Module 1: Introduction to Energy Science:

Introduction to energy systems and resources;

Introduction to Energy, sustainability & the environment;
Overview of energy systems, sources, transformations, efficiency,
and storage;
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, oil-bearing shale and sands, coal gasification) -
past, present & future, Remedies & alternatives for fossil fuels - biomass,
wind, solar,
nuclear, wave, tidal and hydrogen;
Sustainability and environmental trade-offs of different energy systems;
possibilities for energy storage or regeneration (Ex. Pumped storage hydro
power projects,
superconductor-based energy storages,
High efficiency batteries)
 energy systems and resources;
What do we know about these energy sources?
Each of these sources has a starting form and is converted into a different form for our
convenient use. (Hand out the Sources and Conversion Worksheet for students to use to take
notes.)
Fossil fuels – chemical (petroleum, natural gas, coal)
Uranium – nuclear
Biomass – chemical
Geothermal – heat (generated from nuclear processes within the Earth)
Hydro – mechanical
Wind – mechanical
Solar – electromagnetic

Can we use this energy in its form? For example, can sunlight be directly used to power a radio?
No, a solar photovoltaic panel must be used for energy conversion. An energy system is a set of
conversion technologies that convert energy resources, such as energy from the sun, into forms
that we can utilize for human needs.

Energy resources are available in our natural world. Solar energy is responsible for almost all of
these resources. The sun is responsible for the uneven heating of the Earth that causes wind
and sunlight and plant photosynthesis creates biomass materials such as wood or corn that we
can convert into useable energy. The exceptions are nuclear and geothermal.
 Overview of energy systems, sources

energy system: An energy system is made up of a sequence of conversions with inputs and
outputs that transform an energy resource into a form usable for human work or heating.

biomass energy: Energy released from plants (wood, corn, etc.) through combustion or other
chemical process.
fossil fuel: A non-renewable energy resource that began to form millions of years ago from the
remains of once living plants and animals. Its current forms include petroleum, coal and natural
gas.
geothermal energy : Heat energy from the Earth.
hydropower: Transformation of the energy stored in a depth of water into electricity.
non-renewable energy: Resources, such as fossil fuels, that cannot be replaced by natural
processes at the same rate it is consumed.
peak oil : The point at which the rate that a non-renewable resource (oil) can be produced
declines due to the limitations of extraction processes and the availability of the resource.
photovoltaic: A chemical process that releases electrons from a semi-conductor
material in the presence of sunlight to generate electricity.
renewable energy: Resources, such as wind and water, that can be recycled or
replaced at a rate faster than they are consumed.
solar energy: Energy from the sun; often captured directly as heat or as electricity
through a photovoltaic process.
system component: One process in a system comprised of many processes or
components.
uranium: An element that releases heat as it undergoes radioactive decay.
wind energy: Energy transferred with the motion of air in the lower atmosphere that
arises from differential heating of the Earth. The energy in the wind can be extracted
as mechanical energy to do work such as grind grains (a wind mill) or generate
electricity (wind turbine).
Energy System Transformations

Providing universal energy access, improving energy security, reducing of health impacts of
energy systems as well as limiting the magnitude of climate change to below 2°C are all vital
objectives in today’s world.
Within the Global Energy Assessment we analyzed a range of energy system transformation
strategies that meet simultaneously this set of policy objectives, including universal energy
access, improving energy security, reductions of human health impacts of energy systems as
well as limiting the magnitude of climate change below 2°C. Using ENE’s integrated modeling
framework and considering inherent uncertainties of the future, the following main findings
were identified:

•Fundamental energy systems transformations are feasible within the time frame of meeting the
various energy policy objectives.
•There exists many combinations of energy technology and policy options that achieve these
fundamental transformations.
•Improved energy efficiency emerges as the main leverage point that increases the flexibility of
achieving transformations in energy supply-systems.
•The costs of major transformations are comparatively modest, and yield substantial multiple
benefits for human health, the environment, energy security, and green growth.
•However, radical departures from business as usual policies and investment patterns are
required. These will need to include new models of international corporation in technology
development and deployment, climate policy, and for improving energy access.
 About the Four Types of Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels have been serving man’s energy needs since ancient times. As the name suggests,
fossil fuels are formed from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals. These
remains, which are millions of years old, were converted by heat and pressure in the Earth's
crust into carbon-containing fuels.
Our energy needs have increased since the Industrial Revolution. Fossil fuels are capable of
producing tremendous amount of energy to meet this need. Fossil fuels include petroleum, coal
and natural gas. Orimulsion recently has been recognized as the fourth fossil fuel.

Petroleum
Petroleum, or crude oil, is the most extensively used fossil fuel. Due to its value to mankind, it is
also known as "black gold." The word petroleum comes from the Latin words "petro" (meaning
rock) and "leum" (meaning oil).
Petroleum mainly is used to fuel jets and automobiles. It also is used to generate electricity, and
its derivatives are utilized in the medicine and plastic industries. As demand for oil is still
increasing, the average worldwide rate of oil field depletion is believed to be around 2.5 percent
per year, according to Richard Heinberg, an eminent ecology writer. The widespread use of
petroleum also has contributed to air and water pollution.
Coal
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel resource. It provides about one-quarter of the total energy
the world uses, and 40 percent of the electricity generated worldwide is powered by coal. The
steel industry also is greatly dependent upon this fossil fuel. Like other depleting sources of
global energy, coal reserves are also on a steep decline. Moreover, coal is a greenhouse gas
nightmare.

Natural Gas
Natural gas is comprised mostly of methane, although it also contains ethane, propane and
butane. It is a convenient and efficient energy source. The major consumers of natural gas are
the residential, commercial and industrial sectors. It is also used to generate electricity. Unlike
other fossil fuels, natural gas is cleaner and causes less pollution. Like other fossil fuels, this
resource is depleting rapidly.

Orimulsion
Orimulsion became the “fourth fossil fuel” in the mid-1980s. It is derived from the bitumen that
occurs naturally in large reserves in the Orinoco oil belt in Venezuela. It is estimated that there
are more than 1.2 trillion barrels of bitumen available in reserves, an amount greater than 50
percent of the world's estimated oil reserves.
Orimulsion has achieved growing recognition as an economically viable fuel for power
generation. In countries such as Canada, Denmark, Japan, Italy, Lithuania and China, it is used as
a commercial boiler fuel in power plants. Orimulsion is the cost-effective choice when compared
to other fossil fuels used to generate electricity.
Future of Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy. As we are excessively dependent on these,
alternative forms of energy need to be developed in order to deal with the imminent energy
scarcity. These alternate sources of energy also need to be more eco-friendly.

During the first half of 2008, prices of Fossil fuels—petroleum (oil), natural gas, and coal—rose
steeply. Crude-oil prices, for example, set record highs on a regular basis and soared for a short
time to more than double the average price of crude oil in 2007.
Because fossil fuels were crucial sources of energy worldwide, the rapid rise in prices spurred
debate about the accessibility of global fossil-fuel supplies, the extent to which producers would
be able to meet demand in decades to come, and the potential for alternative sources of energy
to mitigate concerns about energy supply.
The debate focused in particular on petroleum, globally the most important fossil fuel and the
primary source of fuel for transportation.

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There are five main fossil fuels:

Coal is a flammable black or brown organic sedimentary rock. It’s mostly carbon and is typically
found as layers (coal beds) or veins (coal seams).
Natural gas is a combustible mix of hydrocarbon gases. It’s colourless and consists mainly of
methane (CH4). ‘Conventional gas’ is easily extracted; ‘unconventional gas’ requires more
sophisticated extraction technologies.
Oil is mostly known as crude oil or condensate, but includes all liquid hydrocarbon fossil fuels.
Petroleum and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) are the most common types of fuel obtained from
oil extraction and refining.
Petroleum is a liquid fuel made of hydrocarbons and other liquid organic compounds. It refers to
both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oils and petroleum products made of refined crude
oil.
Liquefied petroleum gas or LPG is heavier than natural gas. Although gaseous under normal
atmospheric conditions, LPG is stored under modest pressures in its liquid form and so can be
more easily transported and stored.
What is Biomass?

Biomass is fuel that is developed from organic materials, a renewable and sustainable source of
energy used to create electricity or other forms of power.

Some examples of materials that make up biomass fuels are:

scrap lumber;
forest debris;
certain crops;
manure; and
some types of waste residues.
With a constant supply of waste – from construction and demolition activities, to wood not used
in papermaking, to municipal solid waste – green energy production can continue indefinitely.
Biomass is a renewable source of fuel to produce energy because:
waste residues will always exist – in terms of scrap wood, mill residuals and forest resources;
and
properly managed forests will always have more trees, and we will always have crops and the
residual biological matter from those crops.

ReEnergy Holdings is an integrated waste fuel/biomass renewable energy company. Our facilities
collect, process and recycle items for use as fuel, as well as green energy facilities that create
power from that waste.
What is biomass power?
Biomass power is carbon neutral electricity generated from renewable organic waste that would
otherwise be dumped in landfills, openly burned, or left as fodder for forest fires.
When burned, the energy in biomass is released as heat. If you have a fireplace, you already are
participating in the use of biomass as the wood you burn in it is a biomass fuel.

In biomass power plants, wood waste or other waste is burned to produce steam that runs a
turbine to make electricity, or that provides heat to industries and homes. Fortunately, new
technologies — including pollution controls and combustion engineering — have advanced to
the point that any emissions from burning biomass in industrial facilities are generally less than
emissions produced when using fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, oil). ReEnergy has included these
technologies in our facilities.

Examples of biomass and their uses for energy:

•Wood and wood processing wastes—burned to heat buildings, to produce process heat in
industry, and to generate electricity
•Agricultural crops and waste materials—burned as a fuel or converted to liquid biofuels
•Food, yard, and wood waste in garbage—burned to generate electricity in power plants or
converted to biogas in landfills
•Animal manure and human sewage—converted to biogas, which can be burned as a fuel
 Wind energy

Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind energy (or wind power) describes the process by
which wind is used to generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind
nto mechanical power. A generator can convert mechanical power into electricity.Mechanical
power can also be utilized directly for specific tasks such as pumping water.

Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, variations in the earth's
surface, and rotation of the earth. Mountains, bodies of water, and vegetation all influence wind
flow patterns. Wind turbines convert the energy in wind to electricity by rotating propeller-like
blades around a rotor. The rotor turns the drive shaft, which turns an electric generator. Three
key factors affect the amount of energy a turbine can harness from the wind: wind speed, air
density, and swept area.
Solar power - unlimited source of energy
Solar power is the key to a clean energy future. Every day, the sun gives off far more energy than
we need to power everything on earth.
Because
Renewable
Solar panels produce electricity by transforming the continuous flow of energy from the sun to
electricity.
CO2-free
No harmful emissions are released into the air when electricity is produced by solar panels.
Low operating costs
The photovoltaic process that transforms sunlight into electricity doesn’t require any fuel and
has no variable costs.

Solar energy - a clean source

No greenhouse gas emissions are released into the atmosphere when you use solar panels to
create electricity. And because the sun provides more energy than we’ll ever need, electricity
from solar power is a very important energy source in the move to clean energy production.
No fuel to burn
After solar panels have been installed, operational costs are quite low compared to other forms
of power generation. Fuel isn’t required, and this means that solar power can create large
amounts of electricity without the uncertainty and expense of securing a fuel supply.
What Is Nuclear Energy?
An energy source that has zero emissions, provides electricity around-the-clock and propels our
society into the future? It’s not new. It’s now. It’s nuclear.
Benefits of Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy offers many advantages as the emissions-free workhorse of our energy grid. Its
unique value cannot be found in any other energy source.
Wave Energy

Wave Energy also known as Ocean Wave Energy, is another type of ocean based renewable
energy source that uses the power of the waves to generate electricity. Unlike tidal energy
which uses the ebb and flow of the tides, wave energy uses the vertical movement of the
surface water that produce tidal waves. Wave power converts the periodic up-and-down
movement of the oceans waves into electricity by placing equipment on the surface of the
oceans that captures the energy produced by the wave movement and converts this mechanical
energy into electrical power.

Wave energy is actually a concentrated form of solar power generated by the action of the wind
blowing across the surface of the oceans water which can then be used as a renewable source
of energy. As the suns rays strike the Earth’s atmosphere, they warm it up. Differences in the
temperature of the air masses around the globe causes the air to move from the hotter regions
to the cooler regions, resulting in winds.
Wave Power Devices
Ocean wave energy has many advantages over ocean wind energy in that it is more predictable,
less variable and offers higher available energy densities. Depending on the distance between
the energy conversion device and the shoreline, wave energy systems can be classified as being
either Shoreline devices, Nearshore devices or Offshore devices. So what is the difference
between these three types of energy extraction devices.
Wave Energy Advantages
Wave energy is an abundant and renewable energy resource as the waves are generated by the wind.
Pollution free as wave energy generates little or no pollution to the environment compared to other green
energies.
Reduces dependency on fossil fuels as wave energy consumes no fossil fuels during operation.
Wave energy is relatively consistent and predictable as waves can be accurately forecast several days in
advance.
Wave energy devices are modular and easily sited with additional wave energy devices added as needed.
Dissipates the waves energy protecting the shoreline from coastal erosion.
Presents no barriers or difficulty to migrating fish and aquatic animals.

Wave Energy Disadvantages

Visual impact of wave energy conversion devices on the shoreline and offshore floating buoys
or platforms.
Wave energy conversion devices are location dependent requiring suitable sites were the
waves are consistently strong.
Intermittent power generation as the waves come in intervals and does not generate power
during calm periods.
Offshore wave energy devices can be a threat to navigation that cannot see or detect them by
radar.
High power distribution costs to send the generated power from offshore devices to the land
using long underwater cables.
They must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital, construction and
maintenance costs.
Tidal Energy

Tidal Energy or Tidal Power as it is also called, is another form of hydro power that utilises large
amounts of energy within the oceans tides to generate electricity. Tidal Energy is an “alternative
energy” that can also be classed as a “renewable energy source”, as the Earth uses the
gravitational forces of both the moon and the sun everyday to move vast quantities of water
around the oceans and seas producing tides.

As the Earth, its Moon and the Sun rotate around each other in space, the gravitational
movement of the moon and the sun with respect to the earth, causes millions of gallons of
water to flow around the Earth’s oceans creating periodic shifts in these moving bodies of water.
These vertical shifts of water are called “tides”.
Tidal Energy Generation
Since the position of the earth and the moon with respect to the sun changes throughout the
year, we can utilise the potential energy of the water contained in the daily movement of the
rising and falling sea levels to generate electricity. The generation of electricity from tides is
similar in many ways to hydro-electric generation we looked at in the hydro energy tutorials. The
difference this time is that the water flows in and out of the turbines in both directions instead
of in just one forward direction.

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Advantages of Tidal Energy
Tidal energy is a renewable energy resource because the energy it produces is free and clean
as no fuel is needed and no waste bi-products are produced.
Tidal energy has the potential to produce a great deal of free and green energy.
Tidal energy is not expensive to operate and maintain compared to other forms of renewable
energies.
Low visual impact as the tidal turbines are mainly if not totally submerged beneath the water.
Low noise pollution as any sound generated is transmitted through the water.
High predictability as high and low tides can be predicted years in advance, unlike wind.
Tidal barrages provide protection against flooding and land damage.
Large tidal reservoirs have multiple uses and can create recreational lakes and areas where
before there were none.
Disadvantages of Tidal Energy
•Tidal energy is not always a constant energy source as it depends on the strength and flow of
the tides which themselves are effected by the gravitational effects of the moon and the sun.
•Tidal Energy requires a suitable site, where the tides and tidal streams are consistently strong.
•Must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital, construction and
maintenance costs.
•High power distribution costs to send the generated power from the submerged devices to the
land using long underwater cables.
•Intermittent power generation, only generates power ten hours a day during the ebb and flow
of the tides
•Changes to estuary ecosystem and an increase in coastal erosion where the tides are
concentrated.
Hydrogen Energy

Hydrogen can be considered as a clean energy carrier similar to electricity. Hydrogen can be
produced from various domestic resources such as renewable energy and nuclear energy. In the
long-term, hydrogen will simultaneously reduce the dependence on foreign oil and the emission
of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.
Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier
Hydrogen is considered as a secondary source of energy, commonly
referred to as an energy carrier. Energy carriers are used to move,
store and deliver energy in a form that can be easily used.
Electricity is the most well-known example of an energy carrier.

Hydrogen as an important energy carrier in the future has a

number of advantages. For example, a large volume of hydrogen
can be easily stored in a number of different ways. Hydrogen is also
considered as a high efficiency, low polluting fuel that can be used
for transportation, heating, and power generation in places where
it is difficult to use electricity. In some instances, it is cheaper to
ship hydrogen by pipeline than sending electricity over long
distances by wire.
environmental trade-offs of different energy systems

Trade-Offs
As we make everyday choices—how much time to spend working or studying, what to spend
our money on—we are experiencing what economists call trade-offs and opportunity costs. A
trade-off is when we choose one option in favor of another and the opportunity cost is what is
sacrificed in order to get something. Whether we realize it or not, we are constantly evaluating
the costs and benefits of each decision we make; therefore, it can also be said that we are
performing our own cost-benefit analysis each time we make a choice.

The economy and the environment are inextricably linked. Whether we are looking at daily life
or natural resources, because resources are scarce, choices have to be made about how to use
them. The basic fact is that resources used to meet one choice or alternative cannot be used to
meet another. Just like how we value regular goods, the valuation of natural resources and the
environment is based on how we value their services and, for services that are consumed
directly, that value is based on our utility and willingness to pay for a certain amount of the
services.
Possibilities for energy storage or regeneration

Storage and renewable energy

The development and use of renewable energy has experienced rapid growth over the
past few years. In the next 20–30 years all sustainable energy systems will have to be based
on the rational use of traditional resources and greater use of renewable energy.

Decentralized electrical production from renewable energy sources yields a more assured
supply for consumers with fewer environmental hazards. However, the unpredictable
character of these sources requires that network provisioning and usage regulations be
established for optimal system operation.

Renewable resources have a major inconvenient: they fluctuate independently from

demand. Yet they are plentiful and conversion systems are becoming more and more
affordable. Their significant contribution to sustainable energy use will however require
considerable further development of storage methods. This will open up a new field of
application, especially due to the growth of electrical production from renewable energy,
along with decentralized production.
 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) is a method of energy storage based on the
fact that a current will continue to flow in a superconductor even after the voltage across it has
been removed. When the superconductor coil is cooled below its superconducting critical
temperature it has negligible resistance, hence current will continue to flow (even after a
voltage source is disconnected). The energy is stored in the form of a magnetic field generated
by the current in the superconducting coil. It can be released by discharging the coil. The coils
are usually made of niobiumtitane (NbTi) filaments which has a critical temperature of around
9K. As SMES stores electrical current the only conversion involved with the process is the
conversion from AC to DC. Hence the efficiencies of SMES systems are very high. SMES can
switch from full discharge to full charge very quickly and visa versa. It has negligible
deterioration due to cycling. However, SMES has a high self-discharge rate due to the energy
expenditure of cooling via cryogenic liquid and mechanical stability problems.
Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS)
A battery energy storage system is a system that stores energy via the use of a battery
technology for it to be used at a later time. There are a large range of battery technologies that
form the generic term Battery Energy Storage System. This includes:

VRLA or valve regulated lead acid batteries.

These are the traditional batteries used in Uninterruptible Power Supplies and in existence since
1934, their cost is relatively low in comparison to other battery technologies. Deep cycle VRLA
batteries are the type most suited to energy storage to ensure that they have a long enough life
span for this use.
Lithium Ion batteries.
This is the type of battery that is commonly found in modern consumer electronics such as your
smartphone. They have a high energy density with the potential for even higher capacities
(lithium ion technology is constantly changing and improving). The main benefit with lithium ion
batteries are that they can be charged and discharged more often that VRLA batteries with less
deterioration in terms of storage capacity of longevity of product. The main downside is cost
although this is coming down progressively.
Vanadium Flow batteries.
This battery uses vanadium ions to store chemical potential energy. They are currently quite
bulky in size but offer the ability to completely discharge without any adverse effects and a long
life time (20+ years).
Sodium Nickel batteries. These batteries use molten salt as the electrolyte. This allows the
batteries to withstand greater temperature extremes as the cells themselves operate at 270+
degrees Celsius and are insulated so that the external chassis is just above ambient
temperature.

Liquid metal batteries. This battery technology uses liquid metals as both the electrodes and
the electrolyte. As there is a constant regeneration between cycles, the electrodes do not
degrade with time. The cost of liquid metal is currently the main stumbling block.
hydroelectric power or hydropower
Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into electricity. This is
called hydroelectric power or hydropower.
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant uses a dam on a river to store water in a
reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn
activates a generator to produce electricity. But hydroelectric power doesn't necessarily require
a large dam. Some hydroelectric power plants just use a small canal to channel the river water
through a turbine.
Another type of hydroelectric power plant - called a pumped storage plant - can even store
power. The power is sent from a power grid into the electric generators. The generators then
spin the turbines backward, which causes the turbines to pump water from a river or lower
reservoir to an upper reservoir, where the power is stored. To use the power, the water is
released from the upper reservoir back down into the river or lower reservoir. This spins the
turbines forward, activating the generators to produce electricity.
A small or micro-hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a home, farm,
or ranch.