Traffic Engineering

Premlatha K Naidu
Assistant Professor
Module-2
 Traffic Surveys
Traffic Surveys- Speed, journey time and delay surveys,
Vehicles Volume Survey including non-motorized
transports, Methods and interpretation, Origin
Destination Survey, Methods and presentation,
Pa r k i n g S u r vey, A c c i d e nt a n a l ys e s M e t h o d s ,
i n t e r p re ta t i o n a n d p re s e n t a t i o n , S t a t i s t i c a l
applications in traffic studies and traffic forecasting,
Level of service- Concept, applications and
significance.
 Objectives
• to design the geometric features and pavement thickness.
• to obtain the knowledge of type and volume of traffic at
present and estimate future traffic volume.
• to decide priorities foe expansion or improvements of a
particular road.
• to obtain knowledge on the present road facilities and the
improvements needed in the future or for a bypass road.
• to obtain knowledge about road accidents, so that road
width, curves and traffic signals could be redesigned.
 Various types of traffic studies
The different traffic studies involved in traffic engineering are listed below.
1. Speed Studies (safety)
2. Volume Studies ( basic traffic studies)
3. Travel-time Studies (measure quality of service)
4. Delay Studies (parts of travel time that user find particularly annoying)
5. Origin and Destination Studies
6. Parking Studies (inventories or parking supply, parking accumulations)
7. Accident Studies (accident characteristics, factor, specific location)
8. Good Movement & Transit Studies (loading facilities & transit systems)
9. Pedestrian Studies (crosswalks at signalized/un-signalized locations)
10. Observance Studies (effectiveness of various traffic controls)
 Speed Studies
Speed is an important transportation consideration
because it relates to safety, time, comfort, convenience,
and economics. The speed of a vehicle is defined as the
rate of movement of the vehicle under specific condition
and for a specific purpose, is generally expressed in kmph
in metric units.
Different Types of Speed:
• Spot Speed
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a
specified location. A spot speed is carried out by
recording the speed of a sample of vehicles at a specified
location.
• Running speed
Running speed is the average speed maintained over
a particular course while the vehicle is moving and is
found by dividing the length of the course by the
time duration the vehicle was in motion. considered
in calculating the running speed.
• Journey Speed
Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on
a journey between two points and is the distance
between the two points divided by the total time
taken for the vehicle to complete the journey
including any stopped time.
 Importance of Spot Speed Studies
(1) Determine existing speed trends in roadways.
(2) Traffic control planning for
a. Establishing minimum and maximum speed limit
b. speed zoning
c. Establish length of passing zone
d. Proper location of regulatory, warning and guide signs
e. Analyse school zone protection
(3) Establishing roadway design (geometric design) elements
(4) Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs
(5) Accident studies
(6) Capacity Studies
(7) Before and after studies
(8) Assessing roadway safety questions:
a. Evaluating and verifying speeding problems, assessing speed as a contributor to
vehicle crashes, investigating input from the public or other officials
 Methods of Conducting Spot Speed Studies
There are several ways in which one can conduct the
spot speed study. Some of them are listed below.
1. Manual Method [Direct timing Method]
2. Mirror Box method [Enoscope Method]
3. Pressure Contact Strip method
4. Radar Speed meter method
5. Time-Lapse Camera method
6. Electronic meter method
 Direct-Timing Procedure
Two reference points are marked on the pavement at
a suitable distance apart and observer starts and
stops the stop watch as a vehicle crosses these two
marks. It can be done by keeping either a single
observer or two observers at each reference point.

Figure: Single Observer Method

 Enoscope Method
Enoscope which is also known as Mirror-box is an L shaped device open
at both the ends with a mirror set at 45 degree angle to the arms of the
instrument. This can be used either single or two enoscopes at a time.
If one is used, the instrument is placed directly opposite to the first
reference point and the observer stands at the exit reference point. The
instrument bends the line of sight of the observer so that it is
perpendicular to the path of the vehicle. This will eliminates the
parallax error single observer takes direct readings.
 Radar Speed Meters
A radar meter is a commonly used device for directly
measuring speeds in spot speed studies. This device may be
hand-held, mounted in a vehicle, or mounted on a tripod. It
measures speed directly by reflecting an emitted radar wave
of an oncoming vehicle and measuring the difference in the
frequency between the emitted and reflected radar wave. It is
radar meter which is targeted to a vehicle, so the wave, the
frequency between the emitted and reflected wave that the
difference is used to calculate the speed.
 Pressure Contact Tubes (Pneumatic Tubes)
The pneumatic road tube method is normally used for longer data
collection time periods than those of either the stopwatch or radar
meter method. In this method, pneumatic tubes are placed in the travel
lanes. When a vehicle passes over the tube at the entry point, an air
impulse is sent which activates the electro magnetically controlled stop
watch in the hands of the observer. When the vehicle passes over the
second tube, the stop watch automatically stops. The readings can also
be recorded by automatic data recorders. The main issue in this method
is that by seeing this tube, the driver’s behavior might change and it
affects their speed.
 Photographic or Video Camera Method
In photographic methods, photographs are taken at
fixed intervals of time on a special camera (time
lapse camera photography). By projecting the films
on a screen the passage of any vehicle can be traced
with reference to the time. Images by video cameras
are latest method used in data collection in traffic
studies.
 Traffic Volume Studies
Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the
number, movements, and classifications of roadway vehicles
at a given location. These data can help identify critical flow
time periods, determine the influence of large vehicles or
pedestrians on vehicular traffic flow, or document traffic
volume trends. The length of the sampling period depends
on the type of count being taken and the intended use of the
date recorded.
Terminology
Sometimes it is only necessary to measure the flow for a
short term say an hour, or it can even extend up to a week,
month, year or so. Traffic volume studies are conducted
when certain volume characteristics are needed some of
which follows.
ADT (Average Daily Traffic): It is the average of 24-hour
counts collected over a number of days greater than one
day but less than a year.
AADT (Average Annual Daily Traffic): it is the average of
24-hour counts collected everyday in the year.
PHV (Peak Hour Volume): it is the maximum number of
vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a period of
60 consecutive minutes.
VC (Vehicle classification): records the volume with
respect to the type of vehicles, say passenger cars, two-
axle trucks or three-axle trucks. It is mainly used in the
structural design of highway pavements.
VMT (Vehicle miles of travel): measure of travel along a
section of the road. VMT = ADT × length of roadway in
miles to which the volume is applicable.
 Methods of Conducting Volume
Counts
Two methods are available for conducting traffic volume
counts:
(1) manual
(2) automatic.
Sometimes a combination of manual and automatic method is
also used for conducting traffic volume counts.
Manual counts are typically used to gather data for
determination of vehicle classification, turning movements,
direction of travel, pedestrian movements, or vehicle
occupancy.
Automatic counts are typically used to gather data for
determination of vehicle hour patterns, daily or seasonal
variations and growth trends, or annual traffic estimates.
 Manual method
Manual counting involves one or more persons
recording observed vehicles using a counter. Manual
counts are recorded using one of three methods: tally
sheets, mechanical counting boards, or electronic
counting boards.
Tally sheets (Field data sheet)
Recording data onto tally sheets is the simplest means
of conducting manual counts. The data can be
recorded with a tick mark on a pre-prepared field
form. A watch or stopwatch is necessary to measure
the desired count interval.
Mechanical Counting Boards
Mechanical count boards consist of counters mounted on a board that
record each direction of travel. Common counts include pedestrian, bicycle,
vehicle classification, and traffic volume counts. Typical counters are push
button devices with three to five registers. Each button represents a
different stratification of type of vehicle or pedestrian being counted. The
limited number of buttons on the counter can restrict the number of
classifications that can be counted on a given board. A watch or a
stopwatch is also necessary with this method to measure the desired count
interval.
Electronic Counting Boards
Electronic counting boards are battery-operated, hand-held devices used in
collecting traffic count data. They are similar to mechanical counting boards,
but with some important differences. Electronic counting boards are lighter,
more compact, and easier to handle. They have an internal clock that
automatically separates the data by time interval. Special functions include
automatic data reduction and summary. The data can also be downloaded
to a computer, which saves time
 Automatic Method
Some automatic counters use a counting method that
involves the laying of surface detectors (pneumatic road
tubes) or subsurface detectors (magnetic or electric
devices) on the road. These detect the passing vehicle
and transmit the information to a recorder which is
connected to the detector at the side of the road.
Pneumatic Tubes
These are tubes placed on the top of road surfaces at
locations where traffic counting is required. As vehicles
pass over the tube, the resulting compression sends a
burst of air to an air switch, which can be installed in any
type of traffic counting devices.
Inductive loops
Inductive loop detector consists of embedded turned wire
from which it gets its name. It includes an oscillator, and a
cable, which allows signals to pass from the loop to the traffic
counting device. The counting device is activated by the change
in the magnetic field when a vehicle passes over the loop.
Weigh-in-motion sensor type
A variety of traffic sensors and loops are used world-wide to
count, weigh and classify vehicles while in motion, and these
are collectively known as Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) sensor
systems. Whereas sensor pads can be used on their own traffic
speed and axle weighing equipment, they are trigged by
“leading” inductive loops placed before them on the roadbed.
Videotape
Observers can record count data by videotaping traffic. Traffic
volumes can be counted by viewing videotapes recorded with a
camera at a collection site. A digital clock in the video image
can prove useful in noting time intervals.
 Origin and Destination Studies
An origin-destination study is used to determine travel
patterns of traffic on an installation during a typical day.
They are useful in assisting long-range traffic planning,
especially when there are substantial changes anticipated
in the installation mission or strength. This is a study to
determine and analyze trips. Trips are defined as one-way
movement, from where a person starts (origin) to where
the person is going (destination). Trips are further
classified as follows:
Internal-From one point on post to another point on post.
External-From on-post to off-post or vice versa.
 Different methods
1. Registration Questionnaire-Driver lists are obtained from the vehicle
registration form and each is
sent a questionnaire at his place of duty with a return date requested.
2. Post Card-A prepaid post card with the questionnaire on it is distributed to
all drivers entering the
installation during a given time. A traffic volume count is made at the time the
cards are distributed.
3. Roadside Interview-This method requires advance publicity and a greater
number of personnel.
Uniformed MPs should conduct the interview.
4. Tag on Car-This is a limited study good for studying through trips. It is
conducted by having all cars
counted when they enter the installation. At stations just inside the entrance
gates, MPs stop vehicles and affix a piece of colored tape (different for each
station) to the car's front bumper. At exit gates of the installation, a tally of cars
with each colored tape is made.
5. Comprehensive Home Interview-This method is performed by other
governmental organizations. It is not normally done on a military installation
unless it is near a large city that is under review. It provides the most detailed
data.
 Traffic Volume Data Presentation
The data collected from traffic volume counts may be presented in one
of several ways, depending on the type of count conducted and the
primary use of the data.
Traffic Flow Maps
These maps show traffic volumes on individual routes. The volume of
traffic on each route is represented by the width of a band, which is
drawn in proportion to the traffic volume it represents. When flows are
significantly different in opposite directions on a particular street, then
separate bands are provided for each direction.
Summary Tables
These tables give a summary of traffic volume data such as PHV, VC
and ADT in tabular form.
Intersection Summary Sheets
These are graphic representations of the volume and directions of all
traffic movements through the intersection. These volumes can be
either ADTs or PHVs depending on the use of the data.
Time-Based Distribution Charts
These charts show the hourly, daily, monthly or annual variations in
traffic volume in an area on a particular highway. Each volume is
usually given as a percentage of the average volume.
 Parking Studies
Parking is one of the major problems that is created by the
increasing road traffic. It is an impact of transport development.
Parking system:
On street parking : On street parking means the vehicles are
parked on the sides of the street itself. This will be usually
controlled by government agencies itself.
1. Parallel parking: The vehicles are parked along the length of the
road. Here there is no backward movement involved while parking
or unparking the vehicle. Hence, it is the most safest parking from
the accident perspective. However, it consumes the maximum
curb length and therefore only a minimum number of vehicles can
be parked for a given kerb length. This method of parking
produces least obstruction to the on-going traffic on the road since
least road width is used.
2. 30◦ parking: In thirty degree parking, the vehicles are parked at 30◦ with
respect to the road alignment. In this case, more vehicles can be parked
compared to parallel parking.
3. 45◦ parking: As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles
can be parked. Hence compared to parallel parking and thirty degree
parking, more number of vehicles can be accommodated in this type of
parking.
4. 60◦ parking: The vehicles are parked at 60◦ to the direction of road.
More number of vehicles can be accommodated in this parking type.5.
Right angle parking: In right angle parking or 90◦ parking, the vehicles are
parked perpendicular to the direction of the road. Although it consumes
maximum width kerb length required is very little.
2. Off street parking:
In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively allotted for parking
which will be at some distance away from the main stream of traffic. Such
a parking is referred to as off-street parking. They may be operated by
either public agencies or private firms.