msuiit

influencing the future

ENS195:
Environmental Science and
Engineering with Safety

ANTHONY O. MAPUTI, M.Sc.

Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology

 msuiit
influencing the future

LESSON
Introduction to Air
Pollution and
Management
5
Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology
LESSON 5 – Things you need to know

1. Air Environment

2. Development and Air Pollution

3. Basic Terminologies

4. Types of Air Pollutants

5. Sources of Air Pollutants

6. Measurement Units and Averaging Time

7. Asian and Global Air Pollution Status

3
Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a critical system

that helps to regulate Earth's
climate and distribute heat around
the globe.
Together with the oceans, the
atmosphere shapes Earth's
climate and weather patterns
and makes some regions more
habitable than others.

4
Air Environment
Earth atmosphere
• Troposphere (8-12 km): heated from the Earth
surface, warmest near the bottom and gets
colder with increasing height
• Stratosphere: heated from the top (ozone layer
--> absorption of incoming UV)
• Mesosphere: temp. reduces with height (can be
defined as a part of exosphere where light H2 and He
lost to the space)
• Thermosphere (no defined upper limit): high
temp. (solar radiation absorbed by a few
N2 & O2 molecules --> 500 km, t = 1200 ℃)

5
Clean Air Composition
Assuming binary composition --> Nitrogen (79%)
and Oxygen (21%)

6
Roles of the Atmosphere
• Supply oxygen: Man’s biological
need for air • Heat and water transport media:
• Resting 12 kg/day • Water cycle and heat transfer
• Light work 45 kg/day
• Heavy work 69 kg/day
• 15-20 times of food (1.5 kg/day) • Waste disposal media
• Almost unavoidable exposure
• Redistribution of solar radiation:
• Filter solar radiation: • Natural GHG effect: temp = 14-15℃
• Harmful UV absorbed by O3 & O2 (instead of -18℃)

7
Atmospheric Processes and Air Pollution

8
Factors Affecting AP at a Location
• Emission:
• Sources: natural, man-made
• Degree of control/management

• Meteorology
• Transport/diffusion: air pollution dilution
• Transformation: secondary air pollution, etc.
• Sink: wet and dry removal

• Topography: affecting dispersion and sink/deposition

9
Environmental Kuznet’s Curve (EKC)
Environmental
degradation

10
Motorcycle Pollution Benefits – Acting Sooner

Benefits from acting 5 years sooner

11
Kuznet Curve: Impact of Development
STAGE 2
Stabilization of
STAGE 1 air quality STAGE 3
Initial of Improvement of
AP Concentration

emission control air quality

STAGE 0
Start of STAGE 4
industrial High technology
development applied
Environmental
Standard

Level of development 12
Definitions
• Air Contaminants
• All materials other than the normal clean
composition of air

• Air Pollutants
• Contaminants causing damage, harmful
effects

• Air Pollution
• Presence in the outdoor and indoor air of
substances, in conc. and duration, sufficient
to produce measurable adverse effects on
human beings, animals, vegetation or
materials
13
Definitions: Air Pollution Episodes
▪ Air Pollution Episodes
• Occurrences of high pollutant concentration coinciding with stagnant and persistent air conditions
in densely populated areas causing sharply increased illness and mortality from respiratory
diseases

▪ Examples of air pollution episodes:

• London sulfurous smog (winter type): SO2, Soot (PM)
• Los Angeles photochemical smog (summer type):

NOx + HC + O2 + hv → oxidants O3 + haze

• Indonesian forest fire in 1997: fine PM

13
Air Pollution Episodes: Very High Pollutant Conc.

▪ Example: London killer smog

(Dec. 1952)
▪ Why we need to study air
pollution?

• Identification/prediction of
Episodes ex. coal
combustion during winter
• Implementation of Controls,
ex. stop using coal
• Epidemiological Studies, ex.
health impact studies

15
Air Pollution Episodes: Meuse Valley 1930
Trapped by an inversion, pollutants
accumulated in this steep-sided
valley of 15 miles length.
Coke ovens, steel mills, blast
furnaces, zinc smelters, glass
factories and sulfuric acid plants
produced an estimated SO2
concentration of 8 ppm. It was
estimated that the SO2concentration
was reached to 22,600 ug/m3.

16
Air Pollution Episodes: Meuse Valley 1930

With in a few days more than 600

people fell ill, and 63 people died
from the polluted air.
Unfortunately no measurements
were made.
The major culprit was sulfur
dioxide which, with the help of
fog droplets oxidized to sulfuric
acid mist with a particle size
small enough to penetrate deeply
into the lungs.

17
Air Pollution Episodes:Poza Rica de Hidalgo 1950

Poza Rica de Hidalgo was the

scene of a major air pollution
disaster in 1950 when hydrogen
sulfide at an oil field was
accidentally vented into the air
under a low-altitude temperature
inversion. 22 persons were killed
and 320 hospitalized.

18
 Types of Air Pollutants
1. By generation sources:
• Nature
• Man-made
2. By aggregation state:
• Gaseous: CO, NOx, SO2, VOC (benzene, toluene, …), etc.
• PM: solid or liquid suspended in the air, ranging from the largest gas molecule to
>100 μm
• Terminology: TSP, PM10, PM2.5, ultrafine, nano-particles, etc.
3. By nature:
• Chemical pollutants
• Biological: pathogens, bacteria, virus, pollens
• Physical: noise, EM waves, heat
4. By formation processes:
• Primary: as emitted
• Secondary: formed in atmosphere (e.g. secondary particles and ground level ozone) 16
Types of Air Pollutants
5. By chemical composition:
• S-containing
• N-containing
• etc.

6. By potential effects:
• Toxic
• Hazardous (flammable, explosive, etc.)
• Oxidants
• GHGs, Ozone depleting substances

7. By regulation (common):
Secondary Sulfate Particles formed in Atmosphere • Criteria pollutants
• Non-criteria pollutants
17
Common Classification: Major vs Hazardous AP
▪ MAP (Major Air Pollutants or Criteria pollutants)
• Particulate Matter (PM): TSP, PM10, PM2.5
• Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Lead (Pb)
• Ozone (O3)

▪ HAP (Hazardous Air Pollutants or Air Toxics): VOC and

semi-VOC (PAH, PCB, pesticides), heavy metals, etc.
• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: e.g. benzo-a-pyrene

18
Common Atmospheric Pollutants

19
General Classification of Gaseous Pollutants
Primary air pollutants: Pollutants
that are formed and emitted directly
from particular sources. Examples
are particulates, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxide, and sulfur oxide.

Secondary air pollutants:

Pollutants that are formed in the
lower atmosphere by chemical
reactions. The two examples are
ozone and secondary organic
aerosol (haze).

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Particulate Matter (PM)

• Most important in term of health effects: mortality and morbidity

• High levels in developing countries

• Primary vs Secondary particles

• Particle size is important: health effects, dispersion, formation, light

absorption and climate

21
Fine Particle (𝐏𝐌𝟐.𝟓)

• Particulate Matter with a diameter

equal to or less than 2.5 μm (also
called “fine particle”)

• PM2.5 are tiny particles in the air

that reduce visibility and cause
the air to appear hazy when levels
are elevated

25
Particle Sizes and Terminologies

26
Mass Distribution of Ambient Particles

• Different modes in a typical

atmospheric particle size
distribution
• Coarse particle = PM10,
TSP
• Fine particle = PM2.5
• Primary PM
• Secondary PM

24
Black Carbon (BC) and Organic Carbon (OC)
More More
light-absorbing refractory

Black
Elemental
Carbon
Light- Carbon (EC)
(BC)
Absorbing
Carbon Brown * *
(LAC) Carbon Thermal-Optical
(BrC) Classification

Organic
Carbon (OC)
Light-absorbing
Classification

Less Less
light-absorbing * Measurement technique-specific split point refractory 26
Sulfur Oxides

Produced from the combustion of

sulfur found in fuels
Major compounds: SO2 and SO3
Effects:
Acid precursor (H2SO4)
Respiratory problems
Eye damage
Damage to plants and water

24
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Formed from high-temperature
combustion of fuel in cars
Mixture of nitric oxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Effects:
Acid precursor (HNO3)
Respiratory problems
Reddish-brown color of the
atmosphere

https://www.iqair.com/newsroom/nitrogen-dioxide (IQAir Staff Writers)

24
Tropospheric Ozone
Usually formed from precursors
in the atmosphere, such as
VOCs and NOx
Major constituent of
photochemical smog
Effects:
Affects lining of lungs and
respiratory tract
Eye irritation
Damage to plants, buildings and
other materials
Credit: Christopher AuYeung Source: CK-12 FoundationLicense: CC BY-NC 3.0
24
Carbon Monoxide
Produced from the incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels.
Effects:
When it enters the bloodstream, it
may disrupt the supply of oxygen to
the body tissues.
Reacts with hemoglobin
→carboxyhemoglobin
CO – carbon monoxide has a 20X
higher attraction to hemoglobin than
O2. Can kill us by limiting our oxygen https://www.wolffardis.com/carbon-monoxide-poisoning/

in blood.
24
Carbon Monoxide
Produced from combustion
processes from vehicle fuel
systems

Effects:
Headache or nausea
Damage to plants
Carcinogenic

DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129386
24
Combustion: Main Sources of Air Pollution

34
Combustion Air Pollutant Formation
1. Burning carbonaceous matter with air
• Complete combustion:

HC + O2 → H2O + CO2

• Incomplete combustion emits PIC: CO, soot (PM), HC

• NOx formed from nitrogen in air @ high temperature

2. Non-HC matters: N2, S, heavy metals, ash

• Burning non-carbonaceous matter present in fuel such as S, heavy metals
results in air pollution emission
• Non-combustibles (ash): particles
• NOx formed from nitrogen in fuel (high temperature combustion)
29
Sources of Manmade Emission (Emission Inventory)

USA

30
Industrial Facilities Contribute to Air Pollution
• Significantly contributes to air pollution since the late 19th century (start of Industrial
era)

Refinery Coal-fired PP Cement

Brick Kiln
31
Biomass Open Burning

Chiang Mai,
Thailand
2013

32
Household Emission

33
Mobile Sources
• Mobile sources contribute over 60-80% of urban air pollution in developing countries

40
Natural Sources
Volcano Forest Fires Pollen

• Pollen: Seasonal phenomena

Dust storm
• Green-tinged clouds over Moscow caused by massive pollen from
blooming of alder and birch trees
• Blooming (due to sudden onset of spring and rapidly rising
temperatures) released pollen
• The pollen poses danger to people suffering from allergies and
asthma, discomfort to others
• Additional works to clean up

41
Man-made vs Natural Sources
• Man-made source contribution is less than natural sources (10-20% of PM
from man-made sources) --> but cause imbalance of nature

• Increases through development processes: fast change in air composition

since industrial revolution (̴ 250 years ago)

• Increasing in mass and new toxic air pollutants

• Located in vicinity of human activities --> more harmful effects

42
Global Aerosol Emission Flux: Natural vs
Anthropogenic

Source: Hinds W.C., Aerosol Technology, 2nd Edition, Wiley Interscience 37

Measurement Units and Averaging Time
▪ PM: Weight/Volume (μg/m3)

▪ Gases:
• Weight/Volume (μg/m3)
• Volume/Volume (ppm, ppb, etc.)
• Two units are convertible for a
given temperature, pressure and
pollutant molecular weight (MWpol)

▪ Temperature and pressure are

indicated if Weight/Volume units
are used
38
Standard Temperature and Pressure
• STP: Standard Temperature and Pressure
Pressure = 1 atmosphere = 760 mmHg
Temperature = 0℃ = 273K

• USEPA standard conditions for ambient air:***

Pressure = 1 atmosphere = 760 mmHg
Temperature = 25℃ = 298K

• USEPA standard conditions for emission:

Pressure = 1 atmosphere = 760 mmHg
Temperature = 20℃ = 293K
41
General Formula for Unit Conversion
• General formula:

C[mg/m3] = 10−3 × C[ppm] × MWpol × P/(RuT)

P: pressure, atm; T: temperature, K

R u = 0.08208 × 10−3m3. atmΤg − mole . K = universal gas constant
• At 0℃, 1 atm (STP):

C[mg/m3] = C[ppm] × MWpol/22.41

• At 25℃, 1 atm (SC):

C[mg/Nm3] = C[ppm] × MWpol/24.45

39
Correction of Gas Volume for Temp and Pressure

• V1: volume at actual temperature (T1) and pressure (P1 )

• e.g. from measurement condition

• V2: volume at reference temperature (T2) and pressure (P2)

• e.g. 298 K, 1 atm

P1 T2
V2 = V1 ∙ ∙
P2 T1
40
Temperature Units and Conversion

• °R = ℉ + 459.67

• K = ℃ + 273.15

• °R = K × 1.8

• ℃ = (℉ − 32)/1.8

42
Averaging Time Affecting Measurement Results
▪ How?
• Longer averaging/sampling time lower the average concentration

▪ Why?
• Longer time after pollutants released from a source --> more dispersion -->
more dilution
• Source-activity change with time: maximum appears for short periods, such as
rush hours
• Meteorology changes significantly over long period: wet removal, stagnant air,
etc.

▪ It is essential to indicate the sampling (average) time of ambient air quality data

43
Averaging Time Effects on AP Concentration

44
Averaging Time Effects on AP Concentration

45
Conversion Factors
• For concentration at different averaging periods from industrial sources

• USEPA – AERMOD model outputs 1-hr concentration can be converted to other

averaging periods (stack continuous emission) by the following
factors:
Time Period Multiply 1-hr value by
3-hr 0.9
8-hr 0.7
24-hr 0.4
Annual 0.03-0.08

46
Averaging Time of Ambient Air Quality Standard
• Physical processes leading to higher concentration at shorter averaging periods:
emission, wind, etc.

• Instantaneous concentration is difficult to measure and for exposure assessment

averaged concentration for a certain period is more important

• Exposure: higher concentration for short exposure and lower concentration for longer
exposure period

• Examples: US NAAQS & Thailand AAQS

24-h PM2.5: 35 μg/m3 vs annual PM2.5: 12 μg/m3 (USA)
24-h PM2.5: 50 μg/m3 vs annual PM2.5: 25 μg/m3 (Thailand)

47
Asian and Global Air Pollution Status

Urban
population
growth

48
Status & Trends in Urban Ambient Air Pollution

49
Air Pollution in Asia: Highlights
• High pollution & air quality is worsening in urban areas --> PM (TSP,
PM10, PM2.5) is the most significant
• No systematic records on PM2.5 but high levels reported in urban and remote
areas
• Fast increase in emission sources and intensity: traffic, industry, utility
• Increase in precursors emission to form secondary PM and ozone
• Impact on human health, crops/ecosystem --> economical effect is serious but not
well studied
• Indoor air pollution is serious
• Trans-boundary issues caused by long range transport: acid rain, ABC,
regional haze, dust storm, etc.
50
Sources of AP in Asian Developing Countries
• Road traffic: largest contribution in urban area (old fleets, bad maintenance, more
cars VS not enough road expansion, etc.)

• Stationary sources: coal-based, limited end-of-the-pipe emission control

• Domestic and commercial fuel burning: solid fuels --> indoor air pollution

• Biomass and refuse open burning

• Other significant sources:

• Outdoor/Street cooking, incense burning
• Open markets, unpaved roads
57
Major Air Pollution Problems around the World
Cooking and Heating with Solid Fuels

Source: solar.lowtechmagazine.com
58
Major Air Pollution Problems around the World
PM2.5 Episode Seoul

Bangkok

Emission
Sources
at AIT
Los Angeles

59
Major Air Pollution Problems around the World
Climate Change

Source: climate.nasa.gov

Source: EurekAlert!

Source: noaa.gov

54
CHAPTER PROBLEMS
Problem 1: CO measured at 25℃ and 1 atm is 25 mg/m3. What is the CO
concentration in ppm?

Problem 2: SO2 emission from a power plant has the conc. of 500 ppm. Estimate
the SO2 concentration in mg/m3 in the flue gas at the flue gas temperature of 150℃
and pressure of 1 atm.

Problem 3: What are the major factors affecting air pollution concentration in
different locations?

Problem 4: Measurement conc. of CO at an ambient air site, near an emission

source, over 1 hour period is 50 ppm, estimate CO concentration in ppm for 8 hour
sampling period and for 24 hour sampling period. How and why the concentration
changes with the sampling time? 55
CHAPTER PROBLEMS
Problem 5: How will you use the Kuznet’s curve to
demonstrate the benefits of different air pollution control
strategies on air quality?
Problem 6: What are the differences between primary
and secondary pollutants?
Problem 7: What are the major differences between
ozone in troposphere and ozone in stratosphere?

56