Chapter 1 THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

1.1 Introduction
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation,
and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are
negligible. Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics.
In this section, we derive the Bernoulli equation by applying the conservation of linear
momentum principle, and we demonstrate both its usefulness and its limitations.

The following assumptions are made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation:

1. The fluid is ideal (viscosity is zero )

2. The flow is steady.
3. The flow is incompressible.

Figure 1-1 The Bernoulli equation is an approximate equation that is valid only in inviscid
regions of flow where net viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial,
gravitational, or pressure forces. Such regions occur outside of boundary layers.

Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in steady flow as shown in figure 1.2
below. Applying Newton’s second law in the s-direction on a particle moving along a
streamline gives;
 Figure 1-2 The forces acting on a fluid particle along a streamline.

∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠 (A)

The significant forces acting in the s-direction are the pressure (acting on both sides) and the
component of the weight of the particle in the s-direction (Fig. 1.2). Therefore, resolving the
forces in the s direction, Eq. A becomes
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − (𝑃𝑃 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿)𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 − 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 − 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
−𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 − 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑩𝑩)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where ;

𝜃𝜃 is the angle between the normal of the streamline and the vertical 𝑧𝑧 axis at that point,
𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 is the weight of the fluid particle,
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
Substituting into equation B,

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
−𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Cancelling 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 from each term and simplifying,

−𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

1
Noting that 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 2 𝛿𝛿(𝑣𝑣)2 and dividing each term by 𝜌𝜌 gives

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 1
+ 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝛿𝛿(𝑣𝑣)2 = 0 (𝐂𝐂)
𝜌𝜌 2
Integrating equation C gives;

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 1
� + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝛿𝛿(𝑣𝑣)2 = 0
𝜌𝜌 2

𝑃𝑃 1
+ 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + (𝑣𝑣)2 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑫𝑫)
𝜌𝜌 2

Equation D is the Bernoulli equation, which is states that the sum of the kinetic, potential, and
flow (pressure) energies of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline during steady flow
(figure 1.3). It is commonly used in fluid mechanics for steady, incompressible flow along a
streamline.

Figure 1-3 Bernoulli Equation

1.2 Application of Bernoulli’s equation

1.2.1 The Venturi Meter
Pressure difference between any two points in a tapering pipe through which a fluid is flowing
depends on the difference of levels (𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 ), the mean velocities 𝑢𝑢2 and 𝑢𝑢1 and therefore, on
the volume rate of flow, Q through the pipe (figure 1.5).
 Figure 1-4 Inclined Venturi Meter and U-tube

Pressure difference can then be used to determine the volume rate of flow for any particular
configuration. This is the effect the venturi meter uses for the measurement of flow in pipelines.
The venturi meter consists of a short converging tube leading to a short cylindrical portion,
called the throat (of a smaller diameter than the main pipe), which is followed by a long
diverging section in which the diameter increases again to that of the main pipe.

The pressure difference from which the volume rate of flow can be determined is measured
between the entry section 1 and the throat section 2 by means of a U-tube manometer. The axis
of the venturi meter may be horizontal, or inclined at any angle. For an incompressible flow,
the volume rate of flow (or discharge) is determined from continuity as

Q = A × u;

where A is the cross-section area of flow

while 𝑢𝑢 is taken to be the mean velocity of flow.

The cross-section area of flow at any point would be determined from the dimensions of the
venturi meter as provided by the manufacturer/vendor, and therefore the main task would be to
determine the mean velocity of flow. Assuming that there are no energy losses and applying
Bernoulli’s equation to sections 1 and 2.

𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 + + = 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 + +
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � + (𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 − 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )� (𝑨𝑨)
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆

From Continuity of flow,

𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 = 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐

𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏
𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐 = 𝒖𝒖
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏

𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = � � 𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 (𝑩𝑩)
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐
Substituting equation (𝑩𝑩)into equation (𝑨𝑨)above;

𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 � � − 𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � + (𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 − 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )�
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆

𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 �� � − 𝟏𝟏� = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � + (𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 − 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )�
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆

𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 − 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 � � = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � + (𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 − 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )�
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆

𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 − 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 � 𝟐𝟐
� = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � + (𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 − 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )�
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆

𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐

𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 = � 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
� 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � + (𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 − 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )�
𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 − 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 = ⎛ ⎞ �𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � + (𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 − 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )�
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
�𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 − 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
⎝ ⎠

For Volume rate of Flow, 𝑸𝑸 = 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 = 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝒖𝒖𝟐𝟐 . Therefore,

𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐

𝑸𝑸 = ⎛ ⎞ �𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � + (𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 − 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 )�
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
�𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 − 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
⎝ ⎠

For a horizontal pipe 𝒁𝒁𝟏𝟏 − 𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎 thus,

𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐

𝑸𝑸 = ⎛ ⎞ �𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 � 𝟏𝟏 � (𝑪𝑪)
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
�𝑨𝑨 − 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐
⎝ 𝟏𝟏 ⎠

𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 − 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐
𝑯𝑯 = � �
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
Where H is defined as difference in pressure head between the entry section (in the main pipe)
and the throat section. It is NOT the difference in the levels of the manometric fluid. Therefore
Equation (𝐶𝐶) becomes;

𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2
𝑄𝑄 = � � �2𝑔𝑔𝐻𝐻 (𝐷𝐷)
�𝐴𝐴12 − 𝐴𝐴22

Equation (D) then gives the theoretical discharge through a horizontal venturi meter. To get
the actual discharge, 𝑸𝑸𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 ,we multiply Q by a coefficient of discharge, Cd which is found
experimentally. Although Cd varies somewhat with the rate of flow, the viscosity of the fluid
and the surface roughness, a value in the range of 0.95 - 0.99 is usual with fluids of low
viscosity.
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2
𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 � � �2𝑔𝑔𝐻𝐻 (𝐷𝐷)
�𝐴𝐴12 − 𝐴𝐴22

The value of H in equation (D) can be found from the reading of the U-tube gauge
(Fig. 1.5). Assuming that the connections to the gauge are filled with the fluid flowing
in the pipeline, which has a density 𝝆𝝆, and that the density of the manometric liquid in
the bottom of the U-tube is 𝝆𝝆𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 , then, since pressures at level XX must be the same in both
limbs,
𝑃𝑃𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝑃𝑃1 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧 − ℎ) + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝑔𝑔

𝐻𝐻 = 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 is the difference in pressure head of the flowing fluid, between the inlet
and the throat of the venturi meter.

𝐻𝐻 = 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑧𝑧2 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑧𝑧1 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 + 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝑔𝑔

𝐻𝐻 = 𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1 ) + 𝑔𝑔ℎ( 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝜌𝜌)
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐻𝐻 = (𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 )⁄𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 + (𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2 ) = ℎ( − 1)
𝜌𝜌
1.2.2 The Pitot Tube
A point in a fluid stream where velocity is reduced to zero is called a stagnation point, and a
non-rotating obstacle in the path of a flowing stream produces a stagnation point on its
upstream surface, e.g., point B on Fig 1.7.

Figure 1-5 Stagnation point

On either side of the central streamline AB, the flow is deflected round the object but along
AB, the velocity decreases until it is zero at point B. From Bernoulli's equation,

𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵2

𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴 + + = 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵 + +
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔
For a horizontal pipeline, 𝒁𝒁𝑨𝑨 = 𝒁𝒁𝑩𝑩 and since point B is a stagnation point 𝒗𝒗𝑩𝑩 = 𝟎𝟎,therefore;

𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵

+ =
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴2
𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵 = 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 + (𝐴𝐴)
2
Pressure 𝑷𝑷𝑩𝑩 is called the stagnation pressure of the central streamline AB and is made up of
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝟐𝟐𝑨𝑨
the static pressure 𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑨 and the dynamic pressure . The stagnation pressure represents the
𝟐𝟐
conversion of all kinetic energy along a streamline into a pressure rise.

The Pitot tube applies the principle of stagnation. It is a right-angled glass tube, large enough
for capillary effects to be neglected, that is inserted into the flow as shown in Fig. 1.8. The Pitot
tube measures the stagnation pressure. A piezometer tube is also connected to measure the
static pressure. The velocity of the flow is determined from Eq. (A), by measuring the
difference between the static pressure 𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑨 and the stagnation pressure 𝑷𝑷𝑩𝑩 , i.e.,

Figure 1-6 Pitot Tube

𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴2
∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵 − 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 = (𝐵𝐵)
2
In terms of head

∆𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴2

= − =
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2
∆𝑃𝑃 = ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 − ℎ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
2𝑔𝑔

𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2
ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
2𝑔𝑔

𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 = �2𝑔𝑔ℎ𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

This velocity is the theoretical velocity and the actual velocity can then be determined by
incorporating the coefficient of the Pitot tube, 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 , therefore,
𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 �2𝑔𝑔ℎ

Piezometer tubes as shown in Fig. 1.8 are suitably replaced by connections to a differential
manometer. Frequently, the tubes recording the static and dynamic pressures are conveniently
combined into one instrument known as a Pitot-static tube

Assignment 1
1. What is the difference between pitot-tube and pitot static tube
2. Describe with the help of a sketch the construction operation and use of pitot-static
tube.
3. The inlet and throat diameters of a horizontal venturi meter are 30cm and 10cm
respectively. The liquid flowing through the meter is water. The pressure intensity at
inlet is 13.734 N/cm2 while the vacuum pressure head at the throat is 37cm of mercury.
Find also the value of Cd for the venturi meter.
4. A pipe of diameter 30cm carries water at a velocity of 20m/s. The pressures at the point
A and B are given as 34.335N/cm2 and 29.43N/cm2 respectively while the datum head
at A and B are 25m and 28m. Find the head loss between A and B.

1.2.3 Theory of Small Orifices Discharging to the Atmosphere

An orifice is an opening, usually circular, in the side or base of a tank or reservoir, through
which fluid is discharged in the form of a jet, usually into the atmosphere. The volume rate
of flow discharged through an orifice will depend upon the head of the fluid above the level of
the orifice and it can, therefore, be used as a means of flow measurement. The term ‘small
orifice’ is applied to an orifice which has a diameter, or vertical dimension, which is small
compared with the head producing flow. so that it can be assumed that this head does not vary
appreciably from point to point across the orifice.

Figure 1.10 shows a small orifice in the side of a large tank containing liquid with a free surface
open to the atmosphere. At a point A on the free surface, the pressure 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 is atmospheric and, if
the tank is large, the velocity 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 will be negligible.

Figure 1-7 Flow through a small orifice

In the region of the orifice, conditions are rather uncertain, but at some point, B in the jet, just
outside the orifice, the pressure 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵 will again be atmospheric and the velocity 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 will be that
of the jet 𝑣𝑣. Taking the datum for potential energy at the centre of the orifice and applying
Bernoulli’s equation to A and B, assuming that there is no loss of energy,

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵

𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵2

𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴 + + = 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵 + +
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔
Putting, 𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴 = 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻, 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 = 0, 𝑣𝑣𝐵𝐵 = 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵
 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴 = 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻 =
2𝑔𝑔

𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 = �2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (𝐴𝐴)

This is a statement of Torricelli’s theorem, that the velocity of the issuing jet is proportional
to the square root of the head producing flow. Equation (A) above applies to any fluid, H being
expressed as a head of the fluid flowing through the orifice. For example, if an orifice is
formed in the side of a vessel containing gas of density 𝜌𝜌 at a uniform pressure 𝑃𝑃, the value of
H would be 𝑃𝑃/𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌.

Theoretically, if A is the cross-sectional area of the orifice,

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝐴𝐴�2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (𝐵𝐵)

In practice, the actual discharge is considerably less than the theoretical discharge given by
equation (B), which must, therefore, be modified by introducing a coefficient of discharge 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 ,
so that

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 × 𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴�2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (𝐶𝐶)

There are two reasons for the difference between the theoretical and actual discharges.

First, the velocity of the jet is less than that given by equation (A) because there is a loss of
energy between A and B:

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 × 𝑣𝑣 = 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 �2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (𝐷𝐷)

where 𝑪𝑪𝒗𝒗 is a coefficient of velocity, which is determined experimentally and is given as 0.97

Second, as shown in Fig. 1.11, the paths of the particles of the fluid converge on the orifice,
and the area of the issuing jet at B is less than the area of the orifice 𝐴𝐴 at C.
 Figure 1-8 Contraction of issuing jet

In the plane of the orifice, the particles have a component of velocity towards the centre and
the pressure at C is greater than atmospheric pressure. It is only at B, a small distance outside
the orifice, that the paths of the particles have become parallel. The section through B is called
the vena contracta.

Actual Area at B =𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 × 𝐴𝐴 (𝐸𝐸)

where 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 is the coefficient of contraction, which can be determined experimentally and will
depend on the profile of the orifice. For a sharp-edged orifice of the form shown in Fig. 1.11,
it is given as 0.64. We can now determine the actual discharge from equations (𝑫𝑫) and (𝑬𝑬).

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐵𝐵 × Actual Area at B

=𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 �2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 (𝐹𝐹)

Comparing equation (𝑭𝑭)with equation (𝑪𝑪)we see that the relation between the coefficients is

𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 = 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 × 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣

The values of the coefficient of discharge, the coefficient of velocity and the coefficient of
contraction are determined experimentally and values are available for standard configurations
in British Standard specifications.

To determine the coefficient of discharge, it is only necessary to measure, the actual volume
discharged from the orifice in a given time and compare this with the theoretical discharge
given by equation (𝑩𝑩).

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 =
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 =
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
1.2.4 Theory of Large Orifices
If the vertical height of an orifice is large, so that the head producing flow is substantially less
at the top of the opening than at the bottom, the discharge calculated from the formula for a
small orifice, using the head h measured to the centre of the orifice, will not be the true value,
since the velocity will vary very substantially from top to bottom of the opening.

The method adopted when calculating discharge from large orifices is to calculate the flow
through a thin horizontal strip across the orifice (Fig. 1.13), and integrate from top to bottom
of the opening to obtain the theoretical discharge, from which the actual discharge can be
determined if the coefficient of discharge is known. Since the velocity of flow will be much
greater at the bottom than at the top of the opening. Consider a horizontal strip across the
opening of height 𝛿𝛿ℎ at a depth ℎ below the free surface:

Figure 1-9 Flow through a Large Orifice

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵ℎ,

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣 = �(2𝑔𝑔ℎ),

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝐵𝐵(2𝑔𝑔)1⁄2 ℎ1⁄2 𝛿𝛿ℎ.

For the whole opening, integrating from h = H1 to h = H2,

 𝐻𝐻2
1⁄2
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 × 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝐵𝐵(2𝑔𝑔) � ℎ1⁄2 𝛿𝛿ℎ
𝐻𝐻1

2 ⁄ ⁄
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐵𝐵(2𝑔𝑔)1⁄2 (𝐻𝐻23 2 − 𝐻𝐻13 2 )
3

1.2.5 Discharge through fully submerged orifice

A fully submerged orifice is one which has its whole of the outlet side sub-merged under
liquid so that it discharges a jet of liquid into the liquid of the same kind. Also referred to as
as totally drowned orifice. Figure 1.14 shows the fully sub-merged orifice.

Figure 1-10 fully sub-merged orifice.

Consider two points (1) and (2) point 1 being in the reservoir on the upstream side of the
orifice and point 2 being at the vena-contracta. Let

• H1 is the height of the water above the top of the orifice on the upstream side,
• H2 is the height of water above the bottom of the orifice
• H is the difference in water level
• b is the width of the orifice
• Cd is coefficient of discharge.

Height of water above the centre of the orifice on upstream side

𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 − 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 + 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐

= 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 + =
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐

Height of water above the centre of the orifice on downstream side

𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 + 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐
= − 𝑯𝑯
𝟐𝟐
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at (1) and (2), we get

𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

+ = +
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
Now
𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 + 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 + 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐
𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 = = , 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 = − 𝑯𝑯
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 𝟐𝟐
Since v1 is negligible
Therefore
𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 + 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 + 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
+ 𝟎𝟎 = − 𝑯𝑯 +
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
= 𝑯𝑯
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 = �(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐),

Area of orifice =𝒃𝒃 × (𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 − 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 )

Discharge through orifice = 𝑪𝑪𝒅𝒅 × 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 × 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗

𝑸𝑸 = 𝑪𝑪𝒅𝒅 × 𝒃𝒃 × (𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 − 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 ) × �(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐),

1.2.6 Discharge through partially sub-merged orifice

Figure 1-11 partially sub-merged orifice

Partially submerged orifice (Also referred to as partially drowned orifice) is one which has it’s
outlet side partial sub-merged under liquid as shown in figure 1.15. It therefore has two
portions, where the upper portion behaves as an orifice discharging free while the lower portion
behaves as a sub-merged orifice. The total discharge Q through the partially sub-merged orifice
is the sum of the discharge through the free and the sub-merged portions.

Discharge through the sub-merged portion is given by;

𝑸𝑸𝟏𝟏 = 𝑪𝑪𝒅𝒅 × 𝒃𝒃 × (𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 − 𝑯𝑯𝟏𝟏 ) × �(𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐),

Discharge through the free portion is given by (large orifice);

2 ⁄ ⁄
𝑸𝑸𝟐𝟐 = × 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 × 𝑏𝑏 × (2𝑔𝑔)1⁄2 × (𝐻𝐻23 2 − 𝐻𝐻13 2 )
3

Total discharge = 𝑸𝑸𝟏𝟏 + 𝑸𝑸𝟐𝟐