STRUCTURAL

THEORY
 CONTRACT

1. Historical Background
2. Role of Structural analysis in Structural
Engineering Projects
3. Classification of Structures
4. Analytical Models
 CONTRACT
 is that part of civil engineering in which structural engineers are educated to create
the 'bones and muscles' that create the form and shape of man made structures.

 Structural engineers need to understand and calculate the stability, strength and
rigidity of built structures for buildings and nonbuilding structures.

 The structural designs are integrated with those of other designers such as architects
and building services engineer and often supervise the construction of projects by
contractors on site. They can also be involved in the design of machinery, medical
equipment, and vehicles where structural integrity affects functioning and safety.
 Structural engineering theory is based upon applied physical laws and empirical
knowledge of the structural performance of different materials and geometries.
Structural engineering design utilizes a number of relatively simple structural
elements to build complex structural systems.

 Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds,
structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.
 CONTRACT
 Structural engineering dates back to 2700 B.C. when the step pyramid for
Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by
name.

 Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations
because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost
infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be
linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).
 CONTRACT
 The structural stability of the pyramid, whilst primarily gained from its shape, relies also
on the strength of the stone from which it is constructed, and its ability to support the
weight of the stone above it. The limestone blocks were often taken from a quarry near
the build site and have a compressive strength from 30 to 250 MPa.

 Therefore, the structural strength of the pyramid stems from the material properties
of the stones from which it was built rather than the pyramid's geometry.

 Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was
carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master
builder.

 No theory of structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was

extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of 'what had worked
before'. Knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances.
Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.
 CONTRACT
 No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or
the behavior of structural material, but the profession of structural engineer only
really took shape with the Industrial Revolution and the re-invention of concrete.

 The physical sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood

in the Renaissance and have since developed into computer-based applications
pioneered in the 1970s.
 CONTRACT
 1452–1519 Leonardo da Vinci made many contributions
 1638: Galileo Galilei published the book Two New Sciences in which he examined
the failure of simple structures

 1660: Hooke's law by Robert Hooke

 1687: Isaac Newton published
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica which contains the
Newton's laws of motion
 CONTRACT
 1750: Euler–Bernoulli beam equation
 1700–1782: Daniel Bernoulli introduced the principle of virtual work
 1707–1783: Leonhard Euler developed the theory of buckling of columns

 1826: Claude-Louis Navier published a treatise

on the elastic behaviors of structures
 1873: Carlo Alberto Castigliano presented his
dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici", which
contains his theorem for computing
displacement as partial derivative of the strain
energy. This theorem includes the method of
"least work" as a special case
 CONTRACT
 1874: Otto Mohr formalized the idea of a statically indeterminate structure.
 1922: Timoshenko corrects the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation
 1936: Hardy Cross' publication of the moment distribution method, an
important innovation in the design of continuous frames.
 1941: Alexander Hrennikoff solved the discretization of plane elasticity
problems using a lattice framework
 1942: R. Courant divided a domain into finite subregions
 1956: J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp's paper on the
"Stiffness and Deflection of Complex Structures" introduces the name "finite-
element method" and is widely recognized as the first comprehensive
treatment of the method as it is known today
 CONTRACT
WHAT IS A STRUCTURE?
 A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a
load.
 Important examples related to civil engineering include buildings,
bridges, and towers; and in other branches of engineering, ship and
aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and
electrical supporting structures are important.
 CONTRACT
WHAT IS AN STRUCTURAL LOAD?
 Structural loads or actions are forces,
deformations, or accelerations applied to
structure components.
 Loads cause stresses, deformations, and
displacements in structures.

 Assessment of their effects is carried out by the

methods of structural analysis.
 Excess load or overloading may cause structural
failure, and hence such possibility should be either
considered in the design or strictly controlled.
 Engineers often evaluate structural loads based
upon published regulations, contracts, or
specifications. Accepted technical standards are
used for acceptance testing and inspection.
 CONTRACT
WHAT IS AN STRUCTURAL SYSTEM?

 Structural system or structural

frame in structural engineering
refers to the load-resisting sub-
system of a building or object.

 The structural system transfers

loads through interconnected
elements or members.
 CONTRACT
WHAT IS AN STRUCTURAL SYSTEM?

 Commonly used structures can be

classified into five major
categories, depending on the type
of primary stress that may arise in
the members of the structures
under major design loads.

 However any two or more of the

basic structural types described in
the following may be combined in a
single structure, such as a building
or a bridge in order to meet the
structure's functional requirements
 CONTRACT
Tensile structures: Members of tensile
structures are subject to pure tension
under the action of external loads.
Because the tensile stress is uniformly
distributed over the cross-sectional area of
members, the material of such a structure
is utilized in the most efficient manner.

Compressive structures: Compression

structures develop mainly compressive
stresses under the action of axial loads.
Because compressive structures are
susceptible to buckling or instability, the
possibility of these failures should be
considered in their design. If necessary,
adequate bracing must be provided to
avoid such failures.
 CONTRACT
Trusses: Trusses are composed of straight
members connected at their ends by
hinged connections to form a stable
configuration. Because of their light weight
and high strength, they are among the
most commonly used types of structure.

Shear structures: These are structures

such as reinforced concrete or wooden
shear walls, which are used in multistory
buildings to reduce lateral movements due
to wind loads and earthquake excitations.
Shear structures develop mainly in-plane
shear with relatively small bending
stresses under the action of external loads.
 CONTRACT

Bending structures: Bending structures develop mainly bending

stresses under the action of external loads. The shear stresses
associated with the changes in bending moments may also be
significant, and should be considered in their design.
 CONTRACT
HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

 The structural system of a high-rise building is

designed to cope with vertical gravity loads as
well as lateral loads caused by wind or seismic
activity. The structural system consists only of
the members designed to carry the loads, and
all other members are referred to as non-
structural.

 A classification for the structural system of a

high-rise was introduced in 1969 by Fazlur Khan
and was extended to incorporate interior and
exterior structures. The primary lateral load-
resisting system defines if a structural system is
an interior or exterior one
 CONTRACT
HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
 The following interior structures are
possible:
 Hinged frame
 Rigid frame
 Braced frame and Shear-walled frame
 Outrigger structures (supporting
overhangs)

 The following exterior structures are

possible:
 Buttresses
 Diagrid
 Exoskeleton
 Space truss
 Super frame
 Tube (structure)
 CONTRACT
 The history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures.
Sometimes this is due to obvious negligence, as in the case of the Pétion-Ville
school collapse, in which Rev. Fortin Augustin "constructed the building all by
himself, saying he didn't need an engineer as he had good knowledge of
construction" following a partial collapse of the three-story schoolhouse that sent
neighbors fleeing. The final collapse killed 94 people, mostly children.

 In other cases structural failures require careful study, and the results of these
inquiries have resulted in improved practices and greater understanding of the
science of structural engineering. Some such studies are the result of forensic
engineering investigations where the original engineer seems to have done
everything in accordance with the state of the profession and acceptable practice
yet a failure still eventuated. A famous case of structural knowledge and practice
being advanced in this manner can be found in a series of failures involving box
girders which collapsed in Australia during the 1970s.
 CONTRACT
 Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of applied
mechanics, materials science and applied mathematics to understand and
predict how structures support and resist self-weight and imposed loads.

 To apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally requires

detailed knowledge of relevant empirical and theoretical design codes, the
techniques of structural analysis, as well as some knowledge of the corrosion
resistance of the materials and structures, especially when those structures are
exposed to the external environment.

 Since the 1990s, specialist software has become available to aid in the design
of structures, with the functionality to assist in the drawing, analyzing and
designing of structures with maximum precision; examples include AutoCAD,
StaadPro, ETABS, Prokon, Revit Structure, Inducta RCB, etc. Such software may
also take into consideration environmental loads, such as from earthquakes and
winds.
 CONTRACT
 A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.
Important examples related to civil engineering include buildings,
bridges, and towers; and in other branches of engineering, ship and
aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and
electrical supporting structures are important.
 CONTRACT
 When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the
engineer must account for its safety, esthetics, and serviceability, while taking
into consideration economic and environmental constraints. Often this requires
several independent studies of different solutions before final judgment can be
made as to which structural form is most appropriate. This design process is both
creative and technical and requires a fundamental knowledge of material
properties and the laws of mechanics which govern material response.

 Once a preliminary design of a structure is proposed, the structure must then be

analyzed to ensure that it has its required stiffness and strength. To analyze a
structure properly, certain idealizations must be made as to how the members
are supported and connected together. The loadings are determined from codes
and local specifications, and the forces in the members and their displacements
are found using the theory of structural analysis, which is the subject matter of
this text. The results of this analysis then can be used to redesign the structure,
accounting for a more accurate determination of the weight of the members and
their size.
 Structural design, therefore, follows a series of successive approximations in which
every cycle requires a structural analysis.
 CONTRACT
Structural Elements. Some of the more common elements from which
structures are composed are as follows.

Tie Rods. Structural members subjected

to a tensile force are often referred to as
tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the
nature of this load, these members are
rather slender, and are often chosen
from rods, bars, angles, or channels,
Fig.1–1.
 CONTRACT
Beams are usually straight horizontal
members used primarily to carry vertical
loads. Quite often they are classified
according to the way they are supported,
as indicated in Fig. 1–2. In particular,
when the cross section varies the beam
is referred to as tapered or hunched.
Beam cross sections may also be “built
up” by adding plates to their top and
bottom.
 CONTRACT
 Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment; however, if they are
short and carry large loads, the internal shear force may become quite large and
this force may govern their design.

 When the material used for a beam is a metal such as steel or aluminum, the
cross section is most efficient when it is shaped as shown in Fig. 1–3. Here the
forces developed in the top and bottom flanges of the beam form the necessary
couple used to resist the applied moment M, whereas the web is effective in
resisting the applied shear V. This cross section is commonly referred to as a
“wide flange,” and it is normally formed as a single unit in a rolling mill in lengths
up to 75 ft (23 m). If shorter lengths are needed, a cross section having tapered
flanges is sometimes selected.
 CONTRACT
 When the beam is required to have a very
large span and the loads applied are
rather large, the cross section may take
the form of a plate girder. This member is
fabricated by using a large plate for the
web and welding or bolting plates to its
ends for flanges.

 The girder is often transported to the field

in segments, and the segments are
designed to be spliced or joined together
at points where the girder carries a small
internal moment.
 CONTRACT
 Concrete beams generally have rectangular cross sections, since it is
easy to construct this form directly in the field. Because concrete is
rather weak in resisting tension, steel “reinforcing rods” are cast into the
beam within regions of the cross section subjected to tension. Precast
concrete beams or girders are fabricated at a shop or yard in the same
manner and then transported to the job site.

 Beams made from timber may be sawn from a solid piece of wood or
laminated. Laminated beams are constructed from solid sections of
wood, which are fastened together using high-strength glues.
 CONTRACT
Columns. Members that are generally vertical
and resist axial compressive loads are referred
to as columns, Fig. 1–4. Tubes and wide-flange
cross sections are often used for metal
columns,and circular and square cross sections
with reinforcing rods are used for those made
of concrete.

Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an

axial load and a bending moment as shown in
the figure.These members are referred to as
beam columns.
 CONTRACT
 The combination of structural elements and the materials from which
they are composed is referred to as a structural system. Each system is
constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures. Ranked in
order of complexity of their force analysis, they are as follows.

Trusses. When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth
is not an important criterion for design, a truss may be selected.

 Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular

fashion. Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same
plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support, whereas
space trusses have members extending in three dimensions and are
suitable for derricks and towers.
 CONTRACT
 Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause the entire
truss to bend are converted into tensile or compressive forces in the members.
Because of this, one of the primary advantages of a truss, compared to a beam,
is that it uses less material to support a given load, Fig. 1–5.
 Also, a truss is constructed from long and slender elements, which can be
arranged in various ways to support a load. Most often it is economically feasible
to use a truss to cover spans ranging from 30 ft (9 m) to 400 ft (122 m),although
trusses have been used on occasion for spans of greater lengths.
 CONTRACT
Cables and Arches. Two other forms of structures used to span long
distances are the cable and the arch. Cables are usually flexible and carry
their loads in tension. They are commonly used to support bridges, Fig.1–
6a,and building roofs. When used for these purposes, the cable has an
advantage over the beam and the truss, especially for spans that are greater
than 150 ft (46 m).Because they are always in tension, cables will not
become unstable and suddenly collapse, as may happen with beams or
trusses.
Furthermore, the truss will require added costs for construction and
increased depth as the span increases. Use of cables, on the other hand, is
limited only by their sag, weight, and methods of anchorage. The arch
achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that
of the cable. The arch must be rigid, however, in order to maintain its shape,
and this results in secondary loadings involving shear and moment, which
must be considered in its design. Arches are frequently used in bridge
structures, Fig. 1–6b, dome roofs, and for openings in masonry walls.
CONTRACT
 CONTRACT
Frames. Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams
and columns that are either pin or fixed connected, Fig.1–7. Like trusses,
frames extend in two or three dimensions. The loading on a frame causes
bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint connections, this structure is
generally “indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis. The strength of
such a frame is derived from the moment interactions between the beams
and the columns at the rigid joints.
 CONTRACT
Surface Structures. A surface structure is made from a material having a
very small thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this
material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-inflated
structure. In both cases the material acts as a membrane that is subjected
to pure tension.

Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced

concrete. As such they may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or
hyperbolic paraboloids, and are referred to as thin plates or shells. These
structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily in
tension or compression, with very little bending. In spite of this, plate or shell
structures are generally very difficult to analyze, due to the
threedimensional geometry of their surface. Such an analysis is beyond the
scope of this text and is instead covered in texts devoted entirely to this
subject.
CONTRACT
 CONTRACT

1.4 Analytical Models

 CONTRACT
 An analytical model is a simplified representation, or an ideal, of a real
structure for the purpose of analysis.
 The objective of the model is to simplify the analysis of a complicated
structure.
 The analytical model represents, as accurately as practically possible, the
behavioral characteristics of the structure of interest to the analyst, while
discarding much of the detail about the members, connections, and so on,
that is expected to have little effect on the desired characteristics.
 Establishment of the analytical model is one of the most important steps of
the analysis process; it requires experience and knowledge of design
practices in addition to a thorough understanding of the behavior of
structures.
 Remember that the structural response predicted from the analysis of the
model is valid only to the extent that the model represents the actual
structure.
CONTRACT
CONTRACT
 CONTRACT
Development of the analytical model generally involves consideration of the
following factors.

Plane Versus Space Structure

 If all the members of a structure as well as the applied loads lie in a single plane,
the structure is called a plane structure. The analysis of plane, or two-
dimensional, structures is considerably simpler than the analysis of space, or
three-dimensional, structures. Fortunately, many actual three-dimensional
structures can be subdivided into plane structures for analysis.
 As an example, consider the framing system of a bridge shown in Fig. 1.13(a). The
main members of the system, designed to support vertical loads, are shown by
solid lines, whereas the secondary bracing members, necessary to resist lateral
wind loads and to provide stability, are represented by dashed lines. The deck of
the bridge rests on beams called stringers; these beams are supported by floor
beams, which, in turn, are connected at their ends to the joints on the bottom
panels of the two longitudinal trusses.
 CONTRACT
 Thus, the weight of the truss, deck, stringers, and floor beams is transmitted by
the floor beams to the supporting trusses at their joints; the trusses, in turn,
transmit the load to the foundation. Because this applied loading acts on each
truss in its own plane, the trusses can be treated as plane structures. As another
example, the framing system of a multistory building is shown in Fig. 1.14(a).
 At each story, the floor slab rests on floor beams, which transfer any load applied
to the floor, the weight of the slab, and their own weight to the girders of the
supporting rigid frames. This applied loading acts on each frame in its own
plane, so each frame can, therefore, be analyzed as a plane structure. The loads
thus transferred to each frame are further transmitted from the girders to the
columns and then finally to the foundation.

 Although a great majority of actual three-dimensional structural systems can be

subdivided into plane structures for the purpose of analysis, some structures,
such as latticed domes, aerospace structures, and transmission towers, cannot,
due to their shape, arrangement of members, or applied loading, be subdivided
into planar components. Such structures, called space structures, are analyzed
as three-dimensional bodies subjected to three-dimensional force systems.
 CONTRACT
Line Diagram

 The analytical model of the two- or three-dimensional body selected for

analysis is represented by a line diagram. On this diagram, each
member of the structure is represented by a line coinciding with its
centroidal axis. The dimensions of the members and the size of the
connections are not shown on the diagram. The line diagrams of the
bridge truss of Fig. 1.13(a), and the rigid frame of Fig. 1.14(a) are shown
in Figs. 1.13(b) and 1.14(b), respectively.

 Note that two lines ( * * ) are sometimes used in this text to

represent members on the line diagrams. This is done, when
necessary, for clarity of presentation; in such cases, the distance
between the lines does not represent the member depth.
 CONTRACT
Connection

 Two types of connections are commonly used to join members of

structures: (1) rigid connections and (2) flexible, or hinged,
connections.

 A third type of connection, termed a semirigid connection, although

recognized by structural steel design codes, is not commonly used in
practice.
 CONTRACT
 Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been defined, it
becomes necessary to determine the loads the structure must support.
Often, it is the anticipation of the various loads that will be imposed on
the structure that provides the basic type of structure that will be chosen
for design. For example, high-rise structures must endure large lateral
loadings caused by wind, and so shear walls and tubular frame systems
are selected, whereas buildings located in areas prone to earthquakes
must be designed having ductile frames and connections.

 Once the structural form has been determined, the actual design begins
with those elements that are subjected to the primary loads the structure
is intended to carry, and proceeds in sequence to the various supporting
members until the foundation is reached. Thus, a building floor slab
would be designed first, followed by the supporting beams, columns, and
last, the foundation footings. In order to design a structure, it is therefore
necessary to first specify the loads that act on it.
 CONTRACT
 Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the
weights of any objects that are permanently attached to the structure. Hence, for
a building, the dead loads include the weights of the columns, beams, and
girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures, and
other miscellaneous attachments.

 In some cases, a structural dead load can be estimated satisfactorily from simple
formulas based on the weights and sizes of similar structures. Through
experience one can also derive a “feeling” for the magnitude of these loadings.

 For example, the average weight for timber buildings is 40-50 lb/ft2 (1.9 - 2.4
kN/m2), for steel framed buildings it is 60-75 lb/ft2 (2.9 - 3.6 kN/m2), and for
reinforced concrete buildings it is 110-130 lb/ft2 (5.3 - 6.2 kN/m2).

 Once the materials and sizes of the various components of the structure are
determined, their weights can be found from tables that list their densities.
CONTRACT
CONTRACT
CONTRACT
CONTRACT
CONTRACT
CONTRACT
CONTRACT
CONTRACT
CONTRACT
Example 1.1
The floor beam in Fig. 1–8 is used to support the 6-ft
width of a lightweight plain concrete slab having a
thickness of 4 in. The slab serves as a portion of the
ceiling for the floor below, and therefore its bottom is
coated with plaster. Furthermore, an 8-ft-high, 12-in.-
thick lightweight solid concrete block wall is directly
over the top flange of the beam. Determine the
loading on the beam measured per foot of length of
the beam
Live Loads. Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They
may be caused by the weights of objects temporarily placed on a structure,
moving vehicles, or natural forces. The minimum live loads specified in codes
are determined from studying the history of their effects on existing
structures. Usually, these loads include additional protection against
excessive deflection or sudden overload.

For some types of buildings having very large floor areas, many codes will
allow a reduction in the uniform live load for a floor, since it is unlikely that
the prescribed live load will occur simultaneously throughout the entire
structure at any one time.
For example, ASCE 7-10 allows a reduction of live load on a member having an
influence area (KLL AT) of 400 ft2 (37.2 m2) or more. This reduced live load is
calculated using the following equation:
The reduced live load defined by Eq. is limited to not less than
50% of for members supporting one floor, or not less than
40% of for members supporting more than one floor. No
reduction is allowed for loads exceeding 100 lb/ft2 (4.8
kN/m2), or for structures used for public assembly, garages,
or roofs.
Example 1.2
A two-story office building shown in the photo has
interior columns that are spaced 22 ft apart in two
perpendicular directions. If the (flat) roof loading is 20
lb/ft2, determine the reduced live load supported by a
typical interior column located at ground level.
end