POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERE/\ICE SERIES

VOLUME 7

AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

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ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

13196308
13196308
POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

VOLUM E7

AUX ILIAR Y ELEC TRIC AL EQU IPME NT

Author R. G. Brunne r

Written by
Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation
245 Summer Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02107

Electric Power Research Institut e

3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94 304

EPRI Project Manage r

D. K. Sharma
13196308
Ordering Information
Requests for copies of this series should be directed
to Research Reports Center (RRC), P.O. Box 50490,
Palo Alto, CA 94303, (415) 965-4081.
For further information on EPRI's technical pro-
grams contact the EPRI Tochnical Information Divi-
sion at (415) 855-2411, or write directly to EPRI's
Tuchnical Information Center at P.O. Box 10412, Palo
Alto, CA 94303.

EL-5036, Volume 7
Project 2334
ISBN 0-8033-5006-6 volume
ISBN 0-8033-5015-5 series

Topics: Electric arcs

Circuit breakers
Switchgear
Auxiliary switching equipment
Maintenance

Copyright«:> 1987 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

All rights reserved.

Reprinted in 1998 by Energy Conversion Division,

Steam-Turbine, Generator, Balance-of-Plant Target.
Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered
service marks of Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.

Notice
This series was prepared by Stone &. Webster Engineering
Corporation as an account of work sponsored by the Elec-
tric Power Research Institute, Inc. (EPRil. Neither EPRI,
members of EPRI, Stone &. Webster Engineering Corpora-
tion, nor any person acting on behalf of any of them:
(a) makes any warranty, express or implied, with respect to
the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process
disclosed in this series or that such use may not infringe
privately owned rights, or (b) assumes any liabilities with
respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the
use of, any information, apparatus, method, or process dis-
closed in this series.
13196308
 FORE WORD

In the past, several electrical equipment manufac- well defined before this equipment can be cor-
turers published reference books dealing with rectly specified.
specific technical areas. Many utilities have stated Information about the application of station ser-
that these reference books have been very useful vice electrical equipment is available in the publi-
to them in dealing with plant emergencies and in cations and standards of technical societies, in
making decisions on design, system planning, and engineering handbooks, and in manufacture rs'
preventive maintenance. literature. This volume additionally provides the
Unfortunately, manufacture rs today seldom overall performanc e requirement s of the station
publish or update reference books on electric service auxiliary equipment. It guides the user in
power apparatus, mainly because of tighter bud- applying the industry standards for power plants.
get constraints. Until now, utilities have had no up- The goal of this volume is to describe the tech-
to-date industrywid e practical reference manual nological advances in load~switching and fault-
covering the various electric power apparatus and interrupting equipment. A selection and a review
electrical phenomena commonly encountered in of applicable published literature and industry
power plants. The Power Plant Electrical Refer- standards were performed to guide generating-
ence Series was planned to fill this need. station personnel in the design, procuremen t, test-
EPRI believes that the series will save utilities ing, and maintenance of this equipment. This vol-
time and money. It will aid plant engineers in ume discusses the available types of equipment
■ Prevention of forced outages through proper and delineates the system requirement s and the
installation, application, and protection of diagnostics for problems unique to this type of
station auxiliary equipment equipment.

■ Recognition of potential problems and their D. K. Sharma

prevention Plant Electrical Systems and Equipment Program
■ Selection of appropriate methods of main- Electrical Systems Division
Electric Power Research Institute
tenance to ensure trouble-free equipment
operation
■ Reduction of equipment installation time and
expense
■ Proper specification of equipment being
ordered
■ Better coordination and integration of system
components
This volume deals with power plant auxiliary
electrical equipment. Load-switching and fault-
interrupting equipment is an important part of the
power plant station service auxiliary system. It
provides a means for controlled switching of elec-
trical equipment and provides coordinated short-
circuit and overload protection for station service
equipment. The application of station service
switching equipment, which consists of switch-
gear, secondary unit substations, motor control
centers, and generator13196308
circuit breakers, must be
13196308
 ABS TRAC T

Load-switching and fault-inter rupting equipment

is an essential componen t of the power plant aux-
iliary system. It provides a means of switching elec-
trical loads and provides controlled , coordinated
short-circu it and overload protection for all sta-
tion service equipment .
This volume describes the types of auxiliary
electrical equipmen t and delineates their advan-
tages, disadvantages, and applications, along with
suggested maintenan ce and diagnostics for prob-
lems unique to each type of equipment . Diagrams
explain the operation of:

■ Medium-voltage switchgear: oil, air-magnetic,

vacuum, sulfur hexafluoride, and air-blast
circuit breakers
■ Secondary unit substations: disconnect
switches, air-magnetic circuit breakers, and
transform ers (liquid-insulated, dry-type, and
cast-coil)
■ Motor control centers
■ Panel boards
■ Generator breakers
■ Bus: isolated-phase, segregated-phase, and
nonsegreg ated-phase

In addition, the volume contains examples that

explain how to select circuit breakers and how to
replace an old circuit breaker with a modem one.
Environme ntal considerations, such as abnormal
temperatu res, high altitudes, and exposure to
moisture, metal dust, vibration, and other hostile
environme nts, are also included.

13196308
13196308
ACK NOW LED GME NTS

The author wishes to express his appreciation to

the following people for their guidance, reviews,
and comments.

Electric Power Researc h Institut e

D. K. Sharma, Project Manager
R. Steiner, Associate Director, Electrical Systems
Division
G. Addis, Project Manager .
L. Kolarik, Thchnical Assistant to Division Director
J. C. White, Program Manager

Stone & Webste r Engine ering

Corpor ation
G. 0. Buffington, Project Manager
E. P. Donegan
A. R. Fitzpatri ck
P. Garfinkel
A. P. Stakutis

EPRI Review Commi ttee

J. R. Boyle, Tonnessee Valley Authority
L. E. Brothers, Southern Company Services
J. Erlingsson, Pacific Gas and Electric Company
R. G. Farmer, Arizona Public Service Company
R. G. Hodgson, Los Angeles Departm ent of Water
& Power
J. A. Maxwell, Georgia Power Company
W. L. Nail, Jr., Mississippi Power & Light Company
D. G. Owen, Duke Power Company
B. K. Patel, Southern Company Services
R. A. Schaefer, Public Service Company of
Oklahom a
J.E. Stoner, Jr., Duke Power Company
D. M. Van Thssell, Jr., Florida Power & Light
Company
J. E. White, Tumpa Electric Company
The author also extends thanks to G. N. Lester
of Boston Edison Company for his valuable sug-
gestions and for his careful review of the final
manuscri pt.

13196308
13196308
 CONT ENTS

SECTION PAGE SECTION PAGE

. Figures .......... .......... .. 7-xi 7.7 Panel Boards . ........... .... 7-29

Tables .......... .......... ... 7-xiii Molded-Case Circuit Breakers .... 7-29

Executive Summary .......... 7-xv 7.8 DC Equipmen t ........... ... 7-29

DC Low-Voltage Switchgear ...... 7-29
Acronyms & Abbreviat ions .. 7-xvii DC Low-Voltage Motor Control ... 7-30
Speed Control ........... ...... 7-30
7.1 Introducti on ........... ...... 7-1 DC Panel Boards ........... .... 7-30

7.2 Definition of Terms .......... 7-1 7.9 Generator Circuit Breakers .. 7-30

7 .3 Circuit Breakers- Theory of History and Applications ........ 7-30

Arc Interrupti on ........... .. 7-2 Available Equipment ........... . 7-32

Electric Arc Characteris tics-The

7.10 Bus ........... ........... ... 7.33
Zero Pause ........... ........ 7-2
Air-Magnetic Circuit Breakers ..... 7-3 Construction Features .......... 7-33
Oil Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 Bus Ratings ........... ........ 7-33
Vacuum Circuit Breakers ......... 7-5 Nonsegregat ed-Phase Bus ........ 7-34
SF6 Circuit Breakers ........... .. 7-7 Segregated-P hase Bus ........... 7-34
Air-Blast Circuit Breakers ........ 7-9 Isolated-Pha se Bus ........... .. 7-34
Isolated-Pha se Bus Accessories ... 7-37
7.4 Medium-V oltage Switchgea r 7-10 Bus Maintenance ........... .... 7-39
Available Equipment ........... .. 7-10
7.11 Environm ental
Medium-Voltage Switchgear
Considera tions ........... ... 7.39
Components ........... ....... 7-11
Switchgear Ratings ........... ... 7-12 Abnormal Tomperature s ........ 7-39
Applications and Related High Altitude ........... ....... 7-39
Requiremen ts ........... ...... 7-14 Hostile Environmen t ........... . 7-39
Exposure to Abnormal Vibration
7.5 Secondary Unit Substation s .. 7-15 or Tilting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-40
Exposure to Atmospheric
Incoming Line Section ........... 7-16
Sulfurous Gases ........... ... 7-40
'Iransformer s ........... ....... 7-16
Low-Voltage Switchgear .......... 7-19
Low-Voltage Switchgear Ratings ... 7-20 7.12 Installatio n Requireme nts ... 7-40
Applications and Related Installing Ventilated Dry!fype
Requiremen ts ........... ...... 7-22 'Iransformer s ........... ..... 7-40
Accessibility and Provision for
7.6 Motor Control ........... .... 7-23 Removal ........... ......... 7-41
Low-Voltage Motor Control ....... 7-23
Combination Motor Controller 7.13 Maintenan ce Requireme nts .. 7-41
Ratings .......... .......... .. 7•24 Recommend ed Scheduled
Medium-Voltage Motor Control .... 7-28 Maintenance ........... ...... 7-41
13196308
 SECTION PAGE

Maintenance Problems Unique to

Each 1ype of Circuit Breaker .... 7-42

References ........... ........ 7-4 7

Bibliograp hy ........... ...... 7-49

Index ........... ........... .. 7-51

13196308
 FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE FIGURE PAGE

7-1 AC Arc Current and Voltage 7-16 Compari ~on of Thermal
Across Arc Plotted Versus Time .. 7-2 Characte ristics of a Typical Motor
and Typical Overload Relay ...... 7-26
7-2 Reignition Voltage for Various
Deionizing Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 7-17 Melting-Alloy Overload Relay ..... 7-26

7-3 Barriers With an Inverted 7-18 Bimetallic Overload Relay ........ 7-26
V-shaped Slot for Extinguishing
Arcs by Constriction . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 7-19 Generati ng Station With Generato r
Circuit Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-31
7-4 Arc-restr aining Metal Barriers
Subdividing Long Arcs Into Several 7-20 Generati ng Station With Unit-
Serially Related Short Arcs ....... 7-4 connecte d Generato r ........ .... 7-31

7-5 Magnetic Blowout. ........ ...... 7-4 7-21 Nuclear Generati ng Station, Unit-
connecte d With 'I\.vo Station
7-6 Typical Molded-Case Air-Magnetic Service 'Transfor mers ........ .... 7-32
Circuit Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7-22 Nuclear Generati ng Station With
7-7 Arc Bubble in a Plain Oil Circuit Generato r Circuit Breaker ........ 7-33
Breaker ........ ........ ....... 7-6
7-23 Fossil Fuel Generati ng Station With
7-8 Plain Explosion Pot From Which Generato r Circuit Breaker ........ 7-34
Arc-enclosing Devices Evolved .... 7-7
7-24 Bus Types ........ ........ ..... 7-35
7-9 Ruptor Interrupt ing Device With
Serpentin e Throat, a Later Version 7-25 Isolated- Phase Bus Enclosur e
of the Explosion Pot ........ ..... 7-7 Designs ........ ........ ....... 7-36

7-10 Maximum Allowable Medium- 7-26 Forced-Cooling Systems ........ .. 7-38

Voltage Cable Length ........ .... 7-8
7-27 Cooling System Operatio n ........ 7-38
7-11 Typical Vacuum Interrup ters and
Vacuum Switchgear ........ ..... 7-9

7-12 Examples of SF6 Circuit Breakers .. 7-10

7-13 Example of Air-Blast Circuit

Breaker ........ ........ ....... 7-11

7-14 Representative Examples of Low-

Voltage Switchge ar ........ ...... 7-21

7-15 Motor Control Centers and

Compone nts ........ ........ ... 7-25

13196308
13196308
 TABLES

TABLE PAGE

7-1 Comparative Cost of 'Iransformers .. 7-18

7-2 Electromagnetic Forces and Stray-

Flux Heating From Isolated-Phase
Bus .......................... .. 7-37

7-3 Minimum Values for Insulation

Resistance ....................... 7-41

7-4 Equipment High-Potential Tust

Voltages ........................ 7-42

13196308
13196308
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Power-switching and system protection equipment Results

provides the means for distribut ing the station
auxiliary power supply to plant equipme nt drives. The material in this volume is expected to provide
The application and maintena nce of this equip- guidance for the engineer ing and operatin g
ment and an understa nding of the applicable in- departme nts of generatin g facilities in selecting
dustry standard s are vital to the continue d satisfactory equipme nt and replacem ent compo-
opE;ration of the power plant. nents for a reliable station service auxiliary
system.
Backgr ound
The industry standard s governing the manufac-
ture of circuit breakers and associated plant aux-
iliary equipme nt have changed considerably since
the 1960s, and the effects of these changes have
not been fully apprecia ted by engineers. Older
equipme nt has to be replaced with equipme nt
manufac tured to different standard s; it is essen-
tial to understa nd the meaning of equipme nt rat-
ings in order to correctly apply the equipme nt.

Objecti ve
This volume aims to develop guidelines for the de-
sign, procurem ent, installation, testing, and main-
tenance of the station service auxiliary power
supply equipme nt. It also means to identify mod-
ern practices and requirem ents for medium-
voltage switchgear, secondar y unit substations,
motor control equipme nt, and generato r circuit
breakers .

Approa ch
Pertinent information was accumulated from a na-
tional survey of utility requirem ents. A search of
literature about station service auxiliary equip-
ment was performe d to identify specific informa-
tion on power plant applications. Additionally, the
EPRI Review Coipmittee, with members from 11
utilities in various areas of the United States, and
other industry experts reviewed the material for
technica l adequacy and completeness. This infor-
mation provided the basis for this volume of the
Power Plant Electrical Reference Series.

13196308
13196308
 ACRONYMS
&
ABBREVIATIONS

A ampere(s) K rated voltage range factor K

ac alternating current kA kiloampere(s)
AIEE American Institute of Electrical Engineers kAIC kiloamperes interrupting current
(now Institute of Electrical and Electronics KEMA Laboratory and Research Center, Arnheim,
Engineers [IEEE]) Netherlands
ANSI American National Standards Institute kHz kilohertz
ASTM American Society for Tusting and kV kilovolt(s)
Materials kVA kilovolt(s) amperes
BIL basic impulse insulation level LEL total transformer losses at expected load
(Eq. 7-6)
CE energy cost in dollars per kilowatt
(Eq. 7-7) Le core losses (Eq. 7-6)
Li- total winding losses at full load (Eq. 7-6)
c, installed transformer cost (Eq. 7-9)
LV low voltage
cm centimeter(s)
Co total annual operating cost (Eq. 7-7) MCC motor control center
CF4 carbon tetrafluoride MCP motor circuit protection
C2Cl3F3 trichlorotrifluoro ethane MOC mechanism-oper ated control
Cl2:CC12 perchloroethylen e ms millisecond(s)
CH3SCH3 dimethyl sulfide µs microsecond(s)
CH3SH methyl mercaptan MV medium voltage
co close-open MVA megavolt ampere(s)
CPT control power transformer
cpv present value of total annual operating N years of postulated transformer life
cost (Eq. 7-8) Nz nitrogen
CS2 carbon disulfide NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
CT total transformer cost 0 open
D day(s) per year transformer operates ocs carbonyl sulfide
(Eq. 7-7) ppm parts per million
de direct current
R contact resistance (Eq. 7-10)
E millivolt drop across contacts (Eq. 7-10) rms root mean square
F fraction of 100% load expected on the RID resistance temperature detector
transformer (Eq. 7-6) s second(s)
F3CCF3 hexafluoroethane S02 sulfur dioxide
F2SO thionyl fluoride SF6 sulfur hexafluoride
H hour(s) per day transformer operates SUS secondary unit substation
(Eq. 7-7) T permissible tripping delay (Eq. 7-4)
HCl hydrogen chloride TDC truck-operated contact
HF hydrogen fluoride
hp horsepower V volt(s)
H2S hydrogen sulfide Vac volt(s) alternating current
HV high voltage y rated permissible tripping delay
Hz hertz
rate of return
I current
ICS Industrial Controls and Systems
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Inc.
in. inch(es)
13196308
13196308
VOLUME 7

AUX ILIA RY ELE CTR ICAL EQU IPM ENT

R. G. Brunn er

7 .1 INTROD UCTION example, nuclear power stations are required to

have two independent off-site power sources to en-
Load-switching and fault-inte rrupting equipme nt sure capability of safe shutdown and public safety,
is an importan t part of the power plant auxiliary which may be met by using two startup transform-
service system. It provides a means for switching ers fed by two independ ent lines. One station ser-
electrical equipme nt, in addition to providing con- vice (startup) transform er and independ ent line
trQ).led, coordina ted short-circuit and overload may be eliminated by using a generato r circuit
protectio n for all station service equipment. It per- breaker and feeding the internal plant require-
forms reliably and contribu tes in large measure ments back through the unit transform er. With
to the dependab ility of modem electric power sys- the generato r circuit breaker open, the main
tems. This volume covers the application of switch- transmission line is available as an off-site source.
gears, secondar y-unit substations, motor control The distinction between load-inte rrupting and
centers, generato r circuit breakers, and buses. fault-interrupting equipme nt is often misu~der-
The highest-capacity switching equipment in the stood, which results in misapplications. Load-
power plant auxiliary service system is medium- interrupt ing equipme nt, such as contactor s and
voltage switchge ar (2.4 to 38 kV), which provides starters, are designed for perhaps 200,000 full-load
distribut ion from the unit auxiliary transform er operation s with little or no maintena nce but are
to various loads, such as large motors and secon- not designed to interrupt fault currents. Circuit
dary unit substations. Medium-voltage switchge ar breakers are designed expressly for quick, effi-
should be located in a clean, controlle d environ- cient fault current interrupt ion. Although circuit
ment, preferab ly near the transform ers feeding breakers will also switch load currents, they
them. Seconda ry unit substatio ns have a trans- should not normally be used for large numbers
former and low-voltage switchge ar (208 to 600 V) of repetitive load operations. Indeed, applying a
and provide distribut ion to low-voltage loads, such circuit breaker for highly repetitive duty may result
as 100- to 500-hp motors, panel boards, and dis- in a worn-out breaker in a few years, or at least
tribution transform ers. Motor control centers, in it may require extensive maintenance. If applied
turn, distribut e low-voltage power to motors, com- for repetitive load switching, a circuit breaker
monly 100 hp or less, and some selected nonmoto r should be tested and rated by the manufac turer
loads when convenie nt. Secondar y unit substa- for such duty.
tions and motor control centers are located cen- Throughout the life of a power generating plant,
trally to the loads served to minimize lead length schedule d preventive maintena nce must be per-
and accompa nying voltage drop. Secondar y unit formed to ensure that auxiliary service system
substatio ns and motor control centers should also equipment meets its original performance require-
be in a clean, dry environment. If the environment ments. A maintenance plan will reduce equipmen t
is not clean and dry (and away from fluid-carrying failures and identify aging equipme nt and com-
piping systems), a suitable enclosur e should be ponents for expeditious replacem ent. Clearly, a
provided to exclude the contaminants. Panel planned maintena nce program is a vital part of
boards are used to distribut e power to all low- power generatio n reliability.
voltage nonmoto r loads, such as lighting, heating,
and convenie nce outlets. Panel boards are dis-
tributed througho ut the plant close to the loads
served. 7 .2 DEFINITION OF TERMS
The generato r circuit breaker and isolated-phase
Circuit breaker A mechanical switching device, capa-
bus connect the generato r to the station unit trans-
ble of making, carrying, and breaking currents under
former. A generato r circuit breaker is not a man-
normal conditions and also making, carrying for a
datory compone nt in a power generatin g station specific time, and breaking currents under specified ab-
but has found applicati on in some stations. For normal circuit conditions, such as those of short circuit.
13196308
7-2 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

Contactor A device for repeatedly establishing and Unit transformer A power system supply trans-
interrupting an electric power circuit. former (generator step-up) that transforms all or a por-
Disconnecting or isolating switch A mechanical tion of the unit power from the unit (generator) to the
switching device used for changing the connections in power system voltage.
a circuit or for isolating a circuit or equipment from
the source of power. It is required to carry normal load
current continuously and abnormal or short-circuit cur-
rents for short intervals as specified. It is also required 7.3 CIRCUIT BREAKERS-THE ORY OF
to open or close circuits either when negligible current ARC INTERRUPTION
is broken or made or when no significant change occurs
in the voltage across the terminals of each of the switch Although very different in appearance and inter-
poles. rupting medium (air, oil, vacuum, sulfur hexa-
load-interrupter switch An interrupter switch de- fluoride [SF6 ]), all circuit breakers depend on the
signed to interrupt currents not in excess of the zero pause and deionization of the current path
continuous-current rating of the switch. It may be to effect current interruption.
designed to close and carry abnormal or short-circuit
currents as specified.
ELECTRIC ARC CHARACTERISTICS-THE ZERO
Motor control center An assembly of motor con- PAUSE
trollers, having modular design to permit rearrange-
ment, interchange, and easy replacement of modular When the circuit breaker opens, the contacts sep-
parts. arate and an electric arc flows between the sepa-
Motor controller A device or group of devices that rated contacts. A useful characteristic of an
serves to govern, in some predetermined manner, the electric arc is that it requires a minimum burn-
electric power delivered to the motor or group of motors ing voltage to be sustained. When the driving volt-
to which it is connected. age goes below the minimum arc voltage, current
Panel board A single panel or a group of panel units flow substantially decreases; and the hot, ionized
designed for assembly in the form of a single panel, gases begin deionizing and dissipating. During the
including buses, with or without switches and/or auto- next fraction of a second, the dielectric strength
matic overcurrent protective devices for the control of of the gap between the separating contacts in-
light, heat, or power circuits. A panel board is designed creases and, if the dielectric strength increases
to be placed in a cabinet or cutout box. It may be placed
faster than the circuit recovery voltage, the cir-
in a control board lineup, open or accessible from the
rear.
cuit has been interrupted. In an ac circuit the
current goes through zero twice each cycle, a
Secondary-unit substation A unit substation in
phenomenon called the current zero pause. The
which the low-voltage section is rated 1000 V and below.
example in Figure 7-1 has an extremely long zero
Station service (startup) transformer The trans- pause. The dotted line portions of current (J) in
former, connected to high-voltage transmission lines,
the zero pause zone represent the normal current
used to feed station auxiliary loads during the station
startup sequence.
Switchgear A general term covering switching and (J)

interrupting devices and their combination with as- ~Current

1 zero
sociated control, instrumentation, metering, protective, i pause
and regulating devices.
(V)
Switchgear assembly Assembled equipment (indoor
or outdoor) including, but not limited to, one or more
of the following: switching, interrupting, control instru-
mentation, metering, protective and regulating, together
with their supporting structures, enclosures, conduc-
tors, electric interconnections, and accessories.
Unit auxiliary transformer The transformer, con-
nected to the generator bus, used to feed station aux- (I) = Arc current

iliary loads.
(V) = Arc voltage
(Vi! 1 = Reignition voltage
Unit substation A substation consisting primarily of (V8 1 = Burning voltage
one or more transformers that are mechanically and <Vr l = Extinguishing voltage
electrically connected to, and coordinated in design
13196308
with, one or more switchgear or motor control assem- Figure 7-1 AC Arc Current and Voltage Across Arc Plotted
blies or combinations thereof. Versus Time
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMEN T 7-3

waveshape. Figure 7-2 illustrates two examples of shown in Figure 7-3. Plate 1 is made either
reignition voltage versus time. Variations in con- of a heat-shock -resistant material, such as
tact material and size, radiation losses, and other ceramic, or an organic material, such as
phenomen a account for the difference between fiber. The arc is initiated at the lower end of
two interruptin g devices. All circuit interrupte rs the slot and rises or is pushed to the upper
depend on the zero pause for circuit interruptio n slot portion. As the arc rises in the slot, the
whether the medium is air, oil, SF6 , or vacuum. shape of the slot squeezes or pinches the
The method is always the same, although the arc, converting it into a long, thin, low-
medium and details vary: current arc that is readily extinguish ed dur-
ing the zero pause.
■ Separate contacts, creating an arc
■ Deionized space in the gap during the zero ■ Arc-restraining Metal Barriers If an arc is
pause to restore high dielectric strength transferre d to a series of metal plates
(Figure 7-4), the resultant series of arcs will
require a higher driving voltage to sustain
800 ~ - - - ~ - - - - ~ - - - - - , them. In addition, arc elongation in the in-
::,..
dividual arcs and the cooling effect of the
., 600 metal plates combine to effect arc extinction
2
C7>
at a current zero. This principle alone is
0
>
sufficient at relatively low voltages and
C
400 currents.
0 /
:;:; /,.....
·c
■ Magnetic Blowout Magnetic blowout is any
.,
-~
200
a:: means for magnetica lly elongating and dis-
placing an arc when the contacts separate
(Figure 7-5). Magnetic blowout may be used
100 200 .300 to create high-speed turbulent motion, caus-
Time (µsl ing mixing of the hot arc gases with the sur-
rounding cool air and transferrin g the arc
Figure 7-2 Reignition Voltage for Various Deionizing Times into arc chutes or metal barriers.

AIR-MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKERS All air-magne tic circuit breakers utilize one or
more of these principles. 1ypical air-magnet ic cir-
Air-magnetic circuit breakers all depend on one cuit breakers are shown in Figure 7-6.
or more of the following principles for operation:

■ Arc Elongation When the contacts are sepa-

rated, the arc is progressively elongated as
the contacts are drawn apart. Arc elongation
results in increased cooling and deionizatio n
by diffusion. This causes an increase in the
arc burning voltage and in the reignition
voltage required at current zero. When a
current zero is reached and the dielectric
strength of the arc gap exceeds the recovery
voltage, the arc is extinguished.
Arc elongation was the earliest method
used for interruptin g a circuit. All circuit
breakers rely on arc elongation to some
1 = Plate of heot-shoc k-
extent. resistont material
1o Inverted V-shoped slot
■ Arc Constriction A much higher voltage is re- 2o Arc core
quired to maintain an arc in a small hole or 2b = Envelope of ore
narrow slot than is needed to maintain an
unconfine d arc. The
13196308
basic structure needed Figure 7-3 Barriers With an Inverted V-shaped Slot for
for extinguish ing an arc by constrictio n is Extinguishing Arcs by Constriction
7-4 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

medium should be considered. All hydrocarbons,

including oils used in oil circuit breakers, decom-
pose under extreme heat. The reaction is gener-
ally referred to as cracking. By cracking, hydro-
carbons of high molecular weight are converted
into hydrocarbons of low molecular weight. In the
circuit breaker, when the contacts part, the arc
immediately vaporizes cracking oil, surrounding
the arc with a bubble of vapor and gas.
The cracking process is complex, but the prin-
cipal gaseous constituents are:

Hydrogen 70%

Acetylene 20%
1a, 1b = Main contacts Methane, carbon dioxide, oxygen,
2a, 2b = Horn-shaped arcing contacts
nitrogen 10%
3 = Arc
4o-4d = Arc-restraining metal barrier
The most significant component in the inter-
Figure 7-4 Arc-restraining Metal Barriers Subdividing Long rupting process is hydrogen, which is an excellent
Arcs Into Several Serially Related Short Arcs interrupting medium because it has the property
of deionizing arcs at a rapid rate. When the zero
OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS pause occurs, the arc energy within the bubble
Developed 90 years ago, the oil circuit breaker is drops to zero. The bubble wall continues to boil
the oldest type of power circuit breaker still in use releasing more saturated vapor and particles of
today. Oil circuit breakers are used only for out- oil into the residue of the arc. This results in a
door applications, having been supplanted by air- rapid increase of the reignition voltage of the arc
magnetic (and other) circuit breakers for indoor path. Thus, at an early current zero, the arc is ex-
applications around 1940. Although not readily tinguished (Figure 7-7a).
available in today's domestic market, oil circuit
breakers are still in service. An understanding of 011 Displacement In an oil circuit breaker, when
their operating principles is useful. the contacts separate and generate the gas bub-
Before discussing breaker structures, the ble, the gas energetically displaces oil, causing the
properties of insulating oil as an interrupting body of oil above the bubble to rise (similar to the

4 4

1= Arc
2 = Magnetic field of ore current
3a, 3b = Poles of electromagnet
4 = Magnetic blowout field
5 = Barriers
5o = Inverted V-shoped slots

a. Magnetic blowout field b. Magnetic field resulting from

and magnetic field of magnetic blowout and ore
ore current current fields
13196308
Figure 7-5 Magnetic Blowout
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-5

reaction from the charge of steam or combustion 'typical Oil Circuit Breakers There are two
in an engine). For this reason, the term oil piston types of oil circuit breakers.
has been used with reference to the displacement
of oil within a breaker tank. The oil-piston effect ■ Plain Break-7ype Breaker The plain break-type
results in circuit breaker reactions: a downward circuit breaker is the earliest design. It is
thrust when the oil piston is accelerated and an characterize d by limited interrupting capabil-
upward thrust when it hits the dome of the tank. ity, high rate of oil carbonizatio n, and high
Circuit breaker reactions may be several times the circuit breaker reaction in larger interrupt-
weight of the breaker and must be accommodated ing ratings.
in the foundation or mounting of an oil circuit
breaker (Figure 7-7b). ■ Arc-enclosing-1ype Circuit Breakers Later de-
signs used arc-enclosing devices to contain
the gas bubble, to increase gas pressure, and
to introduce more turbulence in the gas
bubble. The results were lower arc energy,
less carbonizatio n, faster interruption, and
lower circuit breaker reaction, all of which
permitted greatly increased interrupting
ratings. Low-arc-energy arc-enclosin g circuit
breakers are referred to by their mode of
operation or by trade designations indicating
their manufacture rs, or both. Such terms
are, for instance, Explosion Pot, Deionization
Grid, or Ruptor.

The earliest arc-enclosing device, the Explosion

Pot, is shown in Figure 7-8. It consists mainly of
a strong shell of insulating material.
The design shown in Figure 7-9 is the forerun-
ner of several generations of Ruptor interrupting
devices. It differs from the Explosion Pot by hav-
ing a long throat with a serpentine passage. This
permits controlled leakage past the movable con-
tact during interruption .

VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS

The dielectric strength of a vacuum interrupter
is not due to slowing of electrons during the zero
pause as in other devices but due to no electron
collisions occurring in a perfect vacuum. In prac-
tice, the vacuum is not perfect; nevertheless, per-
formance is remarkable: a 1-cm gap at 10- 6 torr
will withstand about a 200,000-V peak. In a vac-
uum, dielectric strength increases only slightly
with distance.
When the vacuum circuit breaker is operated,
a metallic vapor arc is formed, causing a momen-
tary pressure that may reach several atmospheres .
Initially, it is a high-current arc with a single cath-
ode spot emitting large amounts of metal vapor.
As the current decreases, the vapor pressure also
Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corp.. Beaver, Pa.
decreases rapidly because the vapor condenses on
the metallic screens. Below a critical value, the arc
Figure 7-6 Typical Molded-Case A ir-Magnetic Circuit changes from a constricted discharge with one
Breaker 13196308 cathode spot to a diffused discharge with several
7-6 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

Arc core

Arc envelope
NOTE:
Bubble .>•::
formations
vary according
-r:.-i::;_
to different
i--i-:=-
breaker . /.~)
structures.
./I:/· Zone of superheated
L-- /._:: ;-..·,:·· '
vapor
;./!> ~
Boiling bubble
surface and zone
of saturated vapor

a. Principal constituent parts

b. Arc bubble growth and displacement of oil, shown

chronologically after separation of contacts

Figure 7-7 Arc Bubble in a Plain Oil Circuit Breaker

very small spots that move about rapidly, repel- breaker types may range from 4 to 20 A. Switching
ling each other. These small spots have a very high the same unloaded transformers produced over-
current density and emit streams of electrons voltages exceeding 7 per unit. We may conclude that
without liberating much metal vapor. The inter- current chopping in vacuum contactors and circuit
rupter then behaves as a vacuum diode; as cur- breakers is not a serious problem when they con-
rent decreases, the electron flow falls to zero, and tain modern suitable contact materials. There are,
electrons cease to cross the gap. The inverse volt- however, some application areas that require atten-
age strength rapidly increases to a high value as tion when using vacuum equipment (1 ).
the cool anode is not able to emit electrons, and
the circuit is interrupted. Vlrtual Current Chopping A reignition in one
phase of a three-phase system may induce a high-
Arc lnstablllty An interesting problem with frequency transient in the other two phases, which
vacuum interrupters results from arc instability. may cause the total current in the two phases to pass
The diffuse arc is unstable because each spot through zero. It is possible that the current in all
requires a minimum intensity to emit electrons; three phases will interrupt simultaneously.
below this value it abruptly ceases to operate. This
explains the well-known propensity of vacuum Reignition After current interruption, if the
equipment to produce overvoltages by current transient recovery voltage rises faster than the
chopping. The problem can be eased principally vacuum interrupter dielectric strength, multiple
by the manufacturer's selection of contact mate- ignition will occur. All vacuum interrupters are
rial. Tost results have shown current chopping in susceptible to multiple reignition irrespective of
vacuum contactors to range from 0.5 to 5 A and the chopping current level. The following condi-
vacuum circuit breakers from 2 to 10 A, depend- tions are vulnerable to multiple reignition:
ing on contact material. Switching unloaded trans-
formers with vacuum circuit breakers produced ■ A motor with locked-rotor current of 500 A
overvoltages 13196308
at 2 to 3.1 per unit. Chopping cur- or less switched off during locked-rotor con-
rent for minimum oil, SF6, and air-blast circuit ditions. Motor starting current (locked-rotor
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-7

current) does not decrease significantly until 1

the motor has achieved perhaps 85% of
fn 21t(LC)l/2
(Eq. 7.3)

rated speed.
Where:
■ Vacuum interrupter contacts separate at a
time less than 0.5 ms from natural sinusoidal
current zero. This condition may occur 18%
L = ungrounded motor inductance at locked-rotor
condition
of the time on a three-phase system.
f = supply frequency
■ The natural frequency of the transient
recovery voltage on the load side of the in- I locked-rotor current
terrupter is between 0.5 and 5.0 kHz. C capacitance of cable
£ cable length
Cv capacitance per unit length of cable
fn natural frequency of the load

Typical vacuum interrupters and vacuum switch-

Stationary -~~11,111111
finger gear are shown in Figure 7-11.
contacts

Insulating
shell

Throat

Figure 7-8 Plain Explosion Pot From Which Arc-enclosing

Devices Evolved

If current exceeds 500 A, or the natural fre-

quency of the transient recovery voltage exceeds
5 kHz, the vacuum interrupter cannot clear
the arc at the first current zero, delaying interrup-
tion until the next current zero when dielec-
tric strength will be great enough to prevent
reignition.
For circuits with a natural frequency of 500 Hz
or less, transient recovery voltage rate of rise is
low, and reignition is prevented.
If current is less than 20 A, overvoltages are
limited to a harmless level.
Protection against overvoltages caused by mul-
tiple reignition will also protect against virtual cur-
rent chopping. Application charts were developed
to determine the maximum length of load cable
Figure 7.11 Ruptor Interrupting Device With Serpentine
that will not permit multiple reignition for Throat. a Later Version of the Explosion Pot
shielded and unshielded cables (Figures 7-lOa,
7-lOb, and 7-lOc (1)). The charts are based on the
SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
following equations:
SF6 has become the preferred medium for arc in-
L 21tf3J (Eq. 7-1) terruption by some switchgear manufacturers
13196308 over the last decade. The reason is the advanta-
C (Eq. 7•2) geous combination of dielectric, thermal, and arc
7-8 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

1000

900

500 800

700
-+-Ha
-◊-#6
400 -■-#4
.., ..,
:!:: :!:: 600 -c- #2
..,
~ :5en -•- #1
en C -A- 1/Q
C 300 500
..!? ..!?
Q)
-x- 2/0
Q)
:0 :0 -o- 3/0
0 0
0 0 400 --- 4/0
200 E
E
:, :,
Coble
E E size
·x ·x0 300
0 0
::::E
100 • ::::E

200
~1/
100 '-=-_....__... ..__ _.___ __.__ ___.~___.
o~-~ -~---400
-~-~
500 600 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
100 200 300
Motor horsepower Motor horsepower

o. Maximum length of shielded coble, 4160 V b. Maximum length of shielded coble, 2300 V

2500

; 2000
I
:5en
C
..!?
.,
1500 , I -+-2300 V
V
:0
0 / .-,,,,-· -◊-4160
0 1000
.,
◊.,,. Nonshielded
E
:,
E
·x 500
.J
I
► ' .,,.- -· .,,.~
coble

' ◊/
0
::::E

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Motor horsepower

c. Maximum length of nonshielded coble, 2300 end 4160 V, ell coble sizes

IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.

SOURCE: S. F. Farag and R. G. Bartheld. '"Guidelines for the Application of Vacuum Contractors:· In
vol. 1A-22. no. 1. January/February 1986, p. 105. © 1986 IEEE.

Figure 7-10 Maximum Allowable Medium-Voltage Cable Length

extinction properties of the gas. Studies show that gage gas pressure. With special attention given to
transient voltage levels due to current chopping are the types of interrupte r envelopes and seals, some
lower in magnitude than other modern interrupting SF6 interrupte rs are sealed for life and require little
mediums. Multiple reignitions, with resulting tran- or no maintenan ce throughou t their service life.
sient overvoltages, are nonexisten t with medium- When an SF6 circuit breaker is operated and the
voltage SF6 interrupte rs. The pressure of the gas contacts part, the usual arc is produced. Thermal
may be continuou sly monitored, and the breaker conductivi ty of SF 6 is very high, even at elevated
may be controlled as a function of the condition of temperatu res. Thus, when the current is decreas-
the interrupte r. Some SF 6 interrupte rs can provide
13196308 ing, the arc temperatu re drops quickly. Below about
significant interruptio n performan ce even at zero- 2100°K, the SF 6 molecules recombine , and
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-9

circuit interruption occurs at an early current

zero. The transient recovery in the region of cur-
rent zero is slow as compared with other inter-
rupting media. This is an advantage in that an' SF6
interruption is not easily concluded by high-
frequency system disturbances. As a result, chop
currents are low; and prestrike interruptions, reig-
nitions, virtual chopping, and simultaneous inter-
ruptions are practically nonexistent.
The same principles used in air-magnetic circuit
breakers may be used in SF6 breakers with the
same results; gas flow and magnetic arc displace-
ment cool the arc, aiding interruption. Because of
the nature of the SF6 gas, wide variations of air-
a . Vacuum switchgear lineup magnetic principles may be employed. The result-
ing package looks much different and is much
smaller than other circuit breakers.
1\.vo designs of SF6 circuit breakers are cur-
rently available in the medium-voltage field :

■ Puffer Type The puffer design produces gas

flow through the arc by displacing a piston,
which is attached to the movable contacts.
The chamber in which the arc is interrupted
is very similar to air-blast circuit breakers'.
The puffer type is very effective, especially
for high interrupting capacities and high-
rated continuous currents (ampacities and
currents greater than 16 kAIC and 1200 Al.

b. Vacuum interrupter (cutaway view) ■ Self-extinguishing or Magnetic Type The self-

extinguishing design utilizes magnetic arc
rotation and gas flow caused by high tem-
perature in the arcing chamber. The self-
extinguishing type is ideally suitable for
applications less than 16 kAIC and 1200 A.
This type typically has even less current-
chopping characteristics than puffer types
and is typically used for motor control and
low-capacity circuit breakers.

Examples of SF6 circuit breakers are shown in

Figure 7-12.

AIR-BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS

As in all compressed gases, compressed air has di-
c . Removable vacuum circuit breaker
electric strength and thermal properties much
Courtesy of General Electric Company, Construction Equipment greater than those at atmospheric pressure. Com-
Business, Burlington , Iowa.
pressing air increases the thermal exchange and
Figure 7-11 Typical Vacuum Interrupters and Vacuum deionization rates, making it possible to achieve
Switchgear circuit interruption during the current pause, with
relatively short arc lengths. All air-blast circuit
the gas becomes an insulator. This is augmented breakers use air flowing around the arc through
by free electron capture by fluorine atoms. The a constricting nozzle, which discharges to the
13196308
7-10 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

circuit breakers have a main interruptin g chamber

for making and breaking load and fault currents
and a small auxiliary interruptin g chamber that
contains contacts in series with a low-ohmic resistor
that controls recovery voltage. In operation, the
main contacts open and reduce the high-fault or
load current to a low current through the low-
ohmic resistor. In a few milliseconds, the resistor
current is interrupte d in the auxiliary chamber.
Air-blast circuit breakers are used principally as
generator circuit breakers, and for indoor and out-
door applications at high-conti nuous current or
interruptin g ratings. An example of an air-blast cir-
cuit breaker is shown in Figure 7-13.

7.4 MEDIUM -VOLTAG E SWITCHG EAR

AVAILABLE EQUIPME NT
a. SF 6 puffer-typ e pole unit
(cutaway view) Medium-voltage switchgear, nominally rated be-
tween 2.5 and 38 kV, is currently available using
vacuum, air-magnetic, and SF6 circuit breakers.
The majority of power plant application s are at
4.16, 7.2, or 13.8 kV, using vacuum or air-magnetic
circuit breakers.
Switchgear is constructe d in conforman ce with
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Stan-
dard C37.20-1969/IEEE Standard 27-1974 (2) .
Medium-voltage switchgear, built as metal-clad,
has the following attributes:

■ The main switching or interruptin g device is

of the removable type arranged with a mech-
anism for moving it physically between con-
nected and disconnec ted positions and
equipped with self-aligning and self-coupling
primary and secondary disconnecting devices
(most vendors).
■ Major parts of the primary circuit are com-
pletely enclosed by grounded metal barriers
that have no intentiona l openings between
b. SF e removable circuit breaker element compartm ents.
lreor view)
■ All live parts are enclosed within grounded
Courtesy of Square D. Company. Smyrna. Tenn . metal compartm ents. Automatic shutters pre-
Figure 7-12 Examples of SF6 Circuit Breakers vent exposure of primary circuit contacts
when the removable circuit breaker element
atmospher e. The arc is centered in the nozzle and is in the test position or is removed.
swept by the air flow, which subjects it to very ■ Primary bus conductor s and connection s are
strong cooling and facilitates deionizatio n and in- covered with insulating material throughou t.
terruption . By choice of air pressure and nozzle
design, interruptin g capabilities up to 200,000 A at :.-. Mechanical interlocks are provided to ensure
25 kV or higher can be achieved. 'fypical air-blast a proper and safe operating sequence.
13196308
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-11

■ Instruments, meters, relays, secondary con- especially those with instantaneous contact ele-
trol devices, and their wiring are isolated by ments and some solid-state relays with elec-
grounded metal barriers from all primary tromechanical components, are susceptible to
circuit elements with the exception of short varying degrees.
lengths of wire as at instrument transformer
terminals.
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
■ The door through which the circuit inter- COMPONENTS
rupting device is inserted into the housing
Major parts of medium-voltage switchgear are:
may serve as an instrument or relay panel
and may also provide access to a secondary
■ Secondary Enclosure Located at the front of
or control compartment within the housing.
the unit, this component has a hinged panel
with necessary instruments control and pro-
Removable circuit breaker elements are either
tective devices mounted on it. Terminal
horiwntal draw-out or vertical-lift design. Both are
blocks and some protective devices are
self-aligning and self-coupling. The vertical-lift de-
mounted within the compartment.
sign is older and was originally designed to directly
replace vertical-lift indoor oil circuit breakers. ■ Primary Enclosure The primary enclosure
The principal advantage of vertical-lift equip- contains high-voltage equipment. It consists
ment is that primary contact separation is clearly of the circuit breaker compartment, bus
visible in the test and disconnected positions. compartment, cable termination compart-
Horizontal draw-out equipment may be easily in- ment, and auxiliary compartments for volt-
stalled manually as the heavy circuit breaker need age (and control power) transformers. Each
not be lifted. Both designs are considered equally compartment is separated from the others
acceptable. by metal barriers.
A common problem is susceptibility of relays to Interference interlocks are mounted in the
mechanical shock when mounted on compartment circuit breaker compartment to permit only
doors. Opening and closing the door may produce insertion of a circuit breaker with the correct
sufficient mechanical shock to cause spurious voltage, current, and interrupting ratings.
operation of relays. All electromechanical relays,

Courtesy of BBC Brown Boveri. Inc . New York .

Figure 7-13
13196308 Example of Air-Blast Circuit Breaker psolating section open)
7-12 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

■ Circuit Breaker Removable Element This ■ Voltage (PotentiaV 'Iransformers Voltage trans-
removable circuit breaker, air-magnetic or formers are used to permit reasonable insu-
vacuum type, has a stored energy spring lation levels in instrument circuits. They are
operating mechanism, interlocks, primary used for wattmeters and voltmeters and for
and secondary (most vendors) disconnecting ground fault detection.
devices, antipump relays, and a limited num-
■ Primary Bus Conductors The devices connect
ber of auxiliary switches (see Volume 10 for
all units in the switchgear lineup. Primary
details). The assembly is equipped with
bus conductors and connections are covered
wheels for easy movement along the floor.
with insulating material throughout.
■ Aul(iliary Switches Optional circuit breaker
■ Automatic Shutters Automatic shutters cover
and stationary auxiliary switches are avail-
primary circuit connections when the circuit
able for interlocking and control purposes.
breaker removable element is in the discon-
Auxiliary switches are 'fypes a and b (see
nected, test, and removed positions.
Volume 10 for details): 'fype a open when the
circuit breaker is open, and 'fype b closed ■ Ground and 'Jest Device This device is an op-
when the circuit breaker is open. tional draw-out element that may be inserted
into a metal-clad switchgear housing in place
MechanlsnH>perated Control (MOq Auxlllary of a circuit breaker. It provides access to the
Switches MOC switches are operated directly primary circuits to permit temporary connec-
from the breaker mechanism and are available in tions of grounds or testing equipment to the
the following types: HV circuits. It may be manual, with six bush-
ings for connection to primary circuits, or
■ Operate with the circuit breaker in both may include a three-pole, two-position selector
connected and test positions switch and stored-energy grounding switch.
■ Operate with the circuit breaker in the con-
nected position only SWITCHGEAR RATINGS
■ Operate with the circuit breaker in the con-
Medium-voltage switchgear is rated in selected
nected position, but operate with the circuit
continuous current steps from 1200 through
breaker in the test position if manually
3000 A, with short-circuit current ratings from 12
selected
to 48 kA, as shown in ANSI Standard C37.06-1979
(3). Note that manufacturers do not necessarily
A limited number of auxiliary switches are
offer all ratings listed in the ANSI standard, and
mounted on the circuit breaker removable ele-
most manufacturers also have nonstandard circuit
ment, and a larger number (as required) are
breaker ratings, usually with higher close-and-
mounted in the secondary enclosure and linked
latch capability in selected ratings. Tobie 2 of ANSI
mechanically to the circuit breaker. Auxiliary
Standard C37.06-1979 lists standard indoor oilless
switches mounted either on the circuit breaker
circuit breaker ratings for switchgear.
removable element or in the secondary enclosure
Salient parts of switchgear circuit breaker
may be any of the above types, arranged by either
ratings are (4):
the mechanical linkage or sliding contacts on the
secondary coupling.
■ Rated Ma1~imum Voltage The rated maximum
voltage of a circuit breaker is the highest
Truck-operated Contact (TOCJ Auxlllary
root-mean-square (rms) voltage, above nomi-
Switches roe auxiliary switches are mounted
nal system voltage, for which the circuit
in the circuit breaker compartment and operate
breaker is designed and is the upper limit
when the circuit breaker is moved to the operat-
for operation.
ing position. roe switches may be used for inter-
locking and remote positi'll indication. ■ Rated Voltage Range Factor, K The rated volt-
age range factor K is the ratio of rated maxi-
■ Current 1hmsformers Current transformers mum voltage to the lower limit of the range
are used to protect personnel and secondary of operating voltage in which the required
devices from high voltage and to reflect pri- symmetrical and asymmetrical interrupting
mary current flow in relays, instruments,
13196308
capabilities vary in inverse proportion to
and meters (see Volume 8). operating voltage.
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMEN T 7-13

■ Rated Frequency The rated frequency of a maximum crest, does not exceed 1.6 K times rated
circuit breaker is the frequency at which it short-circu it current; the maximum crest value of
is designed to operate. Other frequencie s which does not exceed 2. 7 times rated short-circu it
usually require special considerat ion. current; and therms value mof which over the 3-s
■ Rated Continuous Current The rated continuous period does not exceed K times short-circuit current.
current of a circuit breaker is the designated
limit of current in rms amperes at rated fre- Symmetri cal Versus Total Current Basis of Rat-
quency that it will carry continuou sly without ings of Circuit Breakers The original unified
exceeding designated temperatu re limitations. series of standards for circuit breakers based on
■ Rated Standard Operating Duty (standard those of American Institute of Electrical Engineers
duty cycle) The standard operating duty of a (AIEE) and National Electrical Manufactu rers
circuit breaker is two-unit close-open (CO) Association (NEMA) and data from the Association
operations with a 15-s interval between of Edison Illuminating Companies and NEMA were
·operation s (CO-15s-CO). developed from 1941 through 1953 and pub-
lished in the following documents : ANSI Standard
■ Rated Interrupting Time The rated interrupt- C37.4-1953 (5), ANSI Standard C37.5-1953 (6), ANSI
ing time of a circuit breaker is the maximum Standard C37.6-195 3 (7), ANSI Standard
permissibl e interval between energizing the C37.7-1952 (8), ANSI Stanpard C37.8-1952 (9), ANSI
trip circuit at rated control voltage and in- Standard C37.9-1953 (10), and ANSI Standard
terrupting the main circuit on all poles C37.12-1981 (11).
when interruptin g a current equal to 25% In these original standards the basis of the in-
or more of the required asymmetri cal inter- terrupting rating was established as the highest
rupting capability at rated maximum voltage. current to be interrupte d at the specific operat-
■ Rated Permissible Tripping Delay, Y The rated ing voltage. It was the rms value, including the de
permissibl e tripping delay of a circuit componen t at the instant of contact separation ,
breaker is Y and is the maximum time that as determine d from the envelope of the current
the circuit breaker is required to carry K wave. Since this method of rating was based on
times rated short-circu it current after closing total current, including the de componen t, it be-
on this current and before interruptin g. came known as the total current basis of rating.
Commencing in 1951, the AIEE Switchgear Com-
■ Permissible Tripping Delay, T Tripping the cir- mittee began developing a method of rating based
cuit breaker may be delayed. The rated per- on symmetric al interruptin g current. The goals
missible tripping delay Y at lower values of were to simplify application that used high-speed
current is in accordanc e with the following relaying and fast-clearing circuit breakers and to
formula: bring American standards into closer agreemen t
with accepted internation al standards.
T = y K (rated short-circuit current) 12 (Eq. 7 .4 ) The principal change from the total current
short-circuit current standard was the basis of rating. The rated short-
through circuit breaker
circuit current was established as "the highest
■ Rated Short-Circuit Current The rated short- value of the symmetric al componen t of the short-
circuit current of a circuit breaker is the circuit current in rms amperes;' measured from
highest value of the symmetric al componen t of the envelope of the current wave at contact sepa-
the polyphase or phase-to-p hase short-circu it ration, which the circuit breaker is required to in-
current in rms amperes. It is measured from terrupt at rated maximum voltage. This rating
the envelope of the current wave at the instant structure became known as the symmetric al cur-
of primary arcing contact separation , which rent basis of rating.
the circuit breaker is required to interrupt at The symmetric al current basis of rating group
rated maximum voltage. of standards was published in 1964 and consoli-
dated with intervenin g supplemen tary standards
■ Rated Short-time Current-carrying Capabil- in 1979 in the following documents : ANSI/Institute
ity The circuit breaker is capable of carrying, of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Stan-
for 'Th = 3 s, any short-circu it current the dard C37.04-1979 (4), ANSI Standard C37.06-1979
rms value of which, determine d from the
13196308 (3), ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.09-1979 (12), ANSI/
envelope of the current wave at the time of IEEE Standard C37.010-1979/IEEE Standard
7-14 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

320-1979 (13), ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.0ll-1979 Where:

(14),and ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.012-1979 (15).
/(1961) symmetrical interrupting rating appearing
In ANSI Standard C37.06-1964 and revisions in ANSI Standard C37.6-1961
prior to 1971, circuit breaker Symmetrical Current
ratings were derived from ANSI Standard F 0.915 for three-cycle circuit breakers
C37.06-19611btal Current ratings by a compromise 0.955 for five-cycle circuit breakers
between the asymmetrical current of the former
1.0 for eight-cycle circuit breakers
method and the range of related requirements of
the new symmetrical method. For a given circuit It must be stressed that this numerical conver-
breaker it is: sion must be approved by the manufacturer, as
noted in the ANSI standards.
rated symmetrical For circuit breal,cers still in use rated on a total
short-circuit = /(1961) current basis, the existing standards ANSI Stan-
current
dard C37.4-1953, ANSI Standard C37.6-1953, ANSI
Standard C37. 7-1952, and ANSI Standard
x nominal voltage IF (Eq. 7 •5 )
C37.9-1953 will continue to be applicable. Circuit
rated maximum
voltage breakers are no longer manufactured to the total
current basis (asymmetrical) standards.

Example 1 Replacement of Old Circuit Continuous current: 1200 A

Breaker With a Modern One
MVA 100
An old indoor oil circuit breaker has seriously
Interrupting time: five cycles
deteriorated and must be replaced because it has
been out of production for decades and replace-
ment parts are unobtainable. The power system Substituting and calculating as in Equation 7-5:
has not been altered, so we are sure that available
4 16 kV ] x 0.955
short-circuit current is unchanged. It will be I symmetrical = 12 kA [ ·
4.76 kV
replaced with a modern breaker, but a conversion = 10.015kA
must be made from the old total current basis to
the newer symmetrical current basis to place the
order, since no equipment is now manufactured Thus, any circuit breaker rated greate~ than
to the old basis. 10 kA symmetrical interrupting current at 4. 76 kV
The rating nameplate on the old circuit breaker and having a Vlk voltage less than 4.16 kV will be
gives the following information: a satisfactory substitute.
If the system has changed, thus increasing avail-
Rated kV: 4.16 kV able short-circuit current, and new equipment is
to be added, the application guide ANSI Standard
Maximum kV: 4. 76 kV C37.010-1979/IEEE Standard 320-1979 (13) gives
Interrupting amperes at rated voltage: 12 kA the calculation procedures.

APPLICATIONS AND RELATED REQUIREMENTS Equipment may be selected based on load re-
quirements and available short-circuit currents.
Medium-voltage switchgear is used to feed loads Circuit breakers may be used for motor starting,
throughout the plant, usually secondary unit sub- applied on motors with full-load current up to the
stations and large motors that are not cycled fre- circuit breaker continuous current rating. Because
quently. Medium-voltage switchgear is available, power systems continue to grow, even after the
as applicable, from 2.4 through 38 kV. Historically, equipment is purchased and installed, it is advis-
the trend has been to use higher-voltage systems. able to be on the conservative side in ampacity and
Currently power plant electrical systems use 4.16-, short-circuit ratings. Methods of calculating short
7.2-, and 13.8-kV class medium-voltage switchgear.
13196308 circuits and applying circuit breakers are delineated
(See Volume 3, System Planning.) in ANSI Standard C37.010-1979/IEEE Standard
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-15

320-1979. Volume 3 also discusses sizing medium- inductance and capacitance. ANSI/IEEE Standard
voltage circuit breakers. C37.011-1979 (14) presents more discussion and
Most electrical equipment, such as motors, calculation procedures.
buses, and transformers, may be temporarily over-
loaded, and there may be some resultant accept- Capacitive Current Switching Breakers used
able reduction in useful life. Circuit-breaker for capacitive current switching require careful
continuous-load current may be increased based consideration. For single-shunt bank or back-to-
on low ambient temperature or increased from back switching, it will usually be conservative to
a low-current load for an allowable time based on use 1.25 times the nominal capacitor current at
maintaining the same hot-spot temperature, which rated capacitor voltage for ungrounded neutral
does not constitute an overload condition. operation, or i.35 times the nominal current for
Circuit breakers may also carry load currents grounded neutral operation, for calculating re-
higher than permitted by ambient compensation quired breaker ampacity. Note that not all circuit
for emergency load periods, which may cause a breakers have back-to-back switching capability.
reduction in operating life of the equipment. ANSI Only circuit breakers specifically manufactured
Standard C37.010-1979/IEEE Standard 320-1979 for back-to-back switching are so rated (3).
(13) and Supplement b (16) give overload and Complex capacitor switching requires fur-
emergency-load-carr ying capability. ther analysis. Refer to ANSI/IEEE Standard
Exceeding interrupting ratings and related capa- C37.012-1979 (15) and the vendor for calculation
bilities (without the manufacturer's consent) may methods and recommendations.
result in circuit breaker failure to interrupt, prob-
ably catastrophically. Repetitive Duty Circuit breakers should not be
If the interrupting ratings and related capabili- used for repetitive duty, such as motor starting.
ties of a circuit breaker are exceeded, for exam- If the circuit breaker is cycled more than once a
ple, because of substitution of a lower impedance day, it may be worn out or will require major
transformer or changes in the system, the follow- maintenance every two or three years. Circuit
ing changes must be made to correct the situation: breakers are usually not designed for highly
repetitive duty. Repetitive duty such as motor
■ Change the system to reduce available short- starting is better served by using medium-voltage
circuit current; divide the system into motor starters.
smaller units (see Volume 3).
■ Add lumped impedance (reactors) to reduce
short-circuit current.
■ Replace circuit breaker(s) with higher inter- 7.5 SECONDARY UNIT SUBSTATIONS
rupting rated circuit breakers.
Secondary unit substations have a medium-voltage
Transient Recovery Voltage 1ransient recovery to low-voltage transformer, and a lineup of low-
voltage is the voltage that initially appears across voltage switchgear mechanically and electrically
the open poles of a circuit breaker immediately coupled. A double-ended substation has two unit
after the arc is extinguished. Following current substations with a tie circuit breaker between the
zero, the voltages on both sides of the circuit two low-voltage switchgear sections. Secondary
breaker recover to their driving source voltages. unit substations are fed from medium-voltage
The circuit breaker is stressed by the voltage switchgear at 2.4 to 13.8 kV. When two unit sub-
cfrfference between both voltages. For successful stations are fed from the same circuit breaker, a
interruption, the breakdown voltage of the circuit load break switch is frequently used as an isolat-
breaker must always exceed the recovery voltage. ing means. The transformer is usually a three-
1ransient recovery voltage requirements for phase unit, transforming the 5- to 15-kV primary
medium-voltage switchgear are not currently (1985) voltage to distribution voltage levels, which may
defined in the standards, but the IEEE Switchgear be 120 through 600 V. The most commonly used
Committee will incorporate them in the near fu- distribution voltage is 480 V. The low-voltage
ture. There have been suspected cases of transient switchgear section feeds motor control centers
recovery voltage failures of 15-kV class switchgear and other large unit loads and motors of perhaps
(17); however, transient recovery voltage problems 100 to 200 hp, which are not frequently cycled.
are usually associated with transmission line
13196308 Low-voltage switchgear used today is invariably
switching-systems with considerable distributed comprised of air-magnetic circuit breakers.
7-16 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

INCOMING LINE SECTION transformers are restricted due to fire code re-
quirements. Indoor application requires installa-
When one secondary unit substation is fed from tion in a vault, an expensive and inconvenient
a medium-voltage circuit breaker, the incoming structure.
line is usually connected directly to the medium-
voltage to low-voltage transformer. When two or ■ Less-Flammable Liquid Transformers Until
three secondary unit substations are fed from one recently, this category of transformer was
medium-voltage circuit breaker, the incoming line filled with askarels, synthetic halogenated
is usually connected to an unfused air load- hydrocarbons containing polychlorinated
interrupter switch. The air-interrupter switch pro- biphenyls (PCBs) as coolants. PCBs are no
vides an isolating means so that one secondary longer acceptable because they are not 100%
unit substation may be deenergized without biodegradable. Currently, less-flammable
deenergizing others connected in parallel. liquid transformers are filled with polydi-
The load-interrupter switch has a quick-make, methylsiloxane (also called dimethyl silicone
quick-break spring operating mechanism and or silicone fluid) or processed hydrocarbons.
switch element capable of making and latching Less-flammable liquids are defined as
fault current and breaking full-load current. Load- having a fire point not less than 300°C. In-
interrupter switches are available in ratings of 600 stallation requires liquid containment in a
and 1200 A, 2.4 through 38 kV, with momentary noncombustible building, liquid containment
ratings up to 80 kA, and fault closing ratings up and an automatic fire extinguishing system,
to 61 kA. or a vault in a combustible building. Insur-
Disconnecting switches will also be found with- ance companies may require additional pro-
out arc-interrupting devices, capable of inter- tection in a combustible building.
rupting only negligible current. They must be
interlocked with the main circuit breaker in the ■ Nonflammable Liquid 'Iransformers A non-
low-voltage switchgear section of the secondary flammable transformer is defined as having
unit substation, so that the disconnect switch will no flash point, no fire point, and being non-
be required only to interrupt magnetizing current flammable in air. When rated 35 kV and
to the secondary unit substation transformer. lower, such transformers may be installed in-
When purchasing new equipment, a user should doors without restrictions.
give preference to a load interrupter switch rather 1\vo fluids are currently in use in the non-
than a disconnect (magnetizing current) switch to flammable category:
eliminate interlocking requirements. Indeed, the □ Perchloroethylene (Cl2 :CCl2 ), also known as
cost of interlocks will probably exceed any savings ethylene tetrachloride, tetrachloroethylene,
that result from omission of arc interrupting Perclene, Perk, and Wecosol. Perchloroethy-
devices. lene is a colorless liquid with an etherlike
odor. It is an excellent solvent and is widely
TRANSFORMERS used in the dry-cleaning and metal-
degreasing businesses. It is a relatively safe
A secondary unit substation transformer is typi- fluid to use and has a long history of safe
cally rated between 225 and 3000 kVA, three- use in the dry-cleaning and chemical in-
phase, 2.4 to 13.8 kV primary to 208 to 600 V dustries. It is, however, moderately toxic
secondary. Volumes 2 and 3 discuss transformers and requires proper handling for complete
in more detail. There are seven kinds of transform- safety.
ers in three categories in use, although some are Perchloroethylene is moderately toxic by
used infrequently: ingestion, with a probable lethal dose be-
tween 1 oz and 1 pt for a 150-lb man
■ Oil-immersed 'Iransformers The oldest and (500 mg/kg body weight).
least expensive design transformers use Overexposure to perchloroethylene vapors
mineral oil and paper insulation in a sealed will result in headaches, confusion, nausea,
tank. They are entirely satisfactory for out- and lack of coordination. Extreme over-
door installations and chemically active en- exposure could result in severe personal
vironments. Indoor applications of oil-filled injury or death. Adequate ventilation must
13196308
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-17

be maintained if perchloroethylene vapor forms hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chlo-

is liberated. ride, and possibly carbonyl halides. The
Extremely high vapor concentrations may decomposition products are much more
occur in emergency situations and in con- toxic than the parent fluorocarbon but are
fined or poorly ventilated areas. also strongly irritant. It is most difficult to
Perchloroethylene vapor is six· times heav- remain voluntarily in the presence of the
ier than air and may accumulate in low ·, decomposition products at concentrations
areas, presenting danger of asphyxiation. where physiological damage occurs (20, 21).
In the presence of fire or electric arcing, When handling trichlorotrifluoroeth ane,
perchloroethylene can decompose to form smoking and use of space heaters should
carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), hydrogen chloride be prohibited, and good ventilation should
(HCI), chlorine (Cl), and phosgene or tri- be maintained.
chloroacetic acid. Phosgene gas is colorless
and has the odor of new-mown hay or green ■ Ventilated Dry-1ype Transformers Early dry-
corn (18). It is a severe respiratory irritant, type transformers were constructed of the
causing coughing and nose and throat irrita- same materials used in other electrical appa-
tion from a minute or so of low concentra- ratus and were designed for 55°C rise (105°C
tion exposure (0.1 to 5 ppm). Brief exposures temperature class). Later, as higher-tempera-
to 50-ppm concentrations may be fatal. ture insulating materials were developed,
There may be no immediate warning that transformers were rated at 80°C rise (150°C
dangerous concentrations of the gas are be- temperature class), 115°C rise (185°C tem-
ing breathed. llichloroacetic acid is corro- perature class), and most recently, 150°C
sive and irritant to the skin, eyes, and rise (220°C temperature class). 'Iransformers
mucous membranes. When responding to are sometimes designed to the earlier tem-
fires or electric arcing, firefighters should perature ratings using high-temperature
assume that hydrogen chloride and possibly (220°C) materials and restricting the rise to
phosgene or chlorine may be present. Note 80°C or 115°C when a more conservative
that presence of hydrogen chloride or chlo- rating is required. Dry-type transformers are
rine, which are sharply irritating, is not preferred for indoor installations because
sufficient to warn of the presence of high there is no fluid to burn or leak and there
levels of phosgene. It is possible to be ex- are no prohibitive restrictions. Maintenance
posed to toxic levels of phosgene before irri- is merely occasional cleaning. Note that stan-
tation indicates an existence of a problem. dard dry types have three deficiencies:
EPRI EL-4407 (19) discusses the main- □ They have reduced basic impulse insulation
tenance and handling of perchloroethylene- level (BIL) and may require surge suppres-
filled electrical equipment in more detail. sors on the high-voltage windings in special
□ 1richlorotrij1uoroethane (C 2 Cl3 F3 ), also applications.
known as R-113, Refrigerant 113, and Freon c The insulation is hygroscopic and suscep-
113, is used in vapor-cooled transformers. It tible to chemically active environments.
is a colorless liquid with a slight etherlike The windings must be acceptably dry be-
odor. 'Irichlorotrifluoroeth ane and other fore energizing and can be a problem in
fluorocarbons have relatively low toxicity high-humidity environments and seasonal
compared with most chemicals but require energizations.
proper handling for complete safety.
□ Clean filtered air is required to maintain
'Irichlorotrifluoroeth ane vapor is six-and-
cleanliness.
a-half times heavier than air and can cause
suffocation by reduced oxygen available ■ Totally Enclosed Nonventilated Dry-1ype 1rans-
for breathing (simple asphyxiation). Breath- formers The totally enclosed nonventilated
ing high concentrations of vapor may type has no openings to allow entrance of
cause light-headedness, narcosis, cardiac surrounding air and solid contaminants and
irregularities, unconsciousness, or death. particles in the atmosphere. It is designed
Decomposition by high temperatures (open for installation indoors and outdoors in mod-
flames, glowing metal surfaces, arcing) erately contaminated industrial environments.
13196308
7-18 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SER/ES

■ Sealed Dry-Type 'Iransformers This type of Table 7.1 Comparative Cost of Transformers
transformer has a dry-type core and coil as-
Transformer Type Percent
sembly in a sealed tank, filled with a non-
flammable gas. The gas is commonly Oil-filled 100
hexafluoroethane (F 3 CCF3 , also called Freon Silicone-liquid-filled 130
116, perfluoroethane, and carbon hexafluo- Nonflammable liquid-filled 140
ride) or nitrogen (N 2 ). These gases are be- Ventilated dry-type
nign compared with most chemicals, but 150oC 60-kV BIL 125
15QOC 95-kV BIL 140
precautions should be taken in event of a aooc 60-kV BIL 135
large gas spill. Hexafluoroethane has the aooc 95-kV BIL 150
same characteristics as other fluorocarbons Totally enclosed nonventilated dry-type 160
as noted under trichlorotrifluoroethane, and Cast-coil dry-type 190
nitrogen is, of course, a simple asphyxiant.
Sealed dry-type 250
Because the transformer assembly is iso-
lated from the external environment, sealed
dry-type transformers may be applied in all
environments. Because the gas meets the Selecting the lowest cost transformer option in-
definitions of a nonflammable fluid, trans- volves three categories:
formers can be applied without restrictions.
Sealed dry-type transformers may be used ■ Acquisition cost
advantageously in areas that require explo- ■ Installation cost
sion-proof equipment. ■ Present value of annual costs
■ Cast-Coil and Encapsulated-Coil Transformers Selecting the lowest-cost transformer can be done
Cast-coil and encapsulated dry-type trans- by calculating installation cost plus present value
formers have their coils cast or encapsulated of the annual cost:
in epoxy or polyester resins. They are imper-
vious to moisture and most chemical environ-
1. Calculate total losses at the expected load
ments. Cast-coil and encapsulated-coil trans-
(LEL).
formers are considered nonflammable and
are recommended for indoor and outdoor
(Eq. 7-6)
installations for all but extreme environ-
ments. Extreme environments would be ex-
Where:
cessive dust or dirt that could clog cooling
ducts, corrosive contaminants that could at-
LEL total transformer losses at the expected
tack exposed conductors, and conducting load
contaminants that could promote tracking
failures. Le core losses, vendor data, remains con-
stant at all loads (no load loss)

Transformers 501 kVA and larger may be fur- L-r total winding losses at full load, vendor
nished with forced-cooling fans, giving additional data
forced-cooled capacity of 15 or 25% for oil-filled F fraction of 100% load expected on the
and silicone-liquid-filled units, 33% for ventilated transformer
dry types, and 50% for cast-coil and trichlorotri-
fluoroethane-filled vapor-cooled units. 2. Calculate annual operating cost (C0 ).
Tobie 7-1 presents the approximate cost of trans-
formers relative to the lowest-cost oil-filled unit. C0 = LEL x H x D x CE + annual insurance
Choosing the optimum transformer type is not
+ maintenance (Eq. 7-7)
a simple problem. The installed cost of the lowest•
cost oil-filled unit can easily exceed more expensive
types when vaults, fire protection, and liquid- Where:
containment costs are added. Environmental con-
C0 total annual operating cost
straints, such as a corrosive atmosphere or high
humidity, may 13196308
rule out ventilated dry types and LEL total transformer losses at expected
perhaps even cast-coil transformers. load
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-19

H hours per day transformer operates enclosure is provided by doors or removable

D days per year transformer operates covers. The reader is invited to compare the attri-
butes of metal-clad versus metal-enclosed switch-
CE energy cost, $/kW gear. Metal-clad switchgear has all high-voltage
parts separately enclosed and insulated, and low-
3. Calculate present value of total annual oper- voltage wiring and devices may not even be ex-
ating cost (Cpv). Cpv is needed to calculate the .posed to high-voltage.
amount of money required today to pay for · Metal-enclosed switchgear need only be enclosed
transformer operation over its life. on all sides and top with sheet metal. It need not
be compartmented , its bus need not be insulated,
(Eq. 7-8)
and low-voltage components and wiring may be
exposed to it.
Note that metal-enclosed construction is used up
Where: to 1000 V, and metal-clad construction is used above
1000 V; thus, the method of construction is appro-
Cpv present value of total annual operating priate to the risks. Modern switchgear has been
cost designed for maximum safety of operating person-
nel under normal conditions, excluding internal
C0 total annual operating cost switchgear failures.
rate of return The low-voltage power circuit breakers are con-
tained in individual grounded metal compartments
N years of postulated transformer life
and controlled either remotely or from the front
of the panels.
4. List installed transformer cost (C1), which is
The circuit breakers are horizontal, draw-out
the sum of purchase price, shipping cost, in- removable and are self-aligning and self-coupling.
surance, warranty, price escalation, labor,
Low-voltage circuit breakers use series-current
materials, field supervision, and field testing. tripping and thus do not require external control
5. Calculate total transformer cost (CT) power for overcurrent tripping operation. External
control power will be required for electrically
(Eq. 7-9) operated breakers (for closing spring charging)
and for shunt trip devices (for remote closing and
Where: tripping).
Major parts of low-voltage switchgear are:
total transformer cost
■ Bus Compartment Located in the middle of
installed transformer cost the unit, horizontal and vertical bus connects
present value of total annual operating all equipment in the unit. Low-voltage bus is
cost not normally insulated but may be as an
option. Metal barriers between the bus and
rear field cable terminations are also optional.
LOW-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR ■ Circuit Breaker Enclosures Each circuit breaker
Low-voltage switchgear, nominally rated between is individually metal enclosed. Primary discon-
208 and 600 Vac, is currently available only as air- nect shutters may be optionally available.
magnetic circuit breakers. The majority of appli- ■ Circuit Breaker Removable Element The
cations are at 480 or 600 Vac. removable circuit breaker is an air-magnetic
Low-voltage switchgear is constructed in confor- type with a stored energy spring-type oper-
mance with ANSI Standard C37.20-1969/IEEE Stan- ating mechanism. It may be either manually
dard 27-1974 (2) as metal enclosed and is com- operated or electrically operated. The trip
pletely enclosed on all sides and top with sheet unit may be either electromechani cal or
metal (except for ventilating openings and inspec- solid-state, with short time delay, long time
tion windows) containing primary power circuit delay, and instantaneous-t rip functions. Cir-
switching or interrupting devices, or both, with cuit breakers may have integrally mounted
buses and connections, and may include control
13196308 current limiting fuses to extend short-circuit
and auxiliary devices. Access to the interior of the current ratings up to 200 kAIC.
7-20 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

■ Shunt Trip A shunt trip provides for remote Low-voltage circuit breakers may be furnished
electrical tripping of a circuit breaker. It with series-current limiting fuses to extend short-
may be controlled by a switch, push button, circuit interrupting ratings to 200,000 A
or protective relays. symmetrical.
Representative examples of low-voltage switch-
■ Undervoltage Trip Optional undervoltage trip gear are shown in Figure 7-14.
protects against severe undervoltage by auto-
matically tripping the circuit breaker. An
undervoltage trip device picks up at approxi- LOW-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR RATINGS
mately 85% of bus voltage and trips the cir-
cuit breaker between 30 and 60% of bus Low-voltage s~itchgear is rated from 225 through
voltage. An optional time delay to trip is 4000 A, 14,000 through 200,000 rms symmetrical
available to eliminate nuisance tripping dur- ampere interrupting rating in conformance with
ing transients. ANSI Standard C37.16-1980 (22). The 200-kA ratings
are attainable only with current-limiting fuses.
• Key Interlocks Circuit breakers have a provi- Note that manufacturers do not necessarily offer
sion for a key interlock that may be required all ratings listed in the ANSI standards, and some
to ensure correct sequence of operations.
manufacturers have some nonstandard circuit
■ Auxiliary Switches Optional circuit breaker breaker ratings, usually with higher ampacity and
auxiliary switches are available for interlock- interrupting ratings. However, the 225-A frame
ing and control purposes. Auxiliary switches size is not currently in production, and the 600-A
are 'Types a and b: open when the breaker is frame size is becoming obsolete. ANSI Standard
open, and closed when the breaker is open, C37.16-1980 lists low-voltage switchgear ratings.
respectively. Salient parts of the switchgear ratings (23) are:

■ Voltage Transformers Voltage transformers are ■ Rated Maximum Voltage The rated maximum
used to permit reasonable insulation levels in voltage of a circuit breaker is the highest
instrument circuits. They are used for watt- rms voltage, three phase or single phase, at
meters, voltmeters, and ground fault detection. which it is designed to perform. Rated maxi-
■ Operations Counter An operations counter is mum voltages are 635, 508, and 254 V. For
optional on low-voltage breakers. fused circuit breakers, the 635-V rating be-
comes 600 V to match the fuse rating.
■ Bell Alarm With Lockout An optional bell
■ Rated Frequency Rated frequency is the fre-
alarm switch operates a and b contacts. It
operates when the circuit breaker is tripped quency at which the circuit breaker is de-
automatically (any means other than manual signed to operate. Rated frequency is 60 Hz.
trip button or shunt trip). The contacts may ■ Rated Continuous Current The rated continu-
be used for remote alarm of an automatic ous current of a circuit breaker is the rms
trip. The lockout feature mechanically locks current at rated frequency that it will carry
the circuit breaker open upon automatic without exceeding designated temperature
tripping and must be manually reset. limitations. The rated continuous current of
a circuit breaker equipped with direct-acting
■ Electric Lockout An optional electric lockout
trip devices or fuses with a rating lower
device electrically interlocks breakers so that
than the frame size is limited to the rating
two cannot be closed at the same time.
of those devices.
■ Remote Close Solenoid for Manually Operated
■ Rated Short-Time Current For an unfused cir-
Breaker This option provides a means to
cuit breaker, the rated short-time current is
electrically close a manual circuit breaker
the current at which it is required to per-
from a remote location. The circuit breaker
form its short-time current duty cycle (two
must be charged manually.
periods of ½-s current flow, separated by a
■ Solid-State Trip Device Thst Set A portable in- 15-s interval of zero current) at rated maxi-
strument for field-checking all solid-state trip mum voltage under prescribed test condi-
device functions and calibration. tions. This current is the rms symmetrical
13196308
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-21

r:311 - ... ...

□.
-0 -
~ ~

El., - __, "'

-
_,

a . Secondary unit substat io n with high-voltage l oad -interrupte r switch,

liqu i d-insulated transforme r , and lo w- volt age sw i tchgear se c t io n

/
/
I".

--,V
b . L o w-vo ltage ci rcu it breaker (rear vi ew )

Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Co.. St. Lou is. Mo.

Figure 7-14 Representative Exa mples of Low-Voltage Switchgear

13196308
7-22 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

value measured at one-half cycle after short- IEEE Standard 141-1976 (24), IEEE Standard
circuit initiation. Fused circuit breakers do 241-1983 (25), IEEE Standard 242-1975 (26), and
not have a rated short-time current because Volume 3.
the fuses will blow. Only the circuit breaker Note that all circuit breakers, whether used as
element of a fused circuit breaker assembly main, feeder, or tie circuit breakers, must meet
has a rating as described above. the same short-circuit current requirements. Ap-
■ Rated Short-Circuit Current The rated short- plication of switchgear circuit breakers above their
circuit current uses either unfused circuit short-circuit current ratings in cascade is not
breakers or fused circuit breakers. recommended.
□ Unfused Circuit Breakers The rated short-
circuit current of an unfused circuit
APPLICATIONS AND RELATED REQUIREMENTS
breaker is the current at which it performs
its short-circuit current duty cycle at rated Low-voltage switchgear is used to feed loads
maximum voltage under prescribed test grouped near the secondary unit substation. The
conditions. This current is the rms symmet- loads are low-voltage motor control centers (per-
rical value measured one-half cycle after haps two per feeder circuit breaker), and low-
short-circuit initiation. voltage motors rated perhaps 100 hp or larger. Cir-
□ Fused Circuit Breakers The rated short- cuit breakers may be selected based on full-load
circuit current of a fused circuit breaker is ampacity of the connected loads. Motor starting
the current at which it performs its short- current may be disregarded as the rating structure
circuit current duty cycle under recognizes this use, and the circuit breakers will
prescribed test conditions. The short- withstand motor starting current without harm.
circuit duty cycle consists of an O (open) As indicated earlier, circuit breakers should not
followed by a CO (close-open) operation. be used for repetitive duty (for example, motor
The time between O and CO operations is starting), because they may wear out or require
that time necessary to replace fuses and excessive maintenance in two or three years. Motor
reset the open-fuse trip device. This cur- starters and contactors are more suitable for
rent is the rms symmetrical value meas- repetitive operations.
ured one-half cycle after short-circuit ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.16-1980 (22) gives circuit
initiation. breaker ratings in horsepower for motor starting.
■ Rated Control Voltage The rated control volt-
age is the voltage at which the mechanism
of the circuit breaker is designed to operate
when measured at the power terminals of Example 2 How to Select Circuit Breakers
the operating mechanism with highest cur-
rent flowing. Rated control voltages and volt- A secondary unit substation with a 1000-kVA, 13.8-
age ranges are listed in ANSI Standard to 480-V transformer provides a short-circuit cur-
C37.16-1980 (21). rent capability of 25,000 A, including motor con-
tributions at the switchgear low-voltage bus. How
Circuit breakers are selected to have interrupting do we select circuit breakers?
ratings greater than the short-circuit current avail-
able at the switchgear bus. In determining suit- ■ Main Circuit Breaker Full-load current is
ability for system conditions, consideration should 1203-A self-cooled or 1603-A fan-cooled. A
be given to: 2000-A circuit breaker with interrupting
rating above 25 kA will be acceptable.
■ Source contribution
■ Circuit Breaker Size Required to Control a
■ Motor contribution
■ System power factor 200-hp Induction Motor The motor full-load
■ 'fype of operating mechanism current is 240 A. Any breaker with full-load
■ Duty cycle ratings equal to or greater than 240 A and
■ 'fype of trip devices 25,000 A short-circuit current is acceptable.
The lowest available current rating is 800 A,
Guidance in calculating providing a generous margin.
13196308 short-circuit currents is
given in ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.16-1980 (22),
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-23

■ Class I, Type A
7.6 MOTOR CONTROL c No terminal boards for load or control
connections.
LOW-VOLTAGE MOTOR CONTROL □ Connection diagrams only for each combi-
nation controller or control assembly.
Low-voltage motor control equipment in generating
::i Sketches of the overall dimensions of the
station auxiliary systems is usually a motor control
center wherein motor starters are combined in control centers.
plug-in units in vertical assemblies. Standard sizes ■ Class I, Type B
and types are defined in NEMA Industrial Controls u Unit control terminal boards are provided.
and Systems series standards: NEMA Standard ICS Load terminal boards are provided for
1-1983 (27), NEMA Standard ICS 2-1983 (28), NEMA combination starters size 3 or smaller. Ter-
Standard ICS 4-1983 (29), and NEMA Standard
minal boards are mounted on or adjacent
ICS 6-1983 (30). to each unit. No load terminal boards are
A combination motor controller unit includes an provided for feeder trip units.
externally operable circuit disconnecting means,
c Connection diagrams only for each combi-
circuit overcurrent protection, and a magnetic mo-
nation controller or control assembly.
tor controller with associated auxiliary devices
::i Sketches of the overall dimensions of the
when required (NEMA Standard ICS 2-1983,
Sect. 322.02 (28)). control centers. ·
A control power transformer may be furnished ■ Class I, Type C
to operate at 120 V for control circuits, rather than
□ Master section terminal boards, including
the supply voltage that may be 480 or 600 V. This
load terminals for combination controllers
practice eliminates the safety hazard of having
size 3 or smaller, and all control terminals
high voltages, perhaps 480 or 600 V, in control cir-
for all combination controllers or control
cuits of control boards.
assemblies in each vertical section are
Feeder tap units include an externally operable
mounted on the stationary structure. Also,
means for circuit disconnection and branch-circuit
complete wiring is provided between com-
overcurrent protection, principally used for non-
bination controllers or control assemblies
motor loads.
and their master terminal boards. No load
Motor control centers are defined in terms of
terminal boards are provided for feeder
class and type in NEMA Standard ICS 2-1983,
tap units.
Sect. 322 as follows:
□ No wiring between sections or between
■ Class I Class I motor control centers consist any master terminals.
of a mechanical grouping of combination o No interconnecting between any combina-
motor control, feeder tap assemblies, and tion controllers or control assemblies. All
other units arranged in a convenient assem- outgoing wires from any unit will be car-
bly. They include connections from the com- ried to the master terminal board, except
mon horizontal power bus. They do not wiring for combination controllers size 4
include interwiring or interlocking between or larger.
units or to remote devices and do not include CJ Connection diagram for each combination
system engineering. controller or control assembly.
■ Class II Class II motor control centers consist c Sketch of main terminal boards showing
of a grouping of combination motor control, general location of terminals.
feeder tap assemblies, and other units D Sketches of the overall dimensions of the
designed to form a complete control system. control centers.
They include electrical interlocking and inter-
wiring between units and to remote devices, ■ Class II, Type B
including connection to the common power o Unit control board provided. Unit load ter-
bus. minal blocks provided for combination con-
trollers size 3 or smaller. Terminal boards
Class and 1ype of Motor Control Center Motor are mounted on or adjacent to each unit.
control centers are manufactured to the following No load terminal boards are provided for
classes and types13196308
with the following features: feeder tap units.
 7-24 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

□ Necessary interconnecting wiring between in one way or another. The majority of

combination controllers and control assem- overload relays in use today are thermal
blies in the same or other sections. devices that rely on the line current flowing
□ A connection diagram of the complete con- to a motor for the heating effect. To protect
trol assembly. a motor properly, they should possess ther-
□ Sketches of the overall dimensions of the mal characteristics closely resembling those
control centers. of the motor: Figure 7-16 compares the
thermal characteristics of a typical motor
Figure 7-15 shows types of motor control centers and typical overload relay. These curves
and components. show that the overload relay will trip (dis-
connect the motor from the line) just before
motor overheating for all values of excessive
COMBINATION MOTOR CONTROLLER RATINGS load current. Higher current not only
causes motor overheating to take place in a
. Motor controllers are horsepower rated, depending
shorter period of time but also causes
on the application. Controllers should not be used
earlier tripping of overload relays. This
with motors whose full-load current or horsepower
is characteristic of inverse time relays.
rating exceed the continuous current or horse-
power ratings given in the NEMA ICS standards. □ Melting-Alloy Relays Melting-alloy overload
The ultimate trip current of overcurrent relays or relays (Figure 7-17) consist of a heater ele-
other motor protective devices should not exceed ment, eutectic alloy, alloy pot, ratchet
the service-limit current rating of the controller. wheel, pawl, spring, and contacts. The in-
tensity of heat dissipated by the heater
Motor Control-The Problem Defined The varies directly with the line current and
paramount problem in motor control is providing acts upon the eutectic alloy (alloy with a
protection for the motor under all operating con- precise low melting point). The spring-
ditions: starting and running. A motor is unique loaded pawl operates the contacts in such
in that the starting current is perhaps six times a manner that the contacts are forced
the full-load running current for a time duration open unless the pawl is held in place. This
of several seconds. Protection can easily be pro- is the function of the ratchet wheel; it se-
vided for either condition (with a standard fuse, cures the pawl and thus forces the con-
for example) but cannot cover both conditions: If tacts closed. Because the shaft of the
the fuse is selected for running protection, it will ratchet wheel is secured by the solidified
blow on starting; if selected for starting protection, eutectic alloy, the contacts remain in the
it provides inadequate running protection. Short- closed position. However, should the motor
circuit current protection must also be provided, draw excessive current for a long enough
which may be 1000 times motor full-load current. period of time, the heat dissipated by the
heater will melt the eutectic alloy, allowing
Motor Control-The Solution the ratchet wheel to spin. The spring-
loaded pawl is then free to move, allowing
■ Motor protection the contacts to open, which, in turn, de-
□ Fuses One-element fuses are now available energizes the control circuit and drops out
that have time-current characteristics the starter. After the alloy has cooled and
providing starting, running, and short- hardened, the unit can be manually reset.
circuit current protection. However, they □ Bimetallic Relays Figure 7-18 illustrates the
do not provide single-phasing protection in principle of the bimetallic overload relay.
the event of fuse failure and do not coor- This type of overload relay also contains a
dinate with all motors. Dual-element fuses heater that is sensitive to line current. As
are not widely used for motor protection the line current increases and the heater
in power plant electrical systems. dissipates more heat, a bimetallic strip is
□ Thermal Relays Because overcurrent is the heated instead of a eutectic alloy. This bi-
major cause of motor overheating, it follows metallic strip is designed to flex a predeter-
that devices designed to protect motors mined distance when it reaches a specific
from excessive heating would sense current temperature. The temperature corresponds
13196308
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-25

a. Typical motor control center

b. Removable combination starter with control power transformer

Courtesy of Square D Company. Burlington. Iowa.

Figure 7-15 Motor Control Centers and Components

13196308
7-26 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

600
unsolved and causes unnecessary motor
deterioration. Another danger is the possi-
-.,...
C
500
\
bility of an overload relay being set to auto-
matically reset itself on a two-wire control
...
::,
0
400
\ scheme where personnel injury could result
"O
0 '\ Motor heating curve from a motor suddenly starting without
~ warning. The automatic reset feature does

--
::, 300
\
" ""' "-
-..... r-- .___
have its place, however, protecting a motor
that is isolated, such as in an oil field
-.,
0

C
200
r--..
... , - where personnel would be required to
travel a considerable distance to reset the
.,...
0

a.. 100 Time required to trio device, or controlling equipment, such as a

refrigerator where it would be more desir-
able to deteriorate the motor than to have
0 it disconnected from the line until person-
0 1 2 .3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Minutes nel are in attendance. Disconnection could
result in loss of the refrigerated goods.
Figure 7-16 Comparison of Thermal Characteristics of a
Typical Motor and Typical Overload Relay

to the point at which the motor should be Motor

.....--- circuit
disconnected from the line to avoid exces- Bimetal
sive heating. When the bimetallic strip
Motor
bends this predetermined distance, force is normal
applied to the contact mechanism, and the
contacts open to disconnect the motor Control
from the line. circuit
Compared with the melting-alloy over- Contacts
closed
load relay, the bimetallic overload relay has
o. Normal position
both advantages and disadvantages. One
advantage is the ability of most bimetallic
units to be converted from the manual
reset to automatic and vice versa by merely Heater
moving a spring or lever. However, this ap- Motor
parent advantage also leads to a pitfall. ~ - - circuit
Overload relays should normally be of the Bimetol

manual reset type to call attention to an

overheating motor in order to locate the
trouble. It is easy for a busy maintenance
man to set an overload of this type to auto- Control
circuit
matically reset itself, so that he is not Contacts
bothered. The motor problem thus remains open

b. Tripped position

unit
Figure 7-18 Bimetallic Overload Relay

c:=:::=J:F~¼~n-'~-;:r:::=::::::=J-
motor A second advantage of most bimetallic
overload relays is the incorporated adjust-
ment. This allows the trip point to be set
from approximately 85 to 115% of the
rated ultimate trip current.
~5"==-
To magnet
Most bimetallic overload relays also have
coil removable interchangeable heater elements,
13196308
permitting easy changes of current rating
Figure 7-17 Melting-Alloy Overload Relay without removing the entire thermal relay.
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-27

□ Thermal Overload Relay Class Descriptions because thermal-magnetic circuit breakers

Overload relays are classified by time- come in discrete ratings, mostly nonad-
current characteristics, designated by a justable, there is the possibility of a gap in
class number indicating the maximum protection between the locked-rotor current
time in seconds at which it will function and short-circuit current levels. Thermal-
(trip) when carrying 600% of its current .. magnetic circuit breakers are available as
rating. A class 10 relay will function (trip) an option today but are not recommended
in 10 s or less, class 20 relay in 20 s or without extenuating circumstances.
less, and class 30 relay in 30 s or less. □ Circuit Breakers, Motor Circuit Protector The
A class 20 overload relay is appropriate magnetic-only motor circuit protector was
for the vast majority of applications. A devised around 1960, specifically for use
class 10 relay is appropriate for specialized in combination motor starters. It has con-
motors with a low thermal time constant, tinuously adjustable trip levels, permits
and a class 30 relay is appropriate for close coordination with the motor, and
slow-starting loads. permits the combination starter to provide
□ Thermal Relay Ambient Temperature completely coordinated protection from
Sensitivity Thermal relays, being full-load current up to bolted fault current.
temperature-operated devices, are all All manufacturers of circuit breaker-type
somewhat sensitive to ambient tempera- combination starters currently use
ture. As ambient temperature increases, magnetic-only circuit breakers. Magnetic-
thermal relay sensitivity increases (lower only circuit breakers are recommended.
trip current). This increase is not a draw- □ Contactors Each combination starter con-
back because it roughly parallels thermal tains a power contactor that provides motor
capability of the motor at higher tempera- starting and stopping (on and offl. These
ture. If ambient temperature is over the rugged devices will provide trouble-free
standard 40°C (up to 50°C), or the motor service for perhaps 200,000 full-load oper-
is in a cooler ambient than the thermal re- ations. The contactor is designed to inter-
lay, ambient-compensated thermal relays rupt overloads only and will not interrupt
can be used. Ambient-compensated thermal short-circuit currents, which are higher
relays have a substantially flat temperature than the overload currents.
coefficient up to 50°C. □ Control Power Transformers Power line
voltage can be used for control power
■ Short-circuit protection
(contactor energization and indicator
□ Fuses Historically, fuses were the first lamps) in a starter if the control conduc-
devices used for short-circuit protection tors do not exit the cabinet. If the control
and are a viable option today. Current- conductors do exit the cabinet, a lower
limiting fuses have the advantage of inter- control voltage is advisable for safety, and
rupting capability up to 200 kA. When control power transformers are recom-
used, fuses will be mounted in a fusible mended. Standard control power trans-
switch to provide an interrupting means. formers have a 120-V secondary, which is
Fuses have the disadvantage that one may the best choice between reliability and
fail (open) causing single phasing, which safety. Minimum control power transformer
may cause motor failure. size is generally two and one-half times
□ Circuit Breakers, Thermal Magnetic Thermal- the contactor sealed voltampere rating as
magnetic circuit breakers were the first an industry standard. It is best to err on
circuit breakers to be used in combination the high side to permit use of auxiliary re-
motor starters. When used in a combina- lays and devices and allow use of longer
tion motor starter, a thermal-magnetic cir- control cables. When long control cables
cuit breaker is used for short-circuit are used, an interposing relay may be
protection only. The thermal trip level is used to eliminate voltage drop in the con-
above the thermal relay setting in the com- tactor circuit. This is especially true for
bination starter and is either redundant or NEMA size 3 and larger starters.
affords no protection to the motor if the Control power transformers can be fur-
13196308
thermal relay fails to operate. Further, nished in each individual starter, or one
7-28 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

large control power transformer can fur- They are mounted in a readily accessible
nish control power to a lineup of starters. area for easy replacement. An available op-
Both schemes are satisfactory, but indi- tion is an anti-single-phasing trip bar. The bar
vidual control power transformers provide is activated by a blown fuse on any phase
greater system reliability. If a single large and immediately trips the contactor to shut
control power transformer fails or a protec- down the motor.
tive fuse blows, the entire motor control
■ Contactor The contactor may be air magnetic
center is out of service. Conversely, with in-
or vacuum interrupting. Both are acceptable.
dividual control power transformers, only
The air-magnetic contactor is easier to
one starter is out of service.
inspect and evaluate, but the vacuum-
□ Motor Control Center Application For typical interrupting contactor will require less main-
wiring diagrams and control schemes, see tenance. Note that there is no need for con-
Volume 10. For overload relay applications cern about current chopping with vacuum
and circuit coordination, see Volume 8. contactors. The propensity to current-chop
depends on vacuum contact or contact mate-
MEDIUM-VOLTAGE MOTOR CONTROL rial. Material that vaporizes easily under
arcing reduces the propensity to current-chop
Medium-voltage motor controllers comprise dis-
and is used in vacuum contactors.
connecting means, current limiting fuses, contac-
tor, current transformers, and protective relays. ■ Contactor Operating Mechanism Contactor
A control power transformer is also usually operating mechanisms are of two types: elec-
provided. Controllers are made to meet two classes trically held and mechanically latched. The
of performance (NEMA Standard ICS 2-1983, electrically held mechanism that drops out
Sect. 324 (28]). (opens the contactor) in event of loss of volt-
age or severe undervoltage, is appropriate for
■ Class El controllers employ their contactors most applications. Mechanically latched
for both starting and stopping the motor mechanisms are for use when the contactor
and for interrupting· short-circuit currents or must stay closed during severe undervoltage
fault currents exceeding operating overloads. or loss-of-voltage conditions. Examples would
be fire pumps, transformer feeders, capacitor
■ Class E2 controllers employ their contactors
for starting and stopping the motor and em- bank switching, and loads where the motor
is more expendable than the function of
ploy fuses for interrupting short-circuit cur-
equipment being served.
rents or fault currents exceeding operating
overloads. ■ Current 'Iransformers These are used to iso-
late the protective relays from high voltages
Ratings Medium-voltage motor controllers are and high currents.
available in various motor ratings up to 8000 hp
■ Protective Relays Optional protective relays
and 7200 V. Standard ampacity ratings are 180 A
applicable to medium-voltage motor con-
and 360 A, and nonstandard ratings are available
trollers are:
up to 800 A.
□ Thermal eutectic and bimetallic thermal

Components Medium-voltage motor controllers overload relays

contain the same components as low-voltage motor u Standard electromechanical relays
controllers, except medium-voltage circuit breakers □ Solid-state relays that give protection
are not used. All medium-voltage controllers have including:
the following components. 1. Overtemperature (RTD) protection
2. Overtemperature/overcurrent protection
■ Disconnecting Means A nonload breaking dis- 3. Open-phase and phase reversal
connecting switch is provided to isolate all protection
components for maintenance. It provides a 4. Open-phase and phase unbalance
visible break and shutters to isolate the ener- protection
gized bus contacts when open. 5. Ground-fault protection
■ Current-limiting Fuses Current-limiting fuses
13196308 6. Overcurrent protection
are provided for short-circuit protection. 7. Annunciation and alarm functions
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-29

Volume 8 discusses protective relays and When performance is unsatisfactory or contact re-
their applications. sistance is too high, they should be discarded and
replaced. Molded-case circuit breakers should be
■ Control Power 1ransformer A fused control
mechanically operated periodically to prevent sei-
power transformer is furnished to provide
zure of parts. Additionally, some have a test button
power to the contactor and ancillary devices.
to exercise the trip unit, which should be benefi-
Medium-voltage controllers are built into struc- cially exercised at the same time.
tures nominally 90 in. high and may be bused to-
gether in lineups and with other equipment.

7.8 DC EQUIPMENT

7.7 PANEL BOARDS De equipment is used in power plant auxiliary ser-

vice systems to provide independent control power
.Lighting and distribution panel boards are built in to switchgear and other equipment and for de mo-
conformance with NEMA Standard PB 1-1984 (31). tors used in critical applications requiring an in-
They are wall or flush mounted for power distri- dependent power source. De systems comprise a
bution near the loads served. They may be single- storage battery (discussed in Volume 9), low-
phase, two- or three-wire, or three-phase, three- voltage switchgear, motor control equipment, and
or four-wire. Bus ratings are 50/110/225/400/800 A, panel boards. De systems are invariably 125 or
and the number of feeds varies from 6 to 60. Input 250 V (nominal) for power plant equipment.
to the panel board may be through lugs, a thermal-
magnetic molded-case circuit breaker, a nonauto-
DC LOW-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
matic switch, or a fused switch. Feeder devices
may be either thermal-magnetic molded-case cir- De low-voltage switchgear will be identical to ac
cuit breakers or fused switches, either plug-in or low-voltage switchgear with two exceptions:
bolt-in construction. Panel board bus may be either
aluminum or copper, usually tin-plated. ■ De circuit breakers will be identical in con-
struction to ac circuit breakers, except the
middle pole may be omitted.
MOLDED-CASE CIRCUIT BREAKERS
■ De circ1:1it breakers will, of necessity, have
Molded-case circuit breakers are rated and tested electromechanical trip units. (Solid-state trip
to NEMA Standard AB 1-1975 (32). Their full rating units use current transformers as sensors
is achieved in free air. Thus, when mounted in an and for power; however, they do not work
enclosure (panel board or motor control center), on de.)
they must be derated or applied at no more than
80% of their free air rating, unless the circuit De switchgear is applied as battery circuit break-
breaker is clearly marked 100% rated. ers and distribution circuit breakers, never for
Circuit breakers may be field-tested per NEMA motor starting. Full-voltage motor starting for de
Standard AB 2-1976 (33) for function. Note that this motors is limited to about 1½ hp because of ex-
test is not a calibration test; it merely verifies cir- cessively high starting current; thus de switchgear
cuit breaker function. Verifying circuit breaker cal- is too large and is an inappropriate use.
ibration in the field is difficult, especially at higher De switchgear has the same features as ac
currents, because the calibration is sensitive to switchgear:
waveform variations.
Ordinarily, molded-case circuit breakers in panel ■ Electromechanical trip unit with short-time
boards should be rated to interrupt the short- delay, long-time delay, and instantaneous
circuit current available at the panel board bus. functions
However, if the feeder and main circuit breakers
■ Shunt trip, for remote electrical tripping of
have been qualified as a group in cascade, lower-
the circuit breaker
rated circuit breakers may be used. When rated
in cascade, the circuit breaker need only interrupt ■ Undervoltage trip, for protection against
the let-through current. severe undervoltage
Molded-case circuit breakers are sealed devices..
13196308 ■ Key interlocks, to ensure correct sequence of
They cannot be disassembled and worked on. operations
7-30 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

■ Auxiliary switches, for interlocking and con- SPEED CONTROL

trol purposes
De motors are designed to achieve rated speed and
■ Bell alarm with lockout, used for remote horsepower with full line voltage applied across the
alarm and lockout upon automatic trip (shunt) field. If this type of operation is planned,
■ Electric lockout for electrically interlocking no field control components are required.
circuit breakers so that two cannot be closed If speed control by field weakening is required,
at the same time the speed range must be stipulated when the motor
■ Remote-close solenoid for manually operated is purchased (although all de motors can have
circuit breaker to provide a means for clos- speed control by field weakening, to some extent).
ing a manual circuit breaker from a remote For speed control by field weakening, additional
location starter components are required:
De switchgear is typically rated 25,000- or ■ Speed Range 2:1 Full field relay and field
50,000-A short-circuit current at 250 Vdc, three- rheostat
cycle interrupting time (60-cycle basis). ■ Speed Range Greater than 2:1 Field accelerat-
ing relay and field rheostat
DC LOW-VOLTAGE MOTOR CONTROL
The field rheostat is customarily furnished by
De motor control equipment may be furnished as the purchaser and installed in the starter by the
motor control centers or may be separately vendor, if supplied in sufficient time. It may be the
mounted when required. De motor control centers hand-adjustable, flat-plate type or a fixed type.
will have the same class and type designations as
listed in Section 7.6.
Short-circuit protection and disconnecting DC PANEL BOARDS
means will be provided by either: De panel boards may be mounted integrally with
a de motor control center or may be separately
■ Fuses in a fusible switch. mounted. They are the dead-front safety type,
■ Thermal-magnetic molded-case circuit equipped with thermal-magnetic circuit breakers
breaker. (Note that magnetic-only motor or fused switches. Note that when molded-case cir-
circuit protectors have no published de cuit breakers are applied on de, the interrupting
ratings.) ratings are substantially less than for ac, typically
one-half to one-third of the ac interrupting ratings.
Overload and starting protection will be provided
by thermal-overload relays, either bimetallic or
melting-alloy types.
A de contactor will be provided for starting
7 .9 GENERATOR CIRCUIT BREAKERS
operations.
The following optional components are available:
HISTORY AND APPLICATIONS
■ Start-stop push-button station
■ Forward-reverse-sto p push button station Early power station designs used generator circuit
■ Hand-off-automatic selector switch breakers to connect either to the station bus or
■ Indicating lights to the main transformer, which connected to the
■ Line ammeter high-voltage transmission system. The generator
■ De voltmeter circuit breaker was used for synchronizing and
■ Elapsed-time meter for all· routine switching and clearing of a fault
within the generator unit (Figure 7-19). Note that
Full-voltage starting is normally limited to NEMA this arrangement still finds application in hydro-
size 1 starters with a maximum of 1½-hp, 125-V generating stations, pumped-storage stations, and
motor load. Starting resistor sizes and accelerat- in other applications where multiple generators
ing points should be recommended by the vendor are tied to a single step-up transformer.
and approved by the user. Reduced-voltage, revers- By the 1950s, generator size had increased beyond
ing starters should be supplied with holding coils available switchgear capability, and the unit-
and commutating field-discharge resistors for use
13196308 connected generator became standard. In the unit-
when the motor decelerates. connected arrangement, the generator is connected
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-31

Transmission system

transformer

Generator bus

Generator Unit auxiliary

breakers transformer

T,
Generators
Station
service bus

Figure 7-19 Generating Station With Generator Circuit Breakers

directly to the main transformer, and a high-voltage found application principally in nuclear power sta-
circuit breaker is used for synchronizing and tions. Nuclear power stations are required to have
switching operations (Figure 7-20). Off-site power two independent off-site power sources to ensure
is brought in through a station service (startup) capability for safe shutdown and public safety.
transformer for startup and is transferred to the Without a generator circuit breaker, this require-
station auxiliary transformer when the generator ment is met by using two station service trans-
has been synchronized and connected to the formers fed by two independent power lines
system. (Figure 7-21).
However, generator circuit breakers are available Using a generator circuit breaker permits back-
today that will match the capabilities of the largest feeding through the main transformer with the
available generators. They are costly and have generator circuit breaker open; thus, the main

Transmission system

High-voltage
circuit breaker

Unit transformer
Station service
(startup)
transformer

Unit auxiliary
transformer

Generator
T,
1 Station service bus
13196308
Figure 7-20 Generating Station With Unit-connected Generator
7-32 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

transmis sion line is available as an off-site source. AVAILABLE EQUIPMENT

This permits deletion of the second station service Various compar able ratings are available up to:
(startup) transfor mer and second indepen dent high-
voltage line (Figure 7-22). Elimina tion of the second Load current 48 kA
station service transfor mer and second indepen dent 36 kV
Maximu m rated voltage
line represen ts a substan tial savings over the cost
of a generat or circuit breaker. For further discus- Symmet rical interrup ting
current 275 kA
sion, refer to IEEE Standar ds 765-1983 and 308-1980.
The case for applying generat or circuit breaker s Closing capabili ty 750 kA crest
in fossil fuel plants is less compell ing. With the
generat or circuit breaker open, one can backfee d Several permuta tions of compon ents are available
through the unit transfor mer for startup power, to provide differen t levels of interrup ting capability.
thus eliminat ing the station service transfor mer.
However, in event of failure of the unit auxiliar y Load Break Switch The load break-sw itch con-
transfor mer, no power will be generat ed until it figuratio n may be used to switch normal generato r
is replaced , which may take several months. Thus, current for startup and synchro nizing, and other
for reliabili ty and continu ity of service, a station function s, but has no substan tive short-ci rcuit
service transfor mer is highly desirabl e, even with current- interrup ting capability. Faults must be in-
use of a generat or circuit breaker (Figure 7-23). terrupte d by the high-voltage circuit breaker in the

Independ ent transmiss ion lines

♦
Optional - - - - - :

I
I
I
----1
,--- ---- ---7
~Swit ch yard
I
I
I
I I
I L ____ _ I_ _ _ _ _ _J
L ____ _ _j
Unit
transform er

Generato r

Station service Station service

bus A bus B

Transformers
Figure 7-21 Nuclear Generating Station. Unit-connected With Two Station SeNice

step-up transfor mer circuit. Note that this provides transfor mer or bus fault but will not interrup t the
no protecti on from generat or short-cir cuit current system short-cir cuit current in event of a generato r
contribu tions to faults in the step-up and station fault.
service transfor mers. The generat or short-ci rcuit
current contribu tion has a long time constan t and High-Fa ult Interru pting Capabl llty This ar-
contribu tes signific antly to the damage in event rangem ent imposes no limits to the short-ci rcuit
of an internal transfo rmer failure. protecti on system, permitti ng simplici ty and flex-
ibility in the protecti on system.
Medium -Fault Interru pting Capabi lity Med- Operati on of generat or circuit breaker s is differ-
ium-fau lt interrup ting capabili ty permits isolation ent from most circuit breaker applications. In con-
13196308
of the generat or from a step-up or station service trast to circuit breaker s on air-insu lated overhea d
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-33

Independent transmission lines

I
I
----1
r----------7
~ Switchyard
I

I
Unit IL __________ _JI
transformer

Generator
circuit Unit auxiliary Station service
breaker transformer (startup)

7,
transformer

Generator

1l Station service
I)
l
I)
l -i
Station service
bus A bus B

Figure 7-22 Nuclear Generating Station With Generator Circuit Breaker

lines, where fault current paths can usually be or aluminum. They may be bare or insulated
considered self-breaking, generator breakers are throughout. Bus conductors are usually plated at
tripped open in case of faults and are not reclosed bolted conducting joints.
until the cause of the fault is determined and Bus enclosures may be fabricated from aluminum
repaired or isolated. or steel. Aluminum enclosures must be used above
2000-A bus ratings to avoid hysteresis losses pres-
ent in steel. Enclosures may be ventilated or non-
7.10 BUS ventilated, indoor or outdoor, and may be rated
"proof' or "tight" against rain or dust and other con-
There are three types of bus in use: taminants. Wind loading and ice loading may be re-
quired. Service conditions will dictate which type
■ Nonsegregated-Phase Bus A nonsegregated- of bus structure is required.
phase bus is one in which all phase conduc-
tors are in a common metal enclosure with-
out barriers between phases (Figure 7-24a). BUS RATINGS
■ Segregated-Phase Bus A segregated-phase bus Electrical bus is rated similarly to its connected
is one in which all phase conductors are in equipment, including the following items:
a common metal enclosure but are segre-
gated by metal barriers between phases
■ Rated Voltage The rated voltage of a bus
(Figure 7-24b).
structure is the highest nominal system volt-
■ Isolated-Phase Bus An isolated-phase bus is age at which it is designed to operate.
one in which each phase conductor is en-
closed by an individual metal housing and ■ Rated Frequency The rated frequency of a
separated from adjacent conductor housings bus structure is the frequency at which it is
by an air space (Figure 7-24c). designed to operate.

■ Rated Continuous Current The rated continu-

CONSTRUCTION FEATURES ous current of a bus structure is the current
in amperes at rated frequency that it will
Bus conductors may be bars, channels, angles, carry continuously without exceeding the limit
rounds, squares, or 13196308
hexagonals. They may be copper of specified temperature rise.
 7-34 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

L-------------------:
Transmission system

Unit transformer I
I
I
~ Optional station
service transformer
rvyv"
Generator
circuit I
breaker I
Unit auxiliary I
transformer I
Generator
T, I
I
')
I
l Station service bus
~

Figure 7-23 Fossil Fuel Generating Station With Generator Circuit Breaker

■ Rated Momentary Current The rated momen- Nonsegregated- phase bus may have heaters to
tary current of a bus structure is the rms to- prevent condensation and wall brackets and vapor
tal current that the bus structure will be barriers where the bus passes through external
required to withstand. building walls.
■ Withstand Tost Voltage A withstand test volt-
age is a voltage that a bus structure must SEGREGATED-PHASE BUS
withstand without flashover or other electrical
failure when the voltage is applied under Segregated-phase bus may be used where space limi-
specified conditions. Low-frequency voltages tations prevent use of isolated-phase bus. It has sub-
are expressed as volts rms for a specific time, stantially the same flux-neutralizing characteristics
and impulse voltages are expressed in crest as isolated-phase bus but higher losses because of
voltage of a specific wave. unfavorable geometry. It gives much greater protec-
tion from phase-to-phase faults than nonsegregated-
Consideration of the solar radiation effect on out- phase bus and is useful when high momentary cur-
door sections is recommended. Note that solar radi- rents and impulse voltages may be found.
ation may typically add 15°C rise to outdoor
sections (34). A sunscreen may be added to elimi-
ISOLATED-PHASE BUS
nate solar heating effects when they are excessive.
Stray-Flux Problem Isolated-phase bus has
NONSEGREGATED-PHASE BUS evolved over the last 50 years in response to the
stray-flux problem. As generator size increased,
Nonsegregated- phase bus is available with ratings generator lead current increased. At 8000 A and
up to 10,000 A, 5- through 34.5-kV, 80-kA short- above, stray flux can result in heating of steel
circuit current. This bus enclosure, both ventilated members in proximity to the bus, such as build-
or nonventilated, is available for indoor and out- ing steel, reinforcing bars in concrete, pipe
door applications. Nonsegregated-phase bus is used hangers, gas and water pipes, cable trays, ladders,
to connect the station service transformer and railings, platforms, and other components. Tom-
startup transformer to medium-voltage switchgear. peratures achieved due to stray flux will not be
It also may be used as the generator leads from high enough to affect structural strength or com-
small power plants. bustibility but are a serious safety problem. The
13196308
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-35

Application: Used to connect transformers to

switchgear, for tie connections between motor
control centers and large motors, and as the
main generator leads in small generator
and hydro plants.
Conductors: Copper or aluminum, insulated.
Supports: Standard fiberglass.

a. Nonsegregated-phase bus

Application: Used as generator leads in

power plants, switchgear tie-in in
metal-enclosed substations, and in factories.
Conductors: Copper or aluminum.
Supports: Fiberglass or porcelain.

b. Segregated-phase bus

Application: Used primarily as the main

generator leads in power plants.

Conductors: Copper or aluminum.

Supports: Fiberglass or porcelain.

c. Isolated-phase bus

Nonsegregated-phase bus as manufactured by Delta-Unibus

Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio.

Figure 7-24 Bus Types

13196308
 7-36 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

building steel, cable trays, ladders, and other com- Housing

ponents are usually in a relatively inaccessible lo- section

cation, and a workman grasping an unexpectedly

hot surface may instinctively let go and fall. (Note
also that the standards permit metal bus en-
closures to reach 80°C when easily accessible and
110°c when unaccessible.) Bus structures are ex-
pected to be warm and, thus, are not a problem
(Section 8, Tobie 14 of ANSI Standard C37.20-1969/ Ground
bus
IEEE Standard 27-1974 (2)).

Noncontinuous-En closure Design The non- a. Noncontinuous

continuous-enclosur e design was first used in

1937. Each phase conductor is enclosed by an en-
closure that is grounded at one end and insulated
at all other places (Figure 7-25a). A common
ground is carried the length of the bus assembly.
In the noncontinuous design, each phase cur-
rent produces random currents in the other phase
enclosures (but not in its own enclosure), the effect
of which is to weaken the magnetic field consider-
ably inside the bus enclosures. The result is that
electromagnetic forces on insulators and conduc-
tors are reduced by as much as 90% of the forces Electrically
that would result if the enclosures were not continuous
enclosures
present.
Although the noncontinuous design gives excel- B
lent shielding against electromagnetic forces, the C
external magnetic field is not greatly attenuated.
Current from phase A
Tests have shown that the external magnetic field enclosure returns through
will be about 70% of the field due to the unshielded phase B and C enclosures
and end plates.
conductor current, still requiring magnetic shield-
ing to reduce heating in nearby steel members. b. Continuous
Also, there is a voltage rise on the enclosure, about
2 V at the ungrounded end for normal load cur- Figure 7-25 Isolated-Phase Bus Enclosure Designs
rents; however, voltage can be dangerously high
under short-circuit conditions. which would exist if the enclosures were not pres-
ent. Induced heating problems are absent, and
Continuous-Enclos ure Design The problems
only mechanical clearance is required for nearby
enumerated above led to the continuous-enclosure structural members. An additional benefit from
design, which was first used in 1968. Each phase the continuous-enclosur e design is approximately
enclosure is continuous throughout, with welded 93% reduction in electromagnetic forces on con-
cross-connection plates at the ends (Figure 7-25b). ductors and insulators.
The continuous-enclosur e design need only be Tobie 7-2 summarizes the electromagnetic forces
grounded at one place but is most commonly and stray-flux heating from the various designs of
grounded at both ends. It does not require insu- isolated-phase bus.
lation at intermediate support points.
In the continuous-enclosur e design, each phase Bus Cooling Isolated-phase bus may be self-
conductor current induces a current opposite in cooled or force-cooled. The choice is primarily
direction and nearly equal, in its own phase economic, depending on bus ampacity and length.
enclosure the return path being the other phase An economic evaluation must be made of the losses'
enclosures and end plates. This current neutral- first cost. Also, operating requirements versus time
izes flux from the phase conductor, with the re- and temperature characteristics of the bus must
13196308
sut that external flux is approximately 5% of that be considered.
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-37

Table 7.2 Electromagnetic Forces and Stray-Flux Heating From Isolated-Phase Bus

Unshielded Noncontinuous Continuous

Conductor Design Design
Isolated-Phase Bus Comparison (%) (%) (%)
Electromagnetic forces on bus 100 10·
External magnetic flux 100 70 5
Stray-flux heating 100 50
•Depends on de component

For example, a self-cooled 25,000-A bus would When the generator is hydrogen cooled,
probably not be economical unless very short. there is danger of hydrogen leakage from
Conversely, a force-cooled 12,000-A bus would the bushings into the bus cooling system;
P,robably not be economical unless exceedingly however, seal-off bushing may be provided at
long, due to the incremental cost of the cooling the generator terminals. The generator bush-
unit. Below 14,000 A, the bus savings for forced ings and terminals must still be cooled, so
cooling are minimal and easily eclipsed by the cost air from the supply duct is introduced into
of the cooling unit. the generator termin~tion compartment
In event of loss of cooling air, bus conductor and through dampers and discharged to the at-
enclosure temperature will sharply rise well above mosphere. Hydrogen detectors may be
allowable temperatures. To prevent this, load cur- placed near the bushings to give an alarm in
rent must be reduced to the self-cooled rating. the event of hydrogen leakage. An alterna-
How much time is available for orderly load reduc- tive is placing hydrogen detectors near the
tion depends on the self-cooled rating and the in- generator bushings (with no seal-off bush-
itial temperature of the bus. If the time interval ings) and changing the cooling system to
is insufficient, a lower self-cooled rating is appli- once-through operation upon a hydrogen
cable. To eliminate this problem, redundancy may leak alarm to prevent hydrogen buildup in
be built into the cooling package. At the least, a tp.e cooling system.
spare mounted motor may be provided. Many
modern power plants provide 100% redundant The basic cooling system consists of a single fan
cooling packages. with drive, water, air-to-water heat exchanger, and
makeup filter. An additional damper and air duct
Three General Arrangements of Forced- to the atmosphere may be added for once-through
Coollng Systems operation in the event of loss of cooling water or
hydrogen alarm (Figure 7-27).
■ Endfed Air is admitted to the center-phase It is recommended that the forced-cooling system
enclosure at the generator and flows to the on isolated-phase bus be run even when the bus
transformer termination, where it divides is not in use, in order to preclude condensation
and returns to the cooler through the two in the bus.
outer-phase enclosures (Figure 7-26a).
■ Centerfed When air velocity for proper cool-
ing becomes too high (over 40 mph), air is ISOLATED-PHASE BUS ACCESSORIES
admitted halfway between the generator and
The following accessories are commonly furnished
transformer (Figure 7-26b). The quantity of
with an isolated-phase bus:
air required is the same, but velocity is cut
in half. Pressure drop is reduced, and less
■ Voltage 'Iransformers and Surge Protection
horsepower is required for the fan.
Integrity of the isolated-phase construction
■ One-Way If the above systems are insufficient, continues into surge protection and voltage
then air flows one way. Air is admitted to transformer cubicles. Each surge protector
each phase at the generator and returned and voltage transformer is mounted in an
to the cooler from the transformer end individual-phase compartment and is con-
(Figure 7-26c). 13196308 nected to the main bus by isolated-phase bus.
7-38 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

Generator Transformer The equipment is mounted in a metal en-

terminals terminals
closure with a bus duct section connected to
the generator terminator enclosure.
■ Sealing Bushings As noted, these components
may be used as a hydrogen seal or as a seal
to the station service transformer bus tap.
Bus enclosures The isolated-phase tap bus feeding the station
service transformer has low capacity re-
Makeup quirements and does not require forced
air filter Arrows show
direction of cooling. A small amount of cooling air is
air flow continually bled into the tap bus to prevent
condensation.
a. End-fed
■ Thermometers Thermometers may be placed
on the bus conductors and viewed through
windows in the bus enclosures to check bus
conductor temperature.
Generator Transformer
terminals terminals ■ Wall Frame and Support Plate Used' where
Deionizer isolated-phase bus passes through the build-
grid
and ing wall to outdoors.
damper
■ Disconnecting Links Used at the generator or
transformer ends to provide isolation for

Air
Damper from bus Air
(normal to bus
Makeup
air filter Arrows show
direction of
position) t
air flow
Air duct to t t
at mos p_he_rre_;:c=::,;...-r---r---==~
b. Center-fed
Full-size Plenum C/C Fan
makeup
air filter

Generator Transformer
terminals terminals a. Normal operation - air recirculated
Deionizer
.... .. grid
and
damper
....
.... Air
from bus A'ir
to bus
Dam er

_...,_~,L.;.,J,.•- Makeup
air filter
.,_
Plenum Arrows show Air duct to
direction of at m osph_e_rre-"'=CL..-r---r--~_..;,;.._,
cir flow Full-size
Fon
makeup Plenum C/C Fan
air filter
c. One-way

Figure 7-26 Forced-Cooling Systems

b. Emergency operation - air circulated once

■ Neutral Grounding Equipment Generators are and exhausted to the atmosphere
usually high13196308
impedance grounded through a
transformer and loading resistor or a reactor. Figure 7-27 Cooling System Operation
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-39

testing. The open gap with links removed process is imperfect or the plating is scratched,
shall be large enough to provide safe isola- galvanic action between the aluminum and silver
tion from energized sections. will result in blistering and failure of the plating.
■ 1elescoping Disconnecting Switches Used in
Silver plating on aluminum should be kept covered
with inert grease to eliminate this problem.
lieu of disconnecting links. At high ampaci-
.Tin plating on aluminum has been used success-
ties, removing disconnecting links may take
an unreasonable time. fully for 20 years and is recommended. Joint resis-
tance will be slightly higher than with silver
■ 1ransformer Adapter Hoods A set of three plating but is easily accommodated in the design.
hoods to seal off the bus when the trans-
former is out of service.
■ Bushing Enclosures For generator and trans- 7.11 ENVIRONMENTAL
former, including flexible boots. CONSIDERATIONS
• Cooling Package Consists of a fan belt driven
by a motor, a heat exchanger with cooling Usual service conditions are defined as:
coils, return air plenum, fresh-air filters,
dampers, return air duct, vibration boots, ■ Where the ambient temperature is not above
and all associated equipment. 40°C or below - 30°C
■ Where the altitude is not above 3300 ft
■ Crossover Ducts and Dampers At the genera- (1000 m)
tor and transformer as needed, including air
ducts, air control baffles, deionizing baffles, Any conditions outside the "usual" service con-
and thermostat on the bus enclosures as ditions are considered special and will require
required. attention.
■ Filtered Drains At the low point in verti-
cal sections to prevent accumulation of ABNORMAL TEMPERATURES
condensation.
Abnormally low temperatures may result in circuit
breaker malfunction due to congealed lubricants
BUS MAINTENANCE
or increased friction due to parts shrinkage. Ab-
At periodic intervals buses should be inspected normally high temperatures may result in failure
and maintained. to interrupt rated short-circuit currents. In either
case, the manufacturer should be consulted. Low
■ Examine bolted bus joints for signs of heat- temperatures may be remedied by special lubri-
ing or looseness. Check bolts for tightness cants and parts selection. High temperatures may
per the vendor's recommendations. also require special lubricants and probably
■ Examine bus insulators and insulation. Insu- derating.
lators and insulation should be cleaned. Do
not use chemical solvents on insulation, HIGH ALTITUDE
because they may chemically react with the
insulation. For applications at altitudes higher than 3300 ft
(1000 m), the basic impulse level and rated maxi-
■ Bus coolers will require routine maintenance mum voltage must be reduced due to lower dielec-
on moving parts: tric strength of the air. Also, the rated continuous
□ Maintain motor (Volume 6) current must be reduced due to lower convection
□ Clean or replace air filters loss through the afr. Refer to ANSI/IEEE Standard
o Replace fan belts C37.04-1979 (4) and ANSI Standard C37.010-1979/
IEEE Standard 320-1979 (13) for guidance.
Bus conductors will be copper or aluminum and
plated with silver or tin at bolted joints. Note that
HOSTILE ENVIRONMENT
silver is never plated directly onto aluminum be-
cause of galvanic problems. The plating procedure In general, there are no remedies for exposure to
on aluminum has several intervening steps ending abrasive dust, explosive dust or gas, steam, salt
13196308
with copper, upon which the silver is plated. If the spray, excessive moisture, flooding, dripping, coal
7-40 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

dust, or metal dust. These conditions must be Dimethyl sulfide

avoided. Switchgear must have a clean, dry en- (Free sulfur is not known to exist in the
vironment. If it must be placed in a hostile environ- atmosphere.)
ment, a suitable enclosure must be provided to
alleviate the unacceptable conditions. In some Although the corrodants are recognized, the
cases, positive pressure ventilation systems can be corrosion mechanism has never been satisfactorily
used. It must be emphasized that equipment fail- explained.
ures are rarely due to a product deficiency; they Exposure to sulfurous gases presents a serious
are usually due to coal dust, cement dust, water threat to electrical equipment. These gases attack
leaking through the roof, unexpected flooding, silver and copper and may grow "whiskers" on
and other environmental intrusions and often ag- electrical contacts. Extended exposure to sulfurous
gravated by little or no maintenance. gases may render electrical equipment unreliable
and may be the direct cause of failure. Resistance
EXPOSURE TO ABNORMAL VIBRATION OR to sulfurous gases must be specified when equip-
TILTING ment is purchased and may require special con-
tact material, special plating, and derating.
Electrical equipment (switchgear) is designed to
function in a normal industrial environment, one
that is reasonably level and not subject to substan-
tive vibration. Abnormal vibration and tilting may 7.12 INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS
result in parts loosening and/or equipment mal-
function. The manufacturer is the only sure guide, Installation requirements are fundamental and
and the best remedy is avoidance. Note that some must be considered when station layout i~ made
(usually smaller) devices are more resistant to the and equipment selected. Considerations over-
effects of vibration and tilting. Vibration isolation looked at the conceptual stage are rectified in the
mounting may be available from the manufacturer. construction stage with great difficulty and gener-
ally result in delays in construction. Installation
EXPOSURE TO ATMOSPHERIC SULFUROUS requirements that do not relate to construction
GASES such as lie-down space and equipment removal
space present a burden and hazard to operating
Copper and silver are among the metals particu- personnel throughout the life of the station. In
larly sensitive to atmospheric corrosion, a prop- summary, attention to installation requirements
erty that limits their use in certain electrical at the inception of a project is rewarded by mini-
applications. Corrosive films are responsible for mum construction rework costs and safe station
the light green color that copper acquires after operation with minimum downtime.
prolonged outdoor exposure. When equipment is first installed, it should be
For corrosion of copper or silver by sulfurous checked for cleanliness, proper assembly, and
gases, the surface must be wet but does not re- function before being energized. The steps listed
quire condensation. Hygroscopic salts on the metal under "Recommended Scheduled Maintenance" in
surface, deposited or formed by corrosion, will ab- Section 7.13 may be followed, except there will be
sorb water from the atmosphere. Absorption oc- no evidence of abnormal wear or heating on new
curs above a certain relative humidity, called the equipment.
critical relative humidity, the value of which de-
pends on the metal and surface contaminants. The
INSTALLING VENTILATED DRY-TYPE
critical relative humidity is probably between 50
and 70% (35). TRANSFORMERS
Sulfates are known to form from various sul- Ventilated dry-type transformers must be accept-
furous corrodants: ably dry before energizing, or the transformer
may fail upon being energized. If an in-service
Hydrogen sulfide H2 S transformer has been deenergized and allowed to
Carbonyl sulfide OCS cool to ambient temperature under humid condi-
tions, lack of dryness may lead to failure. Further,
Sulphur dioxide S02
if a transformer is known to be wet or subject to
Carbon disulfide
13196308CS2 damp conditions, it should be dried irrespective
Methyl mercaptan CH3 SH of insulation resistance values.
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-41

Minimum insulation resistance values specified by environmental conditions dictate the frequency of
the manufacturer should be met before energizing. maintenance required; however, at the minimum,
If the manufacturer's recommended values are not an 18-month maintenance is recommended. For
available, the values in Tobie 7-3 (36) may be used. specific information on maintenance of devices such
Normally, dry transformers will have readings 5 as circuit breakers, relays, and other equipment, sep-
to 10 times the above minimums. arate instruction books for each device are generally
'Iransformers may be dried before installation or available. Under normal conditions, protective re-
after an extended shutdown by the following lays are not generally called on to function; thus,
methods: it is imperative to check functional operation of
these devices regularly.
■ Internal heat
■ External heat
■ External and internal heat RECOMMENDED SCHEDULED MAINTENANCE
Switchgear should be given the following main-
Refer to the vendor or ANSI/IEEE C57.94-1982
(36) for detailed drying recommendations. tenance at regular intervals.

1. Thoroughly clean the equipment to remove

Table 7 .3 Minimum Values for Insulation Resistance dust and other accumulations. Wipe buses and
supports. Inspect connections for evidence of
Insulation Resistance
Winding kV Class (MQ)
overheating or insulation damage.
1.2 600 .2. Insulation resistance and high-potential tests
2.5 1000 are not required and are not easily done on in-
5.0 1500 stalled equipment. They may be done if there
8.7 2000
is reason to believe that dielectric integrity
may be impaired, perhaps because of contami-
15.0 3000
nation, smoke, water damage, or other environ-
mental intrusion.
To obtain insulation resistance, measure re-
ACCESSIBILITY AND PROVISION FOR REMOVAL
sistance to ground between phases of the bus
Adequate space must be provided for accessibility with with a 1000- or 2500-V Megger. Definite
and normal operation of the equipment. As a mini- minimum resistance values cannot be given,
mum, the vendor's recommendations must be fol- but one rule is 1 MQ for each 1000 V of oper-
lowed. This includes sufficient space to withdraw ating voltage, with a minimum value of 1 MO.
circuit breakers and other components and to pro- Note that insulation resistance will be halved
vide sufficient working space for operation and for an 8° to 15°C temperature increase.
maintenance. Note that clearances may be needed High-voltage tests are pass-fail tests. The
for other than purely mechanical reasons. Clear- equipment withstands the voltage or fails. The
ances may be required at the ends and top of advantage of high-voltage testing values as
equipment to ensure sufficient heat loss. Access noted in Tobie 7-4 is that damage from a high-
to the rear is mandatory for all electrical equip- voltage test failure will be trivial compared
ment except motor control centers. Motor control with dielectric failure when in service. The
centers are designed to have all components, in- field test voltage should not exceed 75% of the
cluding the bus, accessible from the front, permit- factory test voltage (3).
ting their mounting against a wall. Although Voltage transformers, control power trans-
mounting against a wall is permissible, rear access formers, lightning arrestors, and surge sup-
to motor control centers will reduce maintenance pressors must be disconnected during high-
time and should be provided when possible. voltage testing.
De high-voltage testing on equipment above
the 13.8-kV class should be done only with the
vendor's approval. When testing with de, volt-
7.13 MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS age gradients will be determined solely by
leakage resistance rather than distributed ca-
An established regular maintenance schedule is re- pacitance, and conceivably, good equipment
13196308
quired to maintain reliability. Plant operating and may be damaged by the test.
7-42 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

Table 7.4 Equipment High-Potential Test Voltages 7. If equipped with heaters, verify that all heaters
are energized and operating.
Nominal Voltage Factory Test Field Test Field DC Test
Class Voltage Voltage Voltage 8. Inspect and maintain air filters.
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV)
0.6 2.2 1.65 2.3 9. Inspect bolted electric bus joints for signs of
overheating-discoloration and oxidation-
4.16 19.0 14.25 20.25
and test for bolt tightness.
7.2 26.0 19.5 27.5

13.8 36.0 27.0 37.5 ■ Bolts With Belleville Spring Washers There
14.4 50.0 37.5 52.5 are two schools of thought, and both
23.0 60.0 45.0 are acceptable.
34.5 80.0 60.0 □ Tighten until the Belleville washer is
flat. If the bolt is stretched beyond its
elastic limit, the Belleville washer will
3. Clean and lubricate the racking mechanism. take up the slack.
□ Tighten until the Belleville washer is
4. Check primary disconnect device contacts for
flat and back off a vendor-specified
abnormal wear or overheating. Discoloration
amount. The Belleville washer will
of silvered surfaces is not harmful unless a
accommodate thermal expansion and
chemically active atmosphere has generated
contraction.
sulfides on the surface.
Sandpaper, steel wool, or other abrasive ■ Bolts With Lockwashers (not lubricated)
cleaners should never be used on silver-plated Tighten to the manufacturer's specified
parts. If necessary, silver polish may be used. torque, or the following (37), if none are
Before replacing the breaker, apply a thin given.
coat of contact lubricant to primary discon-
nect contacts/studs. Bolt Diameter Torque
5. Measure resistance of the circuit breaker con- (silicon-bronze or steeV (ft•lb)
tacts by making millivolt-drop tests or using ¾ 20
a microohmmeter. Millivolt-drop tests are ½ 40
made by passing a substantial current (100 A ¾ 55
is suggested) and measuring millivolt drop by
placing voltmeter probes on the studs or con-
ductors. Contact resistance may be calculated MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS UNIQUE TO
by using Ohm's law: EACH TYPE OF CIRCUIT BREAKER

R = Ell (Eq. 7-10) There is great similarity among operating mecha-

nisms for all circuit breakers; all use a four-bar
Where: mechanism to provide electrical and mechanical
trip-free operation. However, there are main-
R contact resistance tenance problems and hazards unique to each
type of circuit breaker. The vendor's instruction
E millivolt drop across contacts manual is the primary guide for maintenance of
I circulated current the circuit breaker. It will specify latch and roll
clearances, recommended lubricants, contact pres-
Note that a substantial current is used be- sure, and other mechanical adjustments.
cause nonlinearities may appear at low cur- Operating mechanism problems and approaches
rents, giving resistance values that are invalid to solutions follow:
for higher-rated currents. Use vendor infor-
mation for acceptability of contact resistance ■ Circuit breaker will not Check four-bar linkage
measurements. close, goes trip-free Latch to roll clearance
upon closing insufficient
6. Verify that anchor bolts and structural bolts Latches not resetting
are tight. Check tightness and continuity of Latch bite too small
13196308
all control connections and wiring. Latch worn
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-43

■ Circuit breaker will not Auxiliary switch b stage ■ High resistance through Clean, adjust, replace
close (solenoid operated) maladjusted contacts contacts; adjust
Blown fuse in closing contact pressure
circuit
■ Slow circuit breaker Interference in moving
Bad contacts in
operation, erratic parts
contactor
operation
Low voltage
(spring operated) Spring-release coil is
damaged 011 Circuit Breakers Oil circuit breakers may re-
Spring-release armature quire maintenance in three areas: main and arcing
maladjusted contacts, interrµpting devices, and condition of the
oil.
■ Circuit breaker is Latch bite too small
unstable, trips Latch worn
■ Examine contacts for excessive erosion and
spontaneously
wear. Arc tracks and small pits on the arcing
■ Mechanism will not contacts are acceptable. Contacts with heavy
charge (motor-spring erosion or cracks should be replaced.
operated)
Current-carrying contacts excessively scored
□ Spring charging Defective motor or worn should be replaced. Contact pressure
motor will not run Worn brushes springs may anneal, causing inadequate pres-
Blown fuse sure and resulting in contact overheating
Motor disconnect and burning.
switch not reset
(if furnished) ■ Interrupting devices are commonly made
with fiber or plastic components. These
□ Spring charging Sheared key on cam
components erode during interruption and
motor runs, will not Spring-release latch not
charge closing spring holding-no roll
should be replaced when erosion is notice-
clearance, latch not able. Excessive contact erosion may be
resetting, latch worn caused by severely eroded interrupting
devices.
■ Circuit breaker will not Blown fuse in trip
trip circuit ■ Oil is carbonized during operation of the cir-
'!rip coil damaged cuit breaker. Large particles will settle to the
'Irip armature bottom of the tank, and small particles will
maladjusted remain in suspension. There are many tests
Auxiliary switch a stage used to evaluate the quality of insulating oil
maladjusted (38), but the best criterion of oil quality for
Low voltage
circuit breaker applications is dielectric
strength. Oil should be drawn from the bot-
Air-Magnetic Circuit Breakers The major com- tom of the tank, after running off oil con-
ponents of air-magnetic circuit breakers that re- taining any sediment or free water that may
quire the most maintenance include the arcing be present. The oil test cup has disk elec-
contacts, which are considered expendable com- trodes 1.0 in. (25 mm) in diameter with
ponents, the main current-carrying contacts, and square corners, spaced 0.100 in. (2.54 mm). It
the arc chutes. Care should be exercised when is filled with oil to a depth of at least 0.80 in.
maintaining the arc chutes in older equipment that (20 mm) above the disks. Voltage is applied
may contain asbestos. Loose asbestos, which may (60 cycle), increasing at a rate of 3 kV ± 20%
be inhaled, is a serious health hazard. When work- (rms) per second until continuous break-
ing with loose asbestos particles, vacuum to re- down is achieved. Occasional momentary dis-
move loose particles, maintain adequate charges that do not result in a permanent
ventilation, and use approved breathing appara- arc may occur and should be disregarded
tus. Material with embedded asbestos is not con- (39). A minimum breakdown voltage of 25-kV
sidered a health hazard unless it is abraded or rms is acceptable for oil circuit breakers.
machined, releasing loose asbestos. Note that it is essential that good hygienic
Air-magnetic circuit breaker problems and ap- practice be followed by those working with
13196308
proaches to solutions follow: insulating oil. Liquid contact is irritating to
7-44 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES

the eyes and, when repeated or prolonged, ■ Control valves may fail to operate properly
to the skin. Wash exposed skin areas with due to worn seals. A preventive maintenance/
soap and water several times during the replacement schedule is recommended to
working day. Oil-soaked clothing should not preclude failure.
be worn. Work clothes should be laundered
at least once a week. ■ Arc chutes will show erosion and should be
replaced when it becomes significant. Exces-
■ No continuity Broken lift rod, check shock sive contact erosion may be caused by se-
through absorber verely eroded arc chutes.
contacts Deteriorated contacts
SF6 Circuit Breaken The amount of mainte-
■ Excessive oil Low opening velocity nance required for SF6 circuit breakers is a func-
throw upon Circuit breaker may be over- tion of the circuit breaker size and design. SFs
operation loaded equipment rated for 72 kV and above has become
Interrupting devices badly well known. At these levels, it is not unusual to
eroded be concerned about large volumes of gas, leaks,
gas contamination, and complex apparatus. At
Vacuum Circuit Breaken Vacuum circuit break-
medium-voltage levels, design and materials have
ers require significantly less maintenance than air-
overcome almost all maintenance requirements as-
magnetic or oil circuit breakers. The vacuum in-
sociated with high-voltage designs. Continuous cast
terrupter is a sealed unit, and obviously no work
epoxy envelopes and special liquid gas seals have
can be done on the contact structure.
created permanently sealed interrupters that are
Indeed, in most cases it cannot even be seen.
precharged at the factory. The gas need not be
Contact erosion may be measured by mechanical
checked unless the operational policy dictates.
adjustment, and a high-potential (hi-pot) test is
Serviceability can be checked by observation of
recommended to verify vacuum integrity. Contact
contact wear by external means. Contact wear and
resistance may be measured by a millivolt-drop
mechanism lubrication might be considered every
test or with a microohmmeter and should be with-
two or three years depending upon the number
in the manufacturer's acceptable range.
of operations. 'fypical load-break operations range
When applying abnormally high voltage across
from 5000 to 10,000 uses without service, depend-
a pair of contacts in a vacuum, X rays may be
ing upon break type.
generated. Radiation may increase with an in-
SF6 is an excellent interrupting and insulating
crease in voltage, and/or decrease in contact spac-
medium. There are, however, some precautions
ing. X radiation produced during hi-pot testing at
in the use of the SF6 gas. In the medium-voltage
recommended voltages and contact spacing is ex-
levels, the volume of gas per interrupter is very
tremely low and well below the maximum permit-
small. The volume of gas of a 38-kV, 32-kA inter-
ted by standards. However, as a precautionary
rupter would expand to 0.5 ft 3 at atmospheric
measure, it is recommended that personnel stay
pressures. Considering the density is five times
at least 1 m away from and in front of the circuit
that of air, it would be extremely difficult to ob-
breaker during high-pot testing.
tain concentrations of gas sufficiently high under
normal conditions to cause any concern.
Air-Blast Circuit Breaken Air-blast circuit
Although SF 6 is highly stable, high-temperature
breakers will principally require maintenance in
decomposition and recombination lead to formation
the contacts, compressor-air control valves, and
of lower fluorides of sulfur, metal sulfurs, and
arc chutes.
metal fluorides, most of which are toxic.
■ Contacts are treated in the same way as are
oil circuit breakers. SFs electric arc, etc. SFs + SF4 + SFz + SzFz

■ The compressor will run periodically whether (Eq. 7-11)

the circuit breaker is operated or not and
will require maintenance. Special attention In the presence of moisture, oxyfluorides, hydro-
must be given to the air-drying device to en- gen fluoride (HF), thionylfluoride (SOF 2), and sul-
sure clean, dry air. fur dioxide (S0 2 ) are produced.
13196308
 AUXILIARY ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 7-45

HzO
SF4 - SOF2 + ZHF (Eq. 7•12) For further discussion, refer to EPRI EL-1646,
Study of Arc By-Products in Gas-insulated Equip-
HzO ment (40).
SOF2 - SO 2 + ZHF (Eq. 7·13)

Most of the decomposition products are highly

reactive, highly toxic, and many are odorless. For-
tunately, most are unstable in the presence of
moisture or metal from the enclosure and will not
be found except perhaps in event of a bum-through
or immediate opening of the enclosure after arcing.
The major enduring gaseous decomposition pro-
ducts are as follows in order of expected volume.
Thionylfluoride (SOF2 ) is the major arcing prod-
uct. It irritates the eyes, throat, and lungs. It is de-
tectable at 1 to 5 ppm by its characteristic rotten-
egg smell. The 60-min lethal concentration is near
100 ppm.
Carbon tetrafluoride (CF4 ) gas is odorless but
relatively nontoxic. It is also known as Freon 14.
CF4 may also be found in new, unused SF 6 .
Sulfur dioxide may be found in trace amounts.
It is not stable in the presence of moisture; it con-
verts to sulfurous acid (H 2SO 3). Sulfur dioxide has
an acrid smell detectable at 0.3 to 1 ppm. The gas
damages the lungs and is lethal at 400 to 500 ppm.
Hydrogen fluoride is extremely corrosive and is
classified as an irritant gas. Fortunately it is easily
recognized by its pungent smell at concentrations
of 2 to 3 ppm.
In the event of a fault causing a large toxic gas
spill, employees should immediately vacate the
premises and ventilate the area.
When handling newly delivered SF6 , an electric
or gas heater should not be employed because at
temperatures encountered in electric and gas
heaters, SF6 can also form toxic by-products.
When disassembling a tank, powdery products
may be found, presumably metal sulfides, fluo-
rides, and metal sulfates. They may be hazardous
to maintenance personnel because their toxicity
has not been determined. The powders must not
be touched or inhaled and should be removed by
vacuum cleaner. (Refer to manufacturer's instruc-
tions.) If it is necessary to enter a circuit breaker
chamber, protective clothing and breathing ap-
paratus are appropriate. (One would not enter a
medium-voltage interrupter as it is too small.)
It is worth noting that the leakage rate in nor-
mal operation, perhaps 1% per year, presents a
negligible risk of asphyxiation. Even in a gastight
room, after one year's operation the concentration
of gas would be within acceptable limits.
13196308
13196308
 REFERENCES

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7-48 REFERENCES

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13196308
 INDEX

Accessibility, 7-41 Capacitive current switching, 7-15 Dry-type transformers, 7-17, 7-18,
Accessories, 7-2, 7-37 Cast-coil, 7-18 7-40
Aging, 7-1 Circuit breaker, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-5, Duty cycle, 7-13, 7-20, 7-22
Air-blast circuit breakers, 7-6, 7-9, 7-6, 7-7, 7-8, 7-9, 7-10, 7-11,
7-10, 7-11, 7-44 Electric arc, 7-2, 7-17
7-12, 7-13, 7-14, 7-15, 7-16,
Air load-interrupter switch, 7-16 7-19, 7-20, 7-27, 7-28, 7-29, Electric lockout, 7-20, 7-30
Air-magnetic circuit breakers, 7-3, Electromagnetic forces, 7-36
7-30, 7-31, 7-32, 7-39, 7-41,
7-4, 7-5, 7-9, 7-10, 7-15, 7-19, Emergency load periods, 7-15
7-42, 7-43, 7-44, 7-45
7-43, 7-44 Encapsulated-coil transformers,
Circuit breaker enclosures, 7-19
Altitudes, 7-39 7-18
Circuit breaker removable
Ambient temperature, 7-15, 7-27, Eutectic, 7-24, 7-28
element, 7-12, 7-19
7-39, 7-40 Eutectic alloy, 7-24
Class and type of MCC, 7-23
Ambient temperature sensitivity, Clearances, 7-36, 7-41, 7-42 Fault-interrupting, 7-1, 7-32
7-27 Close-and-latch, 7-12 Field discharge resistors, 7-30
Antipump relays, 7-12 Combination motor controller, Field rheostat, 7-30
Arc chutes, 7-3, 7-43, 7-44 7-23, 7-24 Flammable liquids, 7-16
Arc constriction, 7-3 Condensation, 7-34, 7-38, 7-39, Forced-cooled, 7-36, 7-37
Arc elongation, 7-3 7-40 Forced-cooled capacity, 7-18
Arc-enclosing, 7-5, 7-7 Contactors, 7-1, 7-2, 7-27, 7-28, Full-voltage starting, 7-29, 7-30
Arc instability, 7-6 7-29, 7-30, 7-43 Fused circuit breaker, 7-20, 7-22
Arc-restraining metal barriers, 7-3 Contact pressure, 7-42, 7-43 Fuses, 7-20, 7-22, 7-24, 7-27, 7-28,
Arc voltage, 7-2 Continuous current, 7-2, 7-9, 7-12, 7-30, 7-43
Askarels, 7-16 7-13, 7-14, 7-20, 7-24, 7-33,
Asymmetrical, 7-11, 7-12, 7-13, Galvanic problems, 7-39
7-39
7-14 Generator circuit breakers, 7-1,
Control circuits, 7-23, 7-24
Atmospheric corrosion, 7-40 7-10, 7-30, 7-31, 7-32
Control compartment, 7-11
Automatic shutters, 7-10, 7-12 Ground and test device, 7-12
Control power transformer (CPTh),
Auxiliary service system, 7-1, 7-29 Grounded neutral operation, 7-15
7-11, 7-23, 7-27, 7-28, 7-29,
Auxiliary switches, 7-12, 7-20, 7-41 Heaters, 7-24, 7-26, 7-34, 7-42, 7-45
7-30, 7-43 Control voltage, 7-13, 7-22, 7-27 High-potential tests, 7-41, 7-44
Available short-circuit current, Corrosion of copper or silver, 7-40 Horizontal draw-out, 7-11, 7-19
7-14, 7-15 Cracking, 7-4 Horsepower ratings, 7-22, 7-24
Crossover ducts and dampers, Hydrogen alarm, 7-37
Basic impulse insulation level, 7-17
7-39 Hydrogen leakage, 7-37
Bell alarm, 7-20, 7-30
Current chopping, 7-6, 7-8, 7-9, Hygroscopic, 7-17
Belleville Springs Washers, 7-42
7-28 Hygroscopic salts, 7-40
Bimetallic, 7-24, 7-26, 7-28, 7-30
Current limiting fuses, 7-19, 7-20,
Bimetallic overload relays, 7-24, Installation requirements, 7-40
7-27, 7-28
7-26 Insulating oil, 7-4, 7-43
Current transformers, 7-12, 7-28,
Bolted conducting joints, 7-33 Insulation resistance, 7-40, 7-41
7-29
Bus, 7-1, 7-2, 7-12, 7-15, 7-19, 7-20, Interference interlocks, 7-11
Current zero pause, 7-2
7-23, 7-28, 7-29, 7-32, 7-33, Interrupting medium, 7-2, 7-4, 7-8,
7-34, 7-36, 7-37, 7-38, 7-39, De switchgear, 7-30 7-44
7-41 Deionization, 7-2, 7-3, 7-5, 7-9, Interrupting time, 7-13, 7-14, 7-30
Bus ampacity, 7-36 7-10 Ionized gases, 7-2
Bus compartment, 7-11, 7-19 Dielectric strength, 7-2, 7-3, 7-5, Isolated-phase bus, 7-1, 7-33, 7-34,
Bus conductors, 7-10, 7-12, 7-33, 7-6, 7-7, 7-9, 7-39, 7-43 7-36, 7-37, 7-38
7-37, 7-38, 7-39 Disconnecting switches, 7-2, 7-16, Isolating means, 7-15, 7-16
Bus enclosures, 7-33, 7-34, 7-36, 7-28, 7-39
Key interlocks, 7-20, 7-29
7-38, 7-39 Distribution voltage, 7-15
Bushing enclosures, 7-39 Double-ended substation, 7-15 Less-flammable liquid, 7-16
Bus joints, 7-39, 7-42 13196308 Driving voltage, 7-2, 7-3 Load break switch, 7-15, 7-32
 7-52 INDEX

Load-interrupter switch, 7-2, 7-16 Primary enclosure, 7-11 Symmetrical component, 7-13
Load-interrupting, 7-1 Protective relays, 7-20, 7-28, 7-29, Symmetrical current basis, 7-13,
Load-switching, 7-1 7-41 7-14
Lockwashers, 7-42 Puffer design, 7-9 Symmetrical interrupting current,
Lower impedance transformer, 7-13, 7-14, 7-32
7-15
Rated maximum voltage, 7-12,
Symmetrical interrupting rating,
Lubricants, 7-39, 7-42 7-13, 7-14, 'i;'-20, 7-22, 7-39
7-14
Rated momentary current, 7-34
Magnetic blowout, 7-3, 7-4 Rated voltage range factor, 7-12 Thermal conductivity, 7-8
Magnetic motor controller, 7-23 Ratings in cascade, 7-22 Thermal overload relay, 7-27, 7-28,
Maintenance, 7-1, 7-8, 7-15, 7-17, Reactors, 7-38 7-30
7-18, 7-22, 7-26, 7-28, 7-39, Recovery voltage, 7-2, 7-3, 7'.7, Thermal relays, 7-24, 7-26, 7-27
7-40, 7-41, 7-42, 7-43, 7-44, 7-10, 7-15 Tie circuit breaker, 7-15, 7-22
7-45 Reignition, 7-3, 7-4, 7-6, 7-7, 7-9 Tin plating, 7-39
Maximum crest, 7-13 Relative humidity, 7-40 Torque, 7-42
Mechanical interlocks, 7-10 Reliability, 7-1, 7-27, 7-32, 7-41 Total current basis, 7-13, 7-14
Mechanical shock, 7-11 Removable element, 7-10, 7-11, Toxicity, 7-17, 7-45
Mechanism-operated control 7-12 'Iransient recovery voltage, 7-6,
(MOC), 7-12 Repetitive duty, 7-1, 7-15, 7-22 7-7, 7-15
Melting alloy, 7-24, 7-26, 7-30 Running protection, 7-24 'Irichlorotrifluoroetha ne (C 2 Cl 3 F3 ),
Metal barriers, 7-3, 7-4, 7-10, 7-11, 7-17, 7-18
7-19, 7-33 Sealing bushings, 7-38
'!rip-free operation, 7-42
Metal-clad, 7-10, 7-12, 7-19 Secondary enclosure, 7-11, 7-12
'!ruck-operated contact (IDC), 7-12
Metal-enclosed, 7-19 Secondary-unit substations, 7-1,
Metallic vapor arc, 7-5 7-2, 7-14, 7-15, 7-16, 7-22 Undervoltage trip, 7-20, 7-29
Molded-case circuit breakers, 7-29, Segregated-phase, 7-33, 7-34 Unfused circuit breaker, 7-20, 7-22
7-30 Self-cooled, 7-36, 7-37 Unit auxiliary transformer, 7-1,
Motor circuit protector, 7-27, 7-30 Self-extinguishing design, 7-9 7-2, 7-32
Motor control centers, 7-1, 7-2, Serpentine passage, 7-5 Unit substation, 7-1, 7-2, 7-15
7-15, 7-23, 7-24, 7-28, 7-29, Service-limit, 7-24 Unit transformer, 7-1, 7-2, 7-32
7-30, 7-41 Short-circuit current, 7-2, 7-13,
Vacuum circuit breaker, 7-5, 7-6,
Motor control equipment, 7-23, 7-14, 7-15, 7-22, 7-24, 7-27,
7-10, 7-44
7-29, 7-30 7-28, 7-29, 7-30, 7-32, 7-34,
Vacuum interrupter, 7-5, 7-6, 7-7,
Multiple reignition, 7-6, 7-7, 7-8 7-39
7-9, 7-44
Short-circuit current ratings, 7-12,
Natural frequency, 7-7 Vault, 7-16, 7-18
7-19
Neutral grounding equipment, Vertical-lift, 7-11
Short-time current, 7-13, 7-20
7-38
Vertical section, 7-23, 7-39
Shunt trip, 7-19, 7-20, 7-29
Nonflammable liquids, 7-16 Vibration isolation, 7-40
Silver plating, 7-39
Nonsegregated-phase bus, 7-33, Virtual current chopping, 7-6, 7-7
Solar radiation, 7-34
7-34
Voltage (potential) transformers,
Speed control, 7-30
7-12
Oil circuit breaker, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, Standard operating duty, 7-13
Starters, 7-1, 7-23, 7-24, 7-27, 7-28, "Whiskers;' 7-40
7-11, 7-14, 7-43, 7-44
Oil displacement, 7-4 7-30 Withstand test voltage, 7-34
Oil-immersed transformers, 7-16 Stationary auxiliary switches, 7-12 Working space, 7-41
Station service (startup)
Oil piston, 7-5
transformer, 7-1 . 7-2, 7-31,
Oil-piston effect, 7-5
7-32, 7-34
Operations counter, 7-20
Overload condition, 7-15 Stored energy spring operating
Overload relay, 7-24, 7-26, 7-27, mechanism, 7-12, 7-19
Stray-flux problem, 7-34
7-28
Sulfates, 7-45
Panel boards, 7-1, 7-2, 7-29, 7-30 Sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6), 7-2, 7-3,
Perchloroethylene (Cl2 :CC12 ), 7-16, 7-6, 7-7, 7-8, 7-9, 7-10, 7-44,
7-17 7-45
Permissible tripping delay, 7-13 Switchgear assembly, 7-2
Plating, 7-39, 7-40 Switchgears, 7-1, 7-2, 7-7, 7-9,
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 7-10, 7-11, 7-12, 7-13, 7-14,
7-16 7-15, 7-16, 7-19, 7-20, 7-22,
Power circuit 13196308
breaker, 7-4, 7-19 7-29, 7-30, 7-34, 7-40, 7-41
13196308
 POWER PLANT ELECTRICAL REFERENCE SERIES 7

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