Brain and Its Anatomical Structure

Major Divisions of the Nervous System

 Central nervous system= Brain + Spinal Cord
 Peripheral nervous system= Cranial nerves+ Spinal
nerves+ peripheral gangalia

Central nervous system

encased in bone

• Brain is covered with Skull and

• Spinal cord is encased by vertebral column)

Brain
 Large mass of neurons, glia and other supporting cells.
 Most protected organ, encased in a bony skull and
floating in a pool of CSF.
 Gets a copious supply of blood and is chemically guarded
by the blood- brain Barrier.
Skull
 consists of the frontal bone, two parietal bones, two
temporal bone, the occipital bones and sphenoid bones
 the cerebral lobes get the names after the cranial plate of
the skull
 It provides goves for the blood vessels in the roof
(Calveria) of the cranium
 conspicuous ridges in the base of the skull (Called
Fossae) that holds the brain in place
 Formina in the base of the skull that provides passage for
nerves and blood vessels( Largest Foramen
Magnum,spinal cord passage)
Skull

interiorly our skull is not smooth,

rather consists of bony projection
designed to hold the brain in
place
Meninges

• The entire nervous system is covered with tough connective

tissues

• protective sheath around the brain and spinal cord are refered
as meninges ( Greek word for membrane)

• It consists of three layer

• a) Dura Matter( Hard Mother)

• outer layer,thick,tough ,unstretchable

• it is double layered,adhere to the inner surface of the skull

• Space between two dural membrane is called - Epidural

• Space between dura and archanoid membrane- Sub dural

B)Arachnoid Membrane( web like structure)

• middle layer, soft and spongy

• present below dura matter

C) Pia Matter:(Pious Mother)

• directly connect to CNS, inner layer

• Between pia matter and arachnoid membrane space=

Subarachnoid

Subarachnoid space is filled with CSF

Meninges
Peripheral nervous system is
covered with two layers only

Arachnoid membrane with CSF

only covers CNS

Outer to CNS dura matter and pia

matter fuse to each others and
covers spinal and cranial nerves
Ventricular Syatem
• Brain contains a series of hollow, inter connected chambers called
ventricles which are filled with CSF
• Two lateral ventricles ( largest, called first and second, each in
hemisphere) (Telencephalon)
• Third ventricle= lateral ventricle connected to third, located at the
midline of the brain, its walls divide brain in two symmetrical
halves
(Diencephalon, Hypothalmus and Thalamus)
• A neural tissue called Massa Intermedia crosses through third
ventricle gives a reference point
• Fourth Ventricle: a long neural tube called cerebral aqueduct
connects third to fourth
• between brain stem and cerebellum and continous with the central
cavity of the spinal cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• is extracted from the blood resembles blood plasma in
its composition
• formed by choroid plexus in ventricle
• it is produced continuously
• total volume is 125 ml, Half life period is about 3 hours
• CSF is produced by choroid plexus ( a system of
specialized cells and capillaries)
• reabsorbed in blood at subarachnoid space
Brain and its anatomical structure:
Anatomically brain is continuous with the spinal cord, from
which it emerges
Brain is a three dimensional structure
A)Planes bisecting the brain
Horizontal plain- a plane(X-axis) that shows the brain as
seen from above or parallel the ground
Coronal plane- a plane (Y-axis) that show the brain from
the frontal section
Sagittal plane- (Z- axis) see from the side or perpendicular
to the ground
 CONTENT
B)Directions:
Anterior/ Rostral= front
Posterior/ Caudal= back
Inferior= below
Superior= above
Lateral= side
Dorsal= toward the back
Ventral= toward the belly
 C)Principal division of the Brain
Major Division Ventricle Sub division Structures

Fore Brain Lateral Telencephalon Cerebral Cortex

Basal Ganglion

Limbic System

Third Diencepahlon Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Mid Brain Mesencephalon Tectum

Tegemntum

Hind Brain
Metencephalon Cerebellum

Fourth Pons

Myelencephalon Medulla
 Common division of the Brain

A. Fore Brain:

Telencephalon = consists of
• Cerebral Cortex
• Basal ganglia ( Subcortical Regions)
• Limbic System
Diencephalon consists of
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebrum/ Cerebral Cortex
 consists of two cerebral
hemispheres
 Covered by the cerebral cortex,
greatly convoluted
 Convolutions consists of
Sulci (small grooves), Fissure
(large grooves) and Gyri
( bulges a smooth adajcent
sulci or fissures)
The cerebral cortex made up of mostly glia and the cell
bodies( Dark tan in color, Gray matter)
Millions of axons runs beneath the cerebral cortex
( White matter)
 Sulcus and Fissure
Central sulcus(Fissure of
Rolando) provides a basis of the
division of cerebral cortex in caudal
and rostral region
Lateral sulcus(Sylvian Fissure)
Rostral region= movement related
activities i.e. planning and
execution
Caudal region= perceiving and
learning
Longitudinal fissure: Left and
right hemisphere
 Common functional division of the cortex
On the basis of the function:
• Primary visual cortex: receives visual information, back of the
brain, upper and lower bank of calcarine fissure
• Primary auditory cortex: receives auditory information, side of
the lateral fissure
• Primary somatosensory cortex: caudal to central sulcus, receives
information from the body senses,
With the exception of olfaction and gustation, sensory information
from the body or the environment is sent to the primary sensory
cortex of the contralateral hemisphere.
Primary motor cortex: in front of somatosensory cortex
• The regions of the sensory and motor cortex only make a small
part of the cortex
• Left primary motor cortex controls the right side of the body and
vice versa.
• Betz cells( largest neuron 60-80 micro meters)
Association areas: between sensation and action, Taking part in
perceiving , learning, remembering , planning and acting.
Central sulcus divides the cortex into rostral and caudal region
Rostral region is involved in movement related activities like
planning and executive
Caudal involved in perception and learning
 Division of cerebral cortex on the basis of pattern of layering:

Cytoarchitectonics uses the microanatomy of cells and their

organization—that is, the brain’s microscopic neural architecture—to
subdivide the cortex. (Cyto- means “cell,”and architectonics means
“architecture.”)
In histological analysis, some different tissue regions show a similar
cellular architecture, suggesting that they might be areas of
homogeneous function.
Histological analysis for demarcating different brain areas began in
earnest with Korbinian Brodmann at the beginning of the 20th
century. He identified approximately 52 regions of the cerebral cortex
 Division of cerebral cortex on the basis of pattern of layering:

• Neocortex= 90%, six main cortical layers, highly specialization of

neuronal organization, covers four lobes, Neocortex includes
areas like primary sensory and motor cortex and association cortex
• The molecular/ plexiform layer

• External granular layer

• External pyramidal layer

• Internal granular layer ( Input layer)

• Internal pyramidal layer ( Output layer)

• Multiform/ Polymorphic cell layer ( Higher cognitive functions)

Mesocortex:
Paralimbic region, includes cingulate gyrus, para hippocampal,
insular cortex
Allocortex=
four layers, hippocampal and pri. olfactory cortex
 Lobular divisiuon

A. Frontal Lobe: ( Motor Cortex)

Everything in front of central sulcus
• role in planning and execution
• main subdivision: motor cortex and prefrontal cortex
• Motor cortex begind in the depth of central sulcus and extends
anteriorly(Betz cells), generation of signal for controlling
movement
• Anterior to the primary motor cortex are two motor association
areas of cortex located within BA6: the premotor cortex on the
lateral surface of the hemisphere,which contributes to motor
control,
 Lobular divisiuon

• Supplementary motor cortex, which lies dorsal to the premotor

area and extends around to the hemisphere’s medial surface, which
is involved in the planning and sequencing of movement.

Dorsolateral
Mot
prefrontal
or
cort
ex
Ventrola
teral
prefront
al
 Lobular divisiuon

• Prefrontal cortex; take part in more complex planning and

executive function, which requires the integration of
informationover time
 Cortex

Parietal Lobe: Somatosensory cortex

• posterior of central sulcus
• receives input from somatosensory relays of thalamus and
represent information about touch, pain, temp etc
• The parietal lobe receives sensory information about touch, pain,
temperature sense, and limb proprioception (limb position) via
receptor cells on the skin
• spatial perception
 Cortex

• From the thalamus,inputs travel to the primary somatosensory

cortex (S1), a portion of the parietal lobe immediately caudal to
the central sulcus. The next stop is the secondary somatosensory
cortex (S2), which is a unimodal association area that continues to
process sensory information and is located ventrally to S1; S2
receives most of its input from S1.

• Lesions at various locations in the parietal lobe result in all sorts

of odd deficits relating to sensation and spatial location.
Occipital lobe: Visual Processing Area
• Caudal to the parietal and frontal lobe
• also called striate cortex
• receives visual inputs relayed from the lateral geniculate nucleus
of the thalamus
• Interprets vision
• six layers for coding of visual features like color, luminance,
spatial
• Visual information from the outside world is processed by
multiple layers of cells in the retina and
• transmitted via the optic nerve to the lateral geniculate nucleus of
the thalamus,
• and from there to V1—a pathway often referred to as the
retinogeniculostriate or primary visual pathway to Primary visual
cortex.
• The superior colliculus of the midbrain is the main target of the
secondary pathway and participates in visuomotor functions such
as eye movements.
 Cortex
Temporal Lobe: Auditory Cortex
• Ventral to the frontal and parietal lobe
• auditory cortex lies in the superior part of the temporal lobe
• Neural projections from the cochlea (the auditory sensory organ in
the inner ear) proceed through the subcortical relays to the medial
geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and then to the primary
auditory cortex.
• The auditory cortex has a tonotopic organization,meaning that the
physical layout of the neurons is based on the frequency of sound.
Neurons in the auditory cortex that respond best to low
frequencies are at one end, and those that respond to high
frequencies are at the other.
 limbic system
 Rim around the corpus callosum
 Primitive brain
 Deep in the brain
within the cerebrum, immediately below the temporal lobe
Which structure and pathways should be included in the limbic
system is controversial till now
most developed in the mammals called mammalian brain
is a collection of structure involved in processing emotion and
memory
Originally called rhinencephalon ( smell brain) due to involvement
in smell
 Limbic sytem

Thomas Willi-1664-Cerebri limbus

Limbic lobe- Broca 1878( Grand lobe limbique)( anterior
thalamus, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus)
Papez(1937) - a set of interconnected structures formed a circuit
whose primary function was motivation and emotion( Papez circuit).
Paul Maclean(1949,52) expanded the system and coined the term
Limbic system added some more structure:
Amygdala, Orbitofrontal cortex, medial dorsal nuclei
 Important structures are:
• Cortical areas:
• Orbito frontal cortex: a region in the frontal lobe involved in the process of
decision-making
• Piriform Cortex: part of the olfactory system
• Entorhinal Cortex: related to memory and associative components
• Fornix: a white matter structure connecting the hippocampus with other
brain structures, particularly the mammillary bodies and septal nuclei

• Subcortical areas:

• Septal Nuclei: a set of structures that lie in front of the lamina terminalis,
considered a pleasure zone
• Hippocampus; and associated structures: play a central role in the
consolidation of new memories
• Amygdala: located deep within the temporal lobes and related with a
number of emotional processes
 Limbic sytem

• Diencephalic structures:

• Hypothalamus: a center for the limbic system, connected with the frontal lobes,
septal nuclei, and the brain stem reticular formation via the medial forebrain bundle,
with the hippocampus via the fornix, and with the thalamus via
the mammillothalamic fasciculus; regulates many autonomic processes

• Mammiliary bodies: part of the hypothalamus that receives signals from the
hippocampus via the fornix and projects them to the thalamus

• Anterior Nuclei of Thalamus: receive input from the mammillary bodies and
involved in memory processing
Limbic sytem
 Limbic sytem

Corpous callosum

Cingulate Gyrus

Thalamus

Orbito frontal cortex

Hypothalamus
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Amygadala= almond shaped, next to hippocampus, anterior
part,deepest part
 Episodic autobiographical memory

 Attention process

 essential for the regulation of emotional behavior – especially

when it concerns primary and innate emotions such as fear
expression of emotion,emotional memmories,, recognition of the sign of
emotions in other people, flight and fight response, implict learning, fear
conditioning

 Evaluation of faces ( Social Processing)

Henerich Kulver &Paul Bucy(1939)- Psychic Blindness ( lack of fear)

 In a threatening situation, the amygdala becomes active, leading
to fear and a state of enhanced alertness that prepares the organism
for flight or fight in the service of self-preservation.

 Both the right and the left amygdala are engaged in emotional
processing and in associating emotional stimuli to memory.

 Global, rapid analysis of affective information is thus

performed by the right amygdala; and

 Detailed, deep information processing is done by the left

amygdale.
• 12 different nuclei:

• Three is important:-

• Lateral Nucleus-

• Basal Nucleus-

• Central Nucleus-
• The basolateral complex and LA nucleus has dense connections with a variety
of sensory areas of the brain. It plays a critical role in classical conditioning
and in attaching emotional value to learning processes and memories.

• The central nucleus plays a role in attention. It has connections with the
hypothalamus and various areas of the brainstem and regulates the activity of
the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems (Pessoa, 2010).

• Amygdala–Septum Interaction: The amygdala and the septum have opposite

functions, Activation of the septum, on the other hand, lowers emotional
processing,
 Hippocampus
 Sea horse shaped, C- shaped , sited dipper in the temporal lobe
 Divided into three parts: anterior , posterior and intermediate
• The hippocampus is essential for capturing and consolidating
new episodic information in sections of the memory system,
called declarative or explicit memory.
• It receives input from virtually all cortical areas including the
hypothalamus,amygdala and ventral medial prefrontal cortex (the
ventral section).
• The dorsal section has many ‘place cells’ (i.e. cells that code for
spatial locations), and is believed to connect to parts of the cortex
involved in spatial memory.
 Limbic sytem
Cingulate Gyrus:
• Outer most layer

• A band of cortex extends above the corpus callosum in the anterior- posterior
direction

• olfactory, aggression and fear

• divided in a posterior and anterior part.
• The posterior part of the cingulate gyrus is part of the limbic lobe
• Anterior part acts as a kind of interface between the frontal
cortical areas and the limbic system.
 Limbic sytem

• Septum
• The septum (Latin for ‘fence’) controls basic instinctive drives,
like thirst and sexual reactions. Feelings of euphoria often
accompany stimulation of this area.
• Insula
• The insula (Latin for ‘island’) or insular cortex lays hidden deep in
the temporal cortex in the medial wall of the lateral sulcus. It is
also considered to be a part of the limbic system.
• Its functions are not yet clear, since the region is often associated
with a variety of conditions. Examples are the somatosensory and
taste perception, motor control, self-awareness and emotional
functions.
Limbic sytem
 Basal Gangalia
 a collection of subcortical nuclei,

 below the anterior part of the lateral ventricle , near

the thalamus and hypothalamus

Control of movement

Nuclei means group of neuron of similar shape

Major structures are:

Corpus Striatum, Amygdaloid nucleus, Claustrum

Corpus Striatum:

2 parts-

Caudate(C -shaped)

lentiform nuclei( Putamen & Globus Pallidus)

Caudate and putamen are reffered as neostriatum

Function:
•Processing of information between cortex and subcortex

•Directs intentional movement, reward based learning

•functioning of motor system(Receive inputs from the cortex and send message to
the motor centres)

•Corpus striatum- maintain posture

•Globus Pallidus- initiation of the movement

•parkinson disease
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
 Posterior part of the forebrain that connects mid brain with cerebral
hemispheres
 Also called Interbrain/ Between Brain
 Is located at the head of the brain stem
 encloses 3rd ventricle
 Connects the cortex with lower structure
It consists of four important structures:
a)Thalamus b)Hypothalamus c) epithalamus d) subthalamus
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Thalamus:-(Inner Chamber) Ovoid shaped
 reacted reflexively to pleasant and non pleasant stimulus before the
cerebral cortex evolved
 Called gateway to the cerebral cortex
 80% of diencephalon
 consists of two symmetric , connected to each other by massa
intermedia ,each cerebral hemisphere contains half of the thalamus
 Thalamus plays a centra role in processing most information that
reaches the cortex.
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Specific nuclei:
sensory and motor processing
 Ventroposteriormedial & ventroposteriorlateral- somatosensory
 Lateral geniculate- optic tract
 medial geniculate- auditory
 ventrolateral= receive from cerebellum
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
 Sleep, wakefulness, consciousness, learning and memory
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Hypothamus:- motivational centre
medial= richconnections with thalamus
lateral= efferent and afferent connections to and from region outside of
the hypothalamus
Adjacent master gland pituitary is controlled by hypothalamus
regualtes peripheral nerovous system, endocrine activity, body growth,
sex characters, neurotransmitters
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Hypothamus:-
some one consider it as a part of limbic system
controlling the ANS
forms the floor and part of the lateral wall of third ventricle
Contains a group of nuclei at the function of midbrain and thalamus
( Hypothalamic nuclei)
3 longitudinal zones:- Lateral, Medial and periventricular
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Pitutary Gland = attached with anterior by networks of neuron
Posterior by pitutary stalk
Anterior Secrets= GH, FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH
maintain body temperature, circadiam rhythm
Posterior: Oxytocin, Vassopressin, memory function
 Brain Stem

• From point of evolution both are most primitive structure

• Brain stem extends from the spinal cord and comprises

4.4% of the total weight

• Superiorly continuous with Diencephalon and inferiorly

continues with spinal cord

• Posteriorly Pons and medulla is separated by 4th ventricle

 Brain Stem

Four major division of the brain stem:

Lower brain stem

Medulla Oblongata( Myelencephalon)

Pons( Metencephalon)

Mid brain( Tectum and Tegmentum)

Upper brain stem

Diencephalon( Thalamus and Hypothalamus)

 Brain Stem

Lower Brain stem

Are relatively uniform in shape and organization despite of
evolutionary change
Medulla:
Is immediately superior to the spinal cord, Caudal part of the
brain stem
Lowermost part of the brain stem
Situated at the base of the skull (Foramen Magnum)
 Medulla

• Forms an intermediary zone between the elementary neuronal

configuration of the spinal cord and the complex neuronal
organization of the brain
• Contains myelin sheath, carry sensory and motor neuron
• Here the tracts decussate, switching transmission of
information from one side of the body to the contralateral side
of the brain
• Contains nuclei that deal with respiration, bladder control, eye
ball movement, facial expression
 Pons:

• Resembles two bulb

• Immediately superior to medulla and inferior to the mid

brain

• Cerebellum connects to its posterior aspects

• Connects cerebellum to other brain parts

• Contains nuclei that helps in sleep and arousal

• It also relays information from cortex to cerebellum

 Mid Brain:Mesencepaholon

• Lies between the cerebrum and pons

• Smallest portion of the brain

• It emerges anteriorly with hypothalamus

• It act as a pathway for impulse to be conducted between the

brain and spinal cord

• Associated with screening of information before it reach high

brain structure
 Parts of the mid brain:

A)Anterior Part (Cerebral Peduncles)

Tegmentum ( motor neuron relay inhibitory signals for
unwanted body movements), beneath the tectum, It includes the
rostral end of the RAS,
Substantia Nigra ( Dopamine production)
Cereus Cerebri
 Parts of the mid brain:

B)Posterior Part (Tectum)

Roof of the midbrain
2 superior colliculi= visual functions, tracking of visual objects
2 inferior colliculi= auditory functions
 Function of lower brain stem

Many cranial nerves

Motor and sensory tracts to and from cerebral hemisphere
Contain a network of neurons called RAS
Control reflex action
Medulla: mediates vital function I.e. BP, Heart beat
Pons: major junction for information passing between the structures of the
spinal cord, brain
Through the mid brain play major role in auditory and visual orientation
Superior colliculi= visual
Inferior colliculi= auditory
 Cranial nerves

The lower brain is also the site of origin of cranial nerves( 12).
These nerves directly connected to the brain, carry information to muscle or
sensory information back to the brain.
They integrate sensory information and motor output
originally numbered by Galen
I to IV= arise from the nuclei in the mid brain
V to XII= originate from the medulla and pons in the hind brain
I= olfactory (S)
II= Optic (S)
III= Oculomotor-eye pupil (S/M)
IV=Trochelar-eye(S/M)
 Cranial nerves

V= Trigeminal-Face,Jaw muscle(S/M)
VI= Abducens-eye(S/M)
VII= Facial (S/M)
VIII=Vestibulocochlear- hearing(S)
Ix= Glassopharyngeal= taste, swallow,
X=Vagus- heart rate, digestion, internal organ
XI=Accessory- moves head
XII= Hypoglassal- moves tongue
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
 Posterior part of the forebrain that connects mid brain with cerebral
hemispheres
 Also called Interbrain/ Between Brain
 Is located at the head of the brain stem
 encloses 3rd ventricle
 Connects the cortex with lower structure
It consists of four important structures:
a)Thalamus b)Hypothalamus c) epithalamus d) subthalamus
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Thalamus:-(Inner Chamber)
reacted reflexively to pleasant and non pleasant stimulus before the
cerebral cortex evolved
Called gateway to the cerebral cortex
80% of diencephalon
consists of two symmetric large nuclei embedded in white matter
toward the base of the cerebral hemisphere above the hypothalamus
each cerebral hemisphere contains half of the thalamus
Thalamus plays a centra role in processing most information that
reaches the cortex.
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Thalamus:-
The nuclei of the thalamus can be divided into 2 groups-
a) Non specific nuclei
b) Specific nuclei
Non specific nuclei:
median portion of the thalamus
project widely to other brain structure
receive input from the spinal cord and RAS
Control the excitability of neurons in the cortex and thalamus
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Specific nuclei:
sensory and motor processing
Ventroposteriormedial & ventroposteriorlateral- somatosensory
Lateral geniculate- optic tract
medial geniculate- auditory
ventrolateral= receive from cerebellum
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Hypothamus:-
some one consider it as a part of limbic system
controlling the ANS
forms the floor and part of the lateral wall of third ventricle
Contains a group of nuclei at the function of midbrain and thalamus
( Hypothalamic nuclei)
3 longitudinal zones:- Lateral, Medial and periventricular
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
Hypothamus:-
medial= richconnections with thalamus
lateral= efferent and afferent connections to and from region outside of
the hypothalamus
Adjacent master gland pituitary is controlled by hypothalamus
regualtes peripheral nerovous system, endocrine activity, body growth,
sex characters, neurotransmitters
 Upper Brain Stem(Diencephalon)
helps in four F’s: Fighting, Feeding, Fleeing, Mating
 Cerebellum
little brain
contains 50% of the neuron of the brain
2nd largest portion of the brain
located below the posterior part of the cerebrum
A deep groove known as Transverse Fissure seprates cerebrum to
cerebellum
It is located posteriorly and superiorly to the pons and medulla just
inferior to the posterior portion of the cerebral hemisphere
Cerebellum attached to the brain stem at the level of the pons via
Cerebellar peduncle
 Cerebellum
3 paired- attach cerebellum to brain stem, bundle of white matter,
consists of axons that conduct impulses between the cerebellum and
other parts of the brain
Superior: cerebellum to mid brain
Middle: Cerebellum to Pons
Inferior: Cerebellum to medulla oblongata
 Cerebellum
consists of two large oval hemisphere connected by Vermis
help in coordinating voluntary body movements and maintaining
balance and equlibrium
Division:
Anterior lobe & Posterior lobe= regualtes sub conscious aspects of
skeltal muscle
Flocculonodular lobe= on the inferior surface, maintain equlibrium and
balance
 Cerebellum
Layers:
Superficial layers:- Cerebellar cortex,consists of gray matter, series of
slender and parallel folds called folia
Arbor Vitae- White matter, tree like
Cerebellar nuclei= White matter, carrying impulse from cerebellum to
other parts
 Cerebellum
coordinating contractiof skeltal muscle
regulate posture and muscle
may play role in cognition/ learning from experiences and language
processing
 Spinal Cord
It is a long, conical structure, approximately as thich as little finger
It is protected by the vertebral column, which s composed of twenty
four individual vertebrae of the cervical,thoracic, and lumbar regions
and the fused vertebrae making up the sacral and coccygeal portions
of the column.
Spinal cord passes through a hole in each of the vertebrae (The spinal
foramens)
It is only about two thirds as long as the vertebral column.
Early in embryological development the vertebral column and spinal
cord are the same length. As development progresses, the vertebral
column grows faster than spinal cord. This differential growth rate
causes the spinal roots to be displaced downward.
 Spinal Cord
Like the brain, the spinal cord consists of white matter and gray matter
Unlike the white matter of the brain, the white matter of the spinal
cord is on the outside and the gray matteris on the inside.