech?
3. Avoid figurative language in your purpose
• What is the most effective way of
statement.
composing and presenting my
4. Limit your purpose statement to one speech to accomplish that aim?
distinct idea.
Identification – a process in which speakers
5. Make sure your specific purpose is not too seek to create a bond with the audience by
vague or general. emphasizing common values, goals, and
experience.
Questions to Ask about Your Specific
Purpose egocentric – the tendency of people to be
concerned above all with their own values,
1. Does my purpose meet the assignment?
beliefs, and well-being.
2. Can I accomplish my purpose in the time
DEMOGRAPHIC AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
allotted?
demographic audience analysis – it
3. Is the purpose relevant to my audience?
focuses on demographic factors such as
4. Is the purpose too trivial for my age, gender, religion, sexual orientation,
audience? group membership

5. Is the purpose too technical for my stereotyping – creating an oversimplified

audience? image of a particular group of people,
usually by assuming that all members of the
PHRASING THE CENTRAL IDEA group are alike.
central idea – a one-sentence statement Here are few of the major demographic
that sums up or encapsulates the major factors you should consider:
ideas of a speech.
1. Age. There is no generation in which
central idea refines and sharpens your everyone thinks alike, buys the same
specific purpose. It is a concise statement of products, or votes for the same political
what you will say in your speech, and it candidates.
usually crystallizes in your thinking after you
have done your research and have decided 2. Gender. Vocational distinctions between
on the main point of your speech. The central the sexes have been eroding for many years.
idea usually encapsulates the main points to
3. Sexual Orientation. No matter what one’s
be developed in the body of your speech.
attitude toward gays, lesbians, or
heterosexuals, audience-centered speakers 5. Disposition toward the Occasion.
are alert to how their messages will be Listeners have fairly definite ideas about the
received by people of various sexual speeches they consider appropriate.
orientations.
Three Major Types of Questions
4. Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural
1. Fixed-alternative questions. As their
Background. Understanding attitudes of
name implies, it offers a fixed choice
listeners about race and ethnicity is crucial
between two or more responses.
for speakers.
fixed-alternative questions – questions
5. Religion. You cannot assume that your
that offer a fixed choice between two or more
views on religion – whatever they may be –
alternatives.
are shared by your listeners.
2. Scale questions. It resembled fixed-
6. Group Membership. Similar groups
alternative questions, but they allow more
abound on campus. Some of your
leeway in responding.
classmates may belong to fraternities or
sororities, some to Campus Crusade for scale questions – questions that require
Christ, some to the Young Republicans, responses at fixed intervals along a scale of
some to the film society, some to the ski club, answers.
and so forth.
3. Open-ended questions. It gives
SITUATIONAL AUDIENCE ANALYSIS maximum leeway in responding.
situational audience analysis – audience open-ended questions – questions that
analysis that focuses on situational factors allow respondents to answer however they
such as the size of the audience, the physical want.
setting for the speech, and the disposition of
the audience toward the topic, the speaker In putting together your own
and the occasion. questionnaire, keep the following
principles in mind:
1. Size. Most speech classes consist of
between 20 and 30 people – a small- to 1. Plan the questionnaire carefully to elicit
mediumsized audience. precisely the information you need.

2. Physical Setting. Adverse conditions 2. Use all three types of questions – fixed-
could seriously impair audience’s willingness alternative, scale, and open-ended.
to accept your ideas or even listen to you at 3. Make sure the questions are clear and
all. unambiguous.
3. Disposition toward the Topic. You 4. Keep the questionnaire relatively brief.
should keep your audience in mind when
choosing a topic. Ideally, you will pick a topic ADAPTING THE AUDIENCE
that suits them as well as it suits you. There are two major stages in the
3.1. Interest. One of your tasks will be to process:
assess your listener’s interests in advance 1. Audience adaptation before the speech.
and to adjust your speech accordingly.
2. Audience adaptation during the speech.
3.2. Knowledge. There is often a strong
correlation between interest in a topic and CHAPTER 6 GATHERING MATERIALS
knowledge about it.
Gathering materials for a speech is like
3.3. Attitude. The attitude of your listeners gathering information for any project. There
toward your topic can be extremely important are many resources available if you take
in determining how you handle the material. advantage of them.

attitude – a frame of mind in favor of or USING YOUR OWN KNOWLEDGE AND

opposed to a person, policy, belief, EXPERIENCE
institution, etc.
When you choose a topic from your own
4. Disposition toward the Speaker. The experience, you may be tempted to
more competent listeners believe a speaker depersonalize it by relying solely on facts and
to be, the more likely they are to accept what figures from books.
he or she says.
 DOING LIBRARY SEARCH Specialized Research Resources. Search
aids are extremely helpful, but they are not
Librarians. Librarians are experts in their
the only vehicles for finding information
own field, trained in library use and research
online.
methods.
Virtual Libraries. These are search engines
The Catalogue. It lists all the books,
that combine internet technology with
periodicals, and other resources owned by
traditional library methods of assessing data.
the library.
Here are the two best:
Call Number. It is the key to finding a book.
(1) Librarians’ Internet Index and
It is a number used in libraries to classify
books and periodicals and to indicate where (2) Internet Public Library.
they can be found on the shelves.
Government Resources. One of the great
Periodical Databases. It allows you to strengths of the internet as a research tool is
locate magazine or journal articles. It is a the access it provides to government
research aid that catalogues articles from a documents and publications. These include
large number of journals or magazines. Statistical Abstract and World Factbook.

Abstract. It is a summary of a magazine or Multicultural Resources. The internet is a

journal article, written by someone other than global phenomenon, and it mirrors the
the original author. internationalism and diversity of our time. If
you are speaking on a topic with multicultural
Newspapers. These are invaluable for
dimensions, you can use Yahoo! Regional,
research on many topics, historical as well as
WWW Virtual Library, Princeton University
contemporary.
Library Asian-American Studies, etc.
Reference Works. These are usually kept in
EVALUATING INTERNET DOCUMENTS
a part of the library called the reference
section. The most trusted resources on the web are
those derived from printed works.
Encyclopedias. These seek to provide
accurate, objective information about all Here, we look at three criteria to help
branches of human knowledge and can be distinguish between the jewels and the
excellent place to begin your research. junk on the internet.

Yearbooks. As the name implies, yearbooks Authorship. Is the author of the web
are published annually. They contain an document clearly identified? You should not
amazing amount of current information that cite an electronic work in the absence of
would otherwise be all but impossible to track these information. In a book or magazine
down. articles, information about the author is
usually fairly easy to find.
World Almanac is a treasure trove of
information. Sponsorship. Many web documents are
published by businesses, government
Facts on File is a weekly digest of national
agencies, public-interest groups, and the
and foreign news event.
like.
Quotation Books. It contains more than
Recency. One of the advantages of using
25,000 quotations from historical and
the internet for research is that it often has
contemporary figures. It has long been
more recent information than you can find in
regarded as an indispensable source for
printed sources. The best way to determine
speakers and writers alike.
the recency of an internet document is to look
Biographical Aids. It is a reference work for a copyright date, publication date, or date
that provides information about people. of last version at the top or bottom of the
document.
SEARCHING THE INTERNET
INTERVIEWING
The internet has been called the world’s
largest library. interview is conducted to gather information
for a speech.
Search Engines. These are the keys to
finding materials on the internet.
Before the Interview. Here are five steps 5. Practice Delivery to Enhance Your
you should take ahead of time to help Extended Examples.
ensure a successful outcome.
Statistics. These are numerical data.
1. Define the Purpose of the Interview
Understanding Statistics
2. Decide Whom to Interview.
3. Arrange the interview. When you track down statistics for your
4. Decide whether to Record the speeches, be sure to evaluate them in
Interview. the light of the following questions:
5. Prepare Your Questions.
1. Are the Statistics
During the Interview. Here are several Representative?
steps you can take to help make things 2. Are Statistical Measures Used
proceed smoothly. Correctly?
3. Are the Statistics from a Reliable
1. Dress Appropriately and Be on Time.
Source?
2. Repeat the Purpose of the Interview.
Tips for Using Statistics
3. Set Up the Recorder, if You are
1. Use Statistics to Quantify Your
Using One.
Ideas.
4. Keep the Interview on Track.
2. Use Statistics Sparingly.
5. Listen Carefully.
3. Identify the Sources of Your
6. Do not Overstay Your Welcome.
Statistics.
After the Interview. 4. Explain Your Statistics.
5. Round Off Complicated Statistics.
1. Review Your Notes as Soon as
6. Use Visual Aids to Clarify
Possible.
Statistical Trends.
2. Transcribe Your Notes.
Testimony. These are the quotations or
TIPS FOR DOING RESEARCH
paraphrases used to support a point.
1. Start Early.
These include:
2. Make a Preliminary Bibliography
• Expert Testimony. This comes from
Take Notes Efficiently. Be knowledgeable
people who are acknowledged
and effective to taking down notes.
authorities in their fields.
1. Take Plenty of Notes • Peer Testimony. These are opinions
2. Record Notes in a Consistent of people like us; not prominent
Format. figures, but ordinary citizens who
3. Make a Separate Entry for Each have firsthand experience on the
Note. topic.
4. Distinguish Among Direct ✓ Quoting vs. Paraphrasing.
Quotations, Paraphrases, and Your Direct quotation is a
Own Ideas. testimony that is presented
word for word. Meanwhile, to
CHAPTER 7 SUPPORTING IDEAS
paraphrase is to restate or
Good speeches are not composed of hot air summarize a source’s ideas
and generalizations. They need strong in one’s own words.
supporting materials to bolster the speaker’s ✓ quotations are most effective
point of view. when they are brief, when
they convey meaning better
Supporting materials are used to support a than you can, and when they
speaker’s ideas. are particularly eloquent,
Tips for Using Examples witty, or compelling.

1. Use Examples to Clarify Ideas. Paraphrasing is better than quotation

2. Use Examples to Reinforce Your when:
Ideas. 1. the wording of the quotation is
3. Use Examples to Personalize Your obscure or cumbersome.
Ideas. 2. a quotation is longer than two or
4. Make Your Examples Vivid and three sentences. Audiences often
Richly Texture. tune out partway through lengthy
 quotations, which tend to interrupt ORGANIZATION IS IMPORTANT
the flow of the speaker’s ideas.
• Speakers with organized
Tips for Using Testimony speeches tend to be much more
competent and trustworthy than
1. Quote or Paraphrase Accurately.
those who do not.
Make sure you do not misquote
• Listeners demand coherence, that
someone; make sure you do not
is why, the speaker must be sure
violate the meaning of statements you
that the listeners can follow the
paraphrase; make sure you do not
progression of ideas in a speech
quote out of context.
from beginning to end. This
2. Use Testimony from Qualified
requires that speeches be
Sources. Being a celebrity or an
organized strategically.
authority in one area does not make
• Strategic organization us putting
someone competent in other areas.
up a speech together in a
3. Use testimony from Unbiased
particular way to achieve a
Sources. Careful listeners are
particular result with a particular
suspicious of testimony from biased or
audience.
self-interested sources. Be sure to use
testimony from credible, objective • When you work to organize your
authorities. speeches, you gain practice in the
4. Identify the People You Quote or general skills of establishing clear
Paraphrase. The usual way to identify relationship of ideas.
your source is to name the person and • Using a clear, specific method of
sketch his or her qualifications before speech organization can boost
presenting the testimony. your confidence as a speaker and
improve your ability to deliver a
Citing Sources Orally. Oral source message fluently.
citations do not follow a standard format. • The body is the longest and most
What you include depends on your topic, important part. You will usually
your audience, the kind of supporting prepare the body first. It is easier
material you are using, and the claim you to create an effective introduction
are making. after you know exactly what you
In most cases, you will need to identify will say in the body.
some combination of the following: • The process of organizing the bod
of a speech begins when you
• the book, magazine, newspaper, or web determine the amin pints.
document you are citing.
MAIN POINTS
• the author or sponsoring organization of
Main points are the central features of
the document
your speech. You should select them
• the author’s qualifications regarding the carefully, phrase them precisely, and
topic arrange them strategically. Main points
are the major developed in the body of
• the date on which the document was speech. Most speeches contain from two
published, posted, or updated. to five main points.
CHAPTER 8 ORGANIZING A SPEECH Number of Main Points
Organization allows you to see what you When you list your main points, you find that
have and to put your hands immediately you have too many, you may be able to
on the garment, the tool, the piece of condense them into categories.
paper, the CD you want without frenzied
search. Strategic Order of Main Points

Organizations allows you and your Once you establish the main points, you
listeners to see what ideas you have and need to decide the order in which you will
to put mental “hands” on the most present them. The most effective order
important ones. depends on three things – your topic, your
purpose, and your audience.
Chronological Order. A method of speech SUPPORTING MATERIALS
organization in which the main points follow
These are the materials used to support a
a time pattern. They may narrate a series of
speaker’s ideas. The three major kinds of
events in the sequence in which they
supporting materials are examples,
happened. It is also used in speeches
statistics, and testimony.
explaining a process or demonstrating wo to
do something. This order is especially useful CONNECTIVES
for informative speeches.
These are words and phrases that connect
Spatial Order. It is a method of speech the ideas of a speech and indicates the
organization in which the main points follow relationship between them. Without
a directional pattern. That is, the main points connectives, a speech is disjointed and
proceed from top to bottom, left to right, front uncoordinated.
to back, inside to outside, east to west, or
some other route. This is good for informative Transitions. These are words or phrases
speeches as well. that indicate when a speaker has just
completed one thought and is moving on to
Causal Order. Speeches arranged in causal another. Technically, the transitions state
order organize main points so as to show a both the idea the speaker is leaving and the
cause-effect relationship. When you put your idea she or he is coming up to.
speech in causal order, you have to main
points – one dealing with the causes of an Internal Previews. These let the audience
event, the other dealing with its effects. know what the speaker will take up next, but
Because of its versatility, causal order can be they are more detailed than transitions.
used for both persuasive speeches and Internal Summaries. These are the reverse
informative speeches. of the internal previews. Rather than letting
Problem-Solution Order. It is a method of listeners know what is coming up next,
speech organization in which the first main internal summaries remind listeners of what
point deals with the existence of a problem they have just heard.
and the second main point presents a Signpost. Signpost are very brief statements
solution to the problem. This is most that indicate exactly where you are in the
appropriate for persuasive speeches. speech. Frequently they are just numbers.
Topical Order. A method of speech Questions are particularly effective as
organization in which the main points divide signposts because they invite subliminal
the topic into logical and consistent answers and thereby get the audience more
subtopics. It is applicable to almost any involved with the speech.
subject and to any other method of speech
organization.

Tips for Preparing Main Points

1. Keep Main Points Separate. Each main

point in a speech should be clearly
dependent of the others.

2. Try to Use the Same Pattern of Wording

for Main Points. Your main points should
follow a consistent pattern of wording
throughout.

3. Balance the Amount of Time Devoted to

Main Points. Because your main points are
so important, you want to be sure they all
receive enough emphasis to be clear and
convincing. This means allowing sufficient
time to develop each main point.