• Stability: Personality traits refer to consistent patterns in

the way people behave, think, and feel. These traits are
usually stable over long periods, meaning they don't
change dramatically from day to day or even month to
month.

• Change: Stability doesn't mean that a person's traits

remain exactly the same throughout their entire life.
Traits can change gradually over time or even suddenly
due to major life events.
• Personality is Stable:

• Paul Costa and Robert McCrae: Costa and McCrae,

well-known for their work on the Five-Factor Model
of personality, argue that personality traits are
relatively stable over time. They suggest that while
individuals may experience some changes due to
major life events, the core traits (such as
extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness)
remain consistent throughout adulthood. This
perspective is rooted in their research, which finds
that traits measured in young adults tend to be
similar to those measured in older adults.
• Personality is Changeable:

• Adler’s View: Adler believed that personality is not

fixed but can change throughout an individual's life.
He emphasized the role of social influences, goals,
and lifestyle in shaping personality. According to
Adler, individuals are motivated by their striving for
superiority and self-improvement, which means they
are continuously working to overcome feelings of
inferiority and achieve personal goals. This process
of striving and self-improvement allows for
significant changes in personality as individuals
adapt to new experiences and challenges.
1. Average Changes in Traits: How does the average person’s personality
change as they age? For example, do people generally become more or less
talkative, conscientious, or emotionally stable as they grow older?

1. Stability of Individual Differences: How stable are the differences

between people in their personality traits over time? For example, among a
group of people of the same age, do those who are more talkative remain
relatively more talkative compared to others as they age?
• 1. Cross-Sectional Studies:
• In cross-sectional studies, researchers measure personality traits in people of different ages
at the same time.
• For example, they might compare the average personality traits of teenagers, young adults,
and older adults.
• This method is useful because it can quickly gather data from a large number of people,
which helps identify differences in personality traits between age groups.
• Limitation: Cross-sectional studies can't always prove that differences between age groups
are due to changes that happen as people age (developmental changes). For instance, if older
adults show higher levels of a trait than younger adults, it might not be because they
developed this trait as they aged. Instead, it could be that older adults already had these traits
when they were young due to the unique experiences or conditions of their generation
(known as "cohort effects" or "generational effects").
• 2. Longitudinal Studies:
• Longitudinal studies follow the same group of people over a long period,
measuring their personality traits multiple times, often years apart.
• By comparing the same individuals at different ages, researchers can see if their
personality traits increase, decrease, or stay the same over time.
• Advantage: Longitudinal studies can better show true developmental changes
because they track how the same people's traits evolve over time.
• Challenge: These studies are more difficult and time-consuming to conduct
because researchers have to keep track of participants over many years and
measure them multiple times. This makes them less common than cross-sectional
studies.
 The HEXACO framework is a model used to describe
personality traits. It was developed to expand upon the popular
Big Five personality model by adding an important sixth trait.
Each letter in HEXACO stands for one of the six major
dimensions of personality.

 Honesty-Humility (H): This trait reflects sincerity, fairness,

modesty, and lack of greed. People high in Honesty-Humility
are honest, not manipulative, and avoid seeking wealth or power
at the expense of others.
• Emotionality (E): This dimension measures emotional
reactions, such as anxiety, fear, and sensitivity. High
emotionality means a person is more likely to experience
fear, worry, and dependence on others, while lower levels
mean emotional stability and less sensitivity to stress.
• eXtraversion (X): This trait reflects social energy,
enthusiasm, and assertiveness. People who
score high in extraversion are outgoing,
energetic, and enjoy social interaction, while low
scorers tend to be more reserved and
introverted.
• Agreeableness (A): This trait measures
tolerance, kindness, and patience. In the
HEXACO model, agreeableness includes
forgiveness and flexibility in social situations.
High scorers are cooperative and gentle, while
low scorers can be more confrontational and
stubborn.
• Conscientiousness (C): This dimension involves
being organized, responsible, and hardworking.
Highly conscientious people are disciplined,
efficient, and reliable, whereas lower scorers
may be more careless or impulsive.
• Openness to Experience (O): This trait measures
creativity, curiosity, and appreciation for new
ideas. People high in openness are imaginative,
enjoy exploring new ideas and experiences,
while low scorers prefer routine and may be
more conventional.
Different traits change differently: Traits that are part of the same
larger personality factor can change in different ways as people age.
For example, within one broad personality factor, one specific trait
might increase a lot, while another might stay the same or even
decrease.
Honesty-Humility trends: The Honesty-Humility factor, which
includes traits like honesty and modesty, shows clear age-related
changes. It tends to decrease during the teenage years but increase as
people move through adulthood.
• Social Roles: As people age, they take on different
roles in life, such as working full time, getting
married, or raising a family. These roles come with
expectations from others that people should be more
responsible and stable. The idea is that people
naturally adjust their personalities to meet these
expectations.
• Biological Maturation: Personality as people age
come from biological factors, like changes in
hormones, brain structures, and other biological
systems. These changes are thought to be shaped by
natural selection because the benefits of having
certain personality traits can vary at different ages.

• Which Hypothesis is Correct?

• It’s possible that both social roles and biological

maturation contribute to changes in personality.
 Neyer & Lehnart (2007) Study
Aspect Details
Study Focus Impact of romantic relationships on personality changes.

Young adults in Germany, typically in their mid-20s to early 30s, observed over
Participants
an 8-year period.
Self-report personality inventories completed at the beginning, middle, and end
Method
of the study.
Initial Relationship
Most participants were in serious relationships at the start; some were single.
Status

Participants who were single at the start but entered a relationship were higher
Key Finding 1
in neuroticism and sociability compared to those who remained single.

Entering a relationship was associated with decreased anxiety, decreased

Key Finding 2 shyness, and increased self-esteem; these changes were not seen in
participants who remained single.

Participants who ended their relationship became slightly more extraverted

Key Finding 3
than those who stayed in the same relationship.

Predictability of Initial personality traits did not predict whether participants would stay in or
Relationship Changes end their relationship.

Being in a romantic relationship can contribute to emotional security, reduced

Implications
anxiety, and increased confidence, although these effects can vary.
 Costa & McCrae (1988b) Study
Aspect Details
Study Focus Stability of personality traits over time using self-reports.
Nearly 1000 adults, aged 25-84 at the beginning of the
Participants
study.

Self-reports of personality characteristics collected on two

Method
occasions, 6 years apart.

Very strong correlations (averaging over .70) between

Key Finding personality traits measured at the first and second
occasions, indicating high stability.

Comparison with Stability over 6 years was almost as high as short-term

Short-Term stability measured over a few weeks (test-retest reliability in
Stability the .80s).

Trait Stability Stability was consistent across different ages, indicating that
Across Different personality traits remain stable from young adulthood to
Ages older age.

Personality traits are highly stable over long periods,

Implications showing that adult personality remains relatively consistent
over time.
 Costa & McCrae (1992c) Study
Aspect Details
Stability of personality traits over time using observer
Study Focus
reports.

Participants About 90 adults, aged 31-57 at the beginning of the study.

Observer reports provided by close friends of the

Method
participants, collected on two occasions, 7 years apart.
Correlations between observer reports of personality traits at
Key Finding the two occasions averaged in the .70s, indicating high
stability.
Consistency
Across Similar levels of stability were observed whether traits were
Measurement measured by self-reports or observer reports.
Methods
High stability was found across various personality traits,
Stability Across
with no consistent pattern of higher stability for some traits
Different Traits
over others.
Personality traits show high stability over several years
regardless of the measurement method, suggesting that
Implications
personality remains stable across time and measurement
techniques.
 Comparison of NEO-PI-R (1994) and HEXACO-PI (2003) Scales

Participants: Results are based on self-reports from 655 adults.

Administration: NEO-PI-R was administered in 1994; HEXACO-PI was administered
in 2003.
Note: Angry Hostility and Patience are opposites in meaning, hence the negative
correlation.

HEXACO-PI Scale
NEO-PI-R Scale (1994) Correlation
(2003)
Order Organization .71
Angry Hostility Patience −.64
Anxiety Anxiety .63
Assertiveness Social Boldness .69
Openness to
Aesthetic Appreciation .71
Aesthetics
Modesty Modesty .55
• The table compares similar traits from the NEO-PI-R
and HEXACO-PI scales, showing generally strong
correlations, with values ranging from .55 to .71.
These results indicate that despite being measured
almost a decade apart using different inventories,
these personality traits show a significant degree of
consistency. The negative correlation between Angry
Hostility and Patience is expected, given their
opposite meanings. Overall, this comparison
supports the high stability of personality traits across
time and different measurement instruments, further
affirming the reliability of personality assessments
across different theoretical models.
 Here’s a table summarizing the stability of personality traits over different time periods:
Average Stability
Time Period Explanation
(Correlation)
Personality traits show very high stability over shorter
Several Years (e.g., 6-
.70 to .80 periods (a few years), with correlations averaging around .70
12 years)
to .80.

Stability is slightly higher when the period is shorter,

12 Years .70 showing high consistency in personality traits over this time
span.

Stability remains high over 24 years, with only a modest

24 Years .65
decline compared to shorter periods.

Estimated 50 Years Estimated stability over a 50-year span suggests traits

.60
(e.g., age 30 to 80) remain largely consistent, though slight changes may occur.

Some research suggests that long-term stability might be

Possible Higher
.80 even higher, closer to .80, indicating strong consistency
Estimate for 50 Years
across decades.

This table highlights that personality traits generally remain stable across
varying lengths of time, with only slight reductions in stability as the time
period extends.
• College Students (Robins et al., 2001): Personality
traits were measured at the start of college and again
at graduation (4 years later). The correlation between
these measurements was about .60, indicating that
traits are relatively stable but do change somewhat
during these years.

• Young Adults (Roberts et al., 2001): Another study

looked at individuals from ages 18 to 26. The
correlation between personality traits at these two
ages was about .55. This is similar to the college
student study and shows that personality traits are
stable but still subject to change during early
adulthood.
• High School to Middle Age (Finn, 1986): Traits measured in
college students were correlated .35 with those measured
30 years later. In contrast, traits measured in 40-year-olds
were correlated about .55 with their levels 30 years later.
This suggests that personality traits are less stable during
early adulthood compared to later years.

• Adolescents (McCrae et al., 2002): Personality traits were

assessed for teenagers aged 12 and 16. The correlation
was around .40, with Conscientiousness being somewhat
higher at .50. This indicates that while personality traits
are somewhat stable during adolescence, they are less
stable than in early adulthood or older adulthood.
Challenges in studying personality during childhood and infancy:
❑Describing Personality: Young children, especially those
under age 10, often describe themselves and others in
simple terms like "good" or "bad," rather than using
specific personality traits. They don't yet differentiate
between traits as older children or adults do.
❑Self-Report Inventories: Personality tests used for adults
require a level of reading and understanding that young
children and even some adolescents may not have. This
makes it hard to use these tests with younger kids to
compare traits between childhood and adulthood.
❑Assessing Very Young Children: For very young children
and infants, it’s difficult to observe behaviors that reveal
personality traits. For example, toddlers might not have
the language skills or social interactions needed to
provide clear insights into their personalities.
• Very Young Children and Infants: For infants and very
young children, personality or temperament traits
are less clear. Observers or parents typically describe
traits like:
• Activity Level: How active the child is.
• Irritability: How easily the child gets upset.
• Fearfulness: How fearful or anxious the child is.
• Positive Emotions: How often the child displays
positive emotions.
• Attention Span/Persistence: How well the child can
focus and persist in activities.
• Soothability: How easily the child can be calmed.
• Rhythmicity: The child’s preference for routines.
 Developmental Change in Personality Traits During
Childhood
Aspect Details

Researchers Lamb, Chuang, Wessels, Broberg, and Hwang (2002)

Participants About 100 Swedish children

Study Duration 13 years
Assessment
2, 3, 6, 8, and 15 years
Ages

Mothers' reports on children's personalities using the Big Five personality

Method
factors

Key Findings - Extraversion: Decrease over time

- Agreeableness: Increase over time

- Conscientiousness: Increase over time

- Emotional Stability: Decrease between ages 3 and 6 years

- Openness to Experience: Decrease between ages 8 and 15 years

• Study by Lamb et al. (2002):
• This study looked at children's personalities from age 2 to
age 15, measuring them at several points: ages 2, 3, 6, 8,
and 15.
• Short-Term Stability: Between nearby ages (like between 2
and 3 years, or 6 and 8 years), the personality traits were
relatively stable. For these shorter periods, the traits were
fairly consistent, with strong correlations (above .50).
• Long-Term Stability: Over the entire 13-year period (from
age 2 to age 15), the stability was lower, with correlations
around .20. This means there was more variation in traits
over such a long time.
• Study by Neppl et al. (2010):
• This study looked at 250 children in the U.S., with
personality reports from parents at ages 2, 3–5,
and 6–10.
• Stability Findings:
• Toddlerhood to Early Childhood: Moderate stability
(correlations around .35).
• Early Childhood to Middle Childhood: High stability
(correlations above .60).
• Overall, stability from toddlerhood to middle
childhood was modest, supporting the earlier findings
that personality traits can change as children grow.
Aspect Lamb et al. (2002) Neppl et al. (2010)
Stability of
Stability of personality traits in
Focus temperament/personality in
childhood
childhood

Longitudinal study (data Longitudinal study (data

Approach
collected at multiple points) collected at multiple points)

Age Range Ages 2 to 15 years Ages 2 to 10 years

Parent reports of
Multiple personality
Measurement Method temperament/personality at
assessments over several years
different stages

Moderate stability from

Moderate stability over shorter
toddlerhood to early childhood;
Findings on Stability periods, lower stability over
higher stability from early to
long periods
middle childhood

Higher stability between early

Stability Over Short High stability between adjacent
and middle childhood
Periods ages (correlations above .50)
(correlations above .60)

Lower stability over the entire Modest overall stability between

Stability Over Long
13-year period (correlations toddlerhood and middle
Periods
around .20) childhood
Huesmann, Dubow, and Boxer (2009):
Aspect Details
Study Title Longitudinal Study on Childhood Aggressiveness and Its Outcomes

Participants Over 800 children from 38 classrooms

Initial
Age 8: Peer nominations for aggressiveness (e.g., pushing, shoving)
Assessment
Follow-Up
Age 19: Self-report measures of aggression
Assessments
Age 30: Continued self-report measures of aggression

Age 48: Continued self-report measures of aggression

Main Findings - Moderate stability of aggressiveness across 40 years

- Correlation between aggressiveness at age 8 and age 48: ~.50 (males),

~.40 (females)

- High stability for individuals consistently high in aggressiveness

- High aggressiveness linked to unfavorable life outcomes (e.g., arrests,

health issues)

- Variability in outcomes based on the timing of aggressiveness

development
 Hampson and Goldberg (2006) study:
Aspect Details
Study Title Stability of Personality Between Childhood and Adulthood
Over 2,000 children from Hawaiian elementary schools (early 1960s); Follow-up with 800
Participants
in middle age
Initial Teachers rated the personalities of children (elementary school age) using traits related to
Assessment the Big Five

Follow-Up Approximately 40 years later, self-reports on personality variables from the same
Assessment participants (middle age)

Personality Big Five Personality Traits: Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Agreeableness,

Factors Openness to Experience

Stability
- Moderate stability for Extraversion and Conscientiousness (correlations above .25)
Results

- Close to zero stability for Neuroticism

- Intermediate stability for Agreeableness and Openness to Experience

Key Findings - Weak overall stability of personality from childhood to adulthood

- Stability likely underestimated due to possible inaccuracy in childhood personality

assessments

- Teachers’ ratings may not have fully captured children’s personalities, especially for
Neuroticism
 Main Points
• Developmental Change in Personality Traits: Studies have
shown that personality traits can change as people age.
• Cross-sectional studies (studies that compare different
age groups at the same time) and longitudinal studies
(studies that follow the same people over time) have found
similar patterns, suggesting that personality traits do
indeed change with age.
• For example, Honesty–Humility tends to decrease during
teenage years but increases throughout adulthood.
• Other personality traits, like those in the Extraversion and
Conscientiousness factors, show varied changes. For
instance, most traits within Extraversion increase with age,
but sociability tends to decrease slightly. Similarly, most
traits within Conscientiousness increase, but perfectionism
does not.
 Main Points
• Stability of Personality Traits in Adults:
• Among adults of the same age group, individual
differences in personality traits tend to be very stable
when measured over several years.
• Even over much longer periods, like two or more decades,
these traits remain fairly stable, although the stability is
slightly lower than over shorter periods.
• Personality traits are more stable after young adulthood (in
and after the 30s) than during adolescence or young
adulthood.
 Main Points
• Personality in Childhood:
• Studying personality in children is challenging, especially
in the early years when children's behaviors are less varied
than in older children or adults.
• Comparing personality traits from early childhood with
those in later periods is also difficult due to these
limitations.
• Research suggests that the structure of personality traits
in children is similar to that in adults, but it’s less clear for
very young children.
 Main Points
• One study suggests that during childhood, Extraversion
may decrease slightly, while traits like Agreeableness and
Conscientiousness may increase modestly.
• Studies indicate that children's personalities are fairly
stable over short periods (a few years) but show less
stability over the entire span of childhood.
• Between childhood and adulthood, the stability of
personality traits tends to be low, though some specific
traits, like aggressiveness, may show higher stability.
 Conclusion
• While personality traits can change throughout life, they
also show a degree of stability, especially after young
adulthood. However, in childhood, personality traits are
less stable, and our understanding of these changes is still
developing as more research is conducted. The findings
suggest that personality traits are both enduring and
subject to gradual change, with stability increasing after
adolescence.