Chapter 3

Loops
&
Decisions

Animated Version
Chapter 3 - 1

Topics

• Relational Operators
• Loops
• Decisions
• Logical Operators
• Precedence Summary
• Other Control Statements

Chapter 3 - 2
 Relational Operators
• A relational operator compares two values.
• The comparison involves such relationships as equal to, less than, and
greater than.
• The result of the comparison is true or false; for example, either two values
are equal (true), or they’re not (false).

// relat.cpp Output:
// demonstrates relational operators Enter a number: 20
#include <iostream> numb<10 is 0
using namespace std; numb>10 is 1
numb==10 is 0
int main()
{
int numb;

cout << "Enter a number: ";

cin >> numb;
cout << "numb<10 is " << (numb < 10) << endl;
cout << "numb>10 is " << (numb > 10) << endl;
cout << "numb==10 is " << (numb == 10) << endl;
return 0;
}
Chapter 3 - 3

Relational Operators (1)

Complete List Of C++ Relational Operators:

Note that:
The equal operator, ==,uses two equal signs. A common mistake is to use
a single equal sign—the assignment operator—as a relational operator.
This is a nasty bug, since the compiler may not notice anything wrong.
C++ generates a 1 to indicate true, it assumes that any value other than 0
(such as –7 or 44) is true; only 0 is false.

Chapter 3 - 4
 Loops
Loops cause a section of your program to be repeated a certain number
of times. The repetition continues while a condition is true. When the
condition becomes false, the loop ends and control passes to the
statements following the loop.
three kinds of loops in C++: the for loop, the while loop, and the do
loop.
The For Loop:
The for loop executes a section of code a fixed number of times.
Basic Construction: for(j=0; j<15; j++)
Here, The for statement controls the loop. It consists of the keyword for,
followed by parentheses that contain three expressions separated by
semicolons.
These three expressions are the initialization expression, the test
expression, and the increment expression.

Chapter 3 - 5

Loops (2)
The Initialization Expression:
The initialization expression is executed only once, when the loop first starts. It gives the
loop variable an initial value

The Test Expression:

The test expression usually involves a relational operator. It is evaluated each time
through the loop, just before the body of the loop is executed. It determines whether the
loop will be executed again. If the test expression is true, the loop is executed one more
time. If it’s false, the loop ends, and control passes to the statements following the loop.

The Increment Expression

The increment expression changes
the value of the loop variable, often
by incrementing it. It is always
executed at the end of the loop, after
the loop body has been executed.
Here the increment operator ++ adds
1 to j each time through the loop.
Chapter 3 - 6
 Loops (2)
// fordemo.cpp
// demonstrates simple FOR loop
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int j; //define a loop
variable
for(j=0; j<15; j++) //loop from 0 to 14,
cout << j * j << " "; //displaying the
square of j
cout << endl;
return 0; }
Output: 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121 144 169 196

// cubelist.cpp
// lists cubes from 1 to 10
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip> //for setw
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int numb; //define loop variable

for(numb=1; numb<=10; numb++) //loop from 1 to 10

{
cout << setw(4) << numb; //display 1st column
int cube = numb*numb*numb; //calculate cube
cout << setw(6) << cube << endl; //display 2nd column
}
return 0; Output:
} 1 1
2 8
3 27
4 64
5 125
6 216
7 343
8 512
9 729
10 1000 Chapter 3 - 7

Loops (3)
// factor.cpp
// calculates factorials, demonstrates FOR loop
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
unsigned int numb;
unsigned long fact=1; -Variables
//long for larger numbersDefined in for
Statements
cout << "Enter a number: ";
cin >> numb; //get number decrements the loop
variable
for(int j=numb; j>0; j--) //multiply 1 by
fact *= j; //numb, numb-1, ..., 2, 1
cout << "Factorial is " << fact << endl;
return 0;
} Output:
Enter a number: 10
Factorial is 3628800

-Multiple Initialization and

Test Expressions

Chapter 3 - 8
 Loops(4)
The While Loop:
The for loop does something a fixed number of
Times but While loop is used when you don’t know how many times you want to do
something before you start the loop.
The while loop looks like a simplified version of the for loop. It contains a test expression
but no initialization or increment expressions.
In a while loop, the test expression is evaluated at the beginning of the loop. If the test
expression is false when the loop is entered, the loop body won’t be executed at all.
Multiple statement is also used in while loop.

Output:
1
// endon0.cpp 27
// demonstrates WHILE loop 33
#include <iostream> 144
using namespace std; 9
int main() 0
{
int n = 99; // make sure n isn't
initialized to 0

while( n != 0 ) // loop until n is 0

cin >> n; // read a number into n
cout << endl;
return 0; }

Chapter 3 - 9

Loops (5)
// while4.cpp
// prints numbers raised to fourth power
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip> //for setw
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int pow=1; //power initially 1
int numb=1; //numb goes from 1 to ???

while( pow<10000 ) //loop while power <= 4 digits

{
cout << setw(2) << numb; //display number
cout << setw(5) << pow << endl; //display fourth power
++numb; //get ready for next
power
pow = numb*numb*numb*numb; //calculate fourth power
}
cout << endl; Output:
// fibo.cpp 1 1
return 0;
// demonstrates WHILE loops using fibonacci series 2 16
}
#include <iostream> 3 81
using namespace std; 4 256
5 625
int main() 6 1296
7 2401
{ //largest unsigned long
8 4096
const unsigned long limit = 4294967295; 9 6561
unsigned long next=0; //next-to-last term
unsigned long last=1; //last term
Arithmetic Vs. Relational Operator:
while( next < limit / 2 ) //don't let results get too big
{ - Arithmetic operators have a higher
cout << last << " "; //display last term
long sum = next + last; //add last two terms precedence than relational operators.
next = last; //variables move forward
last = sum; // in the series
}
cout << endl; Output:
return 0; 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 4181 6765 10946
} 17711 28657 46368 75025 121393 196418 317811 514229 832040 1346269 2178309
3524578 5702887 9227465 14930352 24157817 39088169 63245986 102334155
Chapter 3 - 10
165580141 267914296 433494437 701408733 1134903170 1836311903 2971215073
 Loops (7)
do Loop: the loop body is executed at least once, no matter what the initial
state of the test expression then do loop is used.
// divdo.cpp
// demonstrates DO loop
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
long dividend, divisor;
char ch;

do //start of do loop
{ //do some processing
cout << "Enter dividend: "; cin >> dividend;
cout << "Enter divisor: "; cin >> divisor;
cout << "Quotient is " << dividend / divisor;
cout << ", remainder is " << dividend % divisor;

cout << "\nDo another? (y/n): "; //do it again?

cin >> ch;
}
while( ch != 'n' ); //loop condition
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter dividend: 11
Enter divisor: 3
Quotient is 3, remainder is 2
Do another? (y/n): y
Enter dividend: 222
Enter divisor: 17
Quotient is 13, remainder is 1
Do another? (y/n): n
Chapter 3 - 11

When to Use Which Loop

• The for loop is appropriate when you know in

advance how many times the loop will be
executed.
• The while and do loops are used when you don’t
know in advance when the loop will terminate
– the while loop when you may not want to execute the loop
body even once, and
– the do loop when you’re sure you want to execute the loop
body at least once.

Chapter 3 - 12
 Decisions: The if Statement (1)
– The if statement is the simplest of the decision statements.
– The if keyword is followed by a test expression in parentheses
– the syntax of if is very much like that of while The difference is that the statements
following the if are executed only once if the test expression is true.
– You can nest ifs inside loops, loops inside ifs, ifs inside ifs, and so on.

// ifdemo.cpp
// demonstrates IF statement
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int x;

cout << "Enter a number: ";

cin >> x;
if( x > 100 )
cout << "That number is greater than 100\n";
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter a number: 2000
That number is greater than 100

Chapter 3 - 13

The if Statement (2)

• Multiple Statements in the if Body • Nesting if s Inside Loops

// if2.cpp // prime.cpp
// demonstrates IF with multiline body // demonstrates IF statement with prime numbers
#include <iostream> #include <iostream>
using namespace std; using namespace std;
#include <process.h> //for exit()
int main()
{ int main()
int x; {
unsigned long n, j;
cout << "Enter a number: ";
cin >> x; cout << "Enter a number: ";
if( x > 100 ) cin >> n; //get number to
{ test
cout << "The number " << x; for(j=2; j <= n/2; j++) //divide by every
cout << " is greater than 100\n"; integer from
} if(n%j == 0) //2 on up; if
return 0; remainder is 0,
} { //it's divisible
by j
cout << "It's not prime; divisible by "
Output:
Enter a number: 12345 << j << endl;
The number 12345 is greater than 100 exit(0); //exit from the
program
}
Output:
cout << "It's prime\n"; Enter a number: 13
- causes the program to terminate, no return 0; It’s prime
} Enter a number: 22229
matter where it is in the listing. It’s prime
- argument is returned to the operating Enter a number: 22231
It’s not prime; divisible by 11
system when the program exits.
- 0: successful termination;
- other numbers: errors. Chapter 3 - 14
 Decisions: The if...else Statement
– The if statement lets you do something if a condition is true. If it isn’t true, nothing
happens.
– But suppose we want to do one thing if a condition is true, and do something else if
it’s false. That’s where the if...else statement comes in.
– It consists of an if statement, followed by a statement or block of statements,
followed by the keyword else, followed by another statement or block of
statements.
// ifelse.cpp
// demonstrates IF...ELSE statememt
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int x;

cout << "\nEnter a number: ";

cin >> x;
if( x > 100 )
cout << "That number is greater than 100\n";
else
cout << "That number is not greater than
100\n";
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter a number: 300
That number is greater than 100
Enter a number: 3
That number is not greater than
100
Chapter 3 - 15

Style Guide
if ( <boolean expression> ) {
…
} else {
…
Style 1
}

if ( <boolean expression> )
{
…
} Style 2
else
{
…
}

Chapter 3 - 16
 Decisions: The if...else Statement (2)
• The getche() Library Function • With assignment expressions
- cin and >>: requires the user always press the // chcnt2.cpp
Enter key // counts characters and words typed in
#include <iostream>
- getche(): returns each character as soon as it’s using namespace std;
typed #include <conio.h> // for getche()
- requires the CONIO.H header file
int main()
- getch(): doesn’t echo the character to the screen {
int chcount=0;
int wdcount=1; // space between two words
// chcount.cpp char ch;
// counts characters and words typed in
#include <iostream> while( (ch=getche()) != '\r' ) // loop until Enter typed
using namespace std; {
#include <conio.h> //for getche() if( ch==' ' ) // if it's a space
wdcount++; // count a word
int main() else // otherwise,
{ chcount++; // count a character
int chcount=0; //counts non-space characters } // display results
int wdcount=1; //counts spaces between words cout << "\nWords=" << wdcount << endl
char ch = 'a'; //ensure it isn't '\r' << "Letters=" << chcount << endl;
return 0;
cout << "Enter a phrase: "; }
while( ch != '\r' ) //loop until Enter typed
Output:
{ Enter a number: 13
ch = getche(); //read one character It’s prime
if( ch==' ' ) //if it's a space Enter a number: 22229
wdcount++; //count a word It’s prime
else //otherwise, Enter a number: 22231
chcount++; //count a character It’s not prime; divisible by 11
} //display results
cout << "\nWords=" << wdcount << endl
<< "Letters=" << (chcount-1) << endl;
return 0;
} Output:
For while and do
Words=4
Letters=13 Chapter 3 - 17

Nested if...else Statements

// adelseif.cpp
// demonstrates ELSE...IF with adventure program
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <conio.h> //for getche()

int main()
{
char dir='a';
int x=10, y=10;

cout << "Type Enter to quit\n";

while( dir != '\r' ) //until Enter is typed
{
cout << "\nYour location is " << x << ", " << y;
cout << "\nPress direction key (n, s, e, w): ";
dir = getche(); //get character
if( dir=='n') //go north
y--;
else if( dir=='s' ) //go south
y++;
else if( dir=='e' ) //go east
x++;
else if( dir=='w' ) //go west
x--;
} //end while
return 0;
Output:
} //end main Your location is 10, 10
Press direction key (n, s, e, w): n
Your location is 10, 9
Press direction key (n, s, e, w): e
Your location is 11, 9
Press direction key (n, s, e, w):

Chapter 3 - 18
 Matching else
Are A and B different?

if (x < y) A Both A and B means…

if (x < z)
cout<<"Hello"; if (x < y) {
else if (x < z) {
cout<<"Good bye"; cout<<"Hello";
} else {
cout<<"Good bye";
}
}
if (x < y) B
if (x < z)
cout<<"Hello";
else
cout<<"Good bye";

Chapter 3 - 19

The else...if Construction

• The nested if...else statements in the program look clumsy and can be
hard—for humans—to interpret, especially if they are nested more
deeply than shown.
• else…if: another approach to writing the same statements.
// adelseif.cpp
// demonstrates ELSE...IF with adventure program
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <conio.h> //for getche()

int main()
clearer and easier to follow than
{
char dir='a';
the if...else approach.
int x=10, y=10;

cout << "Type Enter to quit\n";

while( dir != '\r' ) //until Enter is typed
{
cout << "\nYour location is " << x << ", " << y;
cout << "\nPress direction key (n, s, e, w): ";
dir = getche(); //get character
if( dir=='n') //go north
y--;
else if( dir=='s' ) //go south
y++;
else if( dir=='e' ) //go east
x++;
else if( dir=='w' ) //go west
x--;
} //end while
return 0;
Output:
} //end main Your location is 10, 10
Press direction key (n, s, e, w): n
Your location is 10, 9
Press direction key (n, s, e, w): e Chapter 3 - 20
Your location is 11, 9
Press direction key (n, s, e, w):
 The switch Statement
• If you have a large decision tree, and all the decisions depend on the
value of the same variable -> consider switch statement
• else…if: another approach to writing the same statements.
– Before entering the switch, the program should assign a value to the switch variable.
– This value will usually match a constant in one of the case statements.
– the statements immediately following the keyword case will be executed, until a break is reached
// platters.cpp
// demonstrates SWITCH statement
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int speed; //turntable speed

cout << "\nEnter 33, 45, or 78: ";

cin >> speed; //user enters speed
switch(speed) //selection based on speed
{
case 33: //user entered 33
cout << "LP album\n";
break;
case 45: //user entered 45
cout << "Single selection\n";
break;
case 78: //user entered 78
cout << "Obsolete format\n";
break;
} Output:
return 0; Enter 33, 45, or 78: 45
} Single selection

Chapter 3 - 21

The switch Statement (2)

• The break Statement • The default Keyword
// adswitch.cpp
// demonstrates SWITCH with adventure program
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <conio.h> //for getche()

int main()
{
char dir='a';
int x=10, y=10;

while( dir != '\r' )

{
cout << "\nYour location is " << x << ", " << y;
cout << "\nEnter direction (n, s, e, w): ";
dir = getche(); //get character
switch(dir) //switch on it
{
case 'n': y--; break; //go north
case 's': y++; break; //go south
case 'e': x++; break; //go east
case 'w': x--; break; //go west
case '\r': cout << "Exiting\n"; break; //Enter key
default: cout << "Try again\n"; //unknown char
} //end switch
} //end while
return 0;
} //end main
- causes the entire switch statement to exit.
- without it, control passes down (or “falls
- take an action if the value of the loop variable
through”) to the statements for the next
doesn’t match any of the case constants
case
- No break is necessary after default
Chapter 3 - 22
 switch Versus if...else
– if statement:
» you can use a series of expressions that involve unrelated variables and are as
complex as you like

– switch statement:
» all the branches are selected by the same variable;
» the only thing distinguishing one branch from another is the value of this variable.
» The case constant must be an integer or character constant
» You cannot say:

» very clean—easy to write and to understand

Chapter 3 - 23

Conditional Operator
• consists of two symbols, which operate on three
operands
// condi.cpp
// prints 'x' every 8 columns
// demonstrates conditional operator
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
for(int j=0; j<80; j++) //for every column,
True False { //ch is 'x' if
column is
char ch = (j%8) ? ' ' : 'x'; //multiple of 8,
and
cout << ch; //' ' (space)
otherwise
}
return 0;
}

Output:
x x x x x x x x x

Chapter 3 - 24
 Logical Operators
• allow you to logically combine Boolean variables
• Logical AND Operator: // advenand.cpp
// demonstrates AND logical operator
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <process.h> //for exit()
#include <conio.h> //for getche()

int main()
{
char dir='a';
int x=10, y=10;

while( dir != '\r' )

{
cout << "\nYour location is " << x << ", " << y;
cout << "\nEnter direction (n, s, e, w): ";
dir = getche(); //get direction
switch(dir)
{
case 'n': y--; break; //update coordinates
case 's': y++; break;
case 'e': x++; break;
case 'w': x--; break;
}
if( x==7 && y==11 ) //if x is 7 and y is 11
{
cout << "\nYou found the treasure!\n";
exit(0); //exit from program
}
Output:
} //end switch
Your location is 7, 10
return 0; Enter direction (n, s, e, w): s
} //end main You found the treasure!

Chapter 3 - 25

Logical Operators
• Logical OR Operator: • The NOT Operator
– a unary operator—that is, it takes only one
// advenor.cpp
// demonstrates OR logical operator operand.
#include <iostream> – If something is true, ! makes it false; if it is false,
using namespace std;
#include <process.h> //for exit() ! makes it true.
#include <conio.h> //for getche()

int main()
{ • Precedence Summary
char dir='a';
int x=10, y=10;

while( dir != '\r' ) //quit on Enter key

{
cout << "\n\nYour location is " << x << ", " << y;

if( x<5 || x>15 ) //if x west of 5 OR east of

15
cout << "\nBeware: dragons lurk here";

cout << "\nEnter direction (n, s, e, w): ";

dir = getche(); //get direction
switch(dir)
{
case 'n': y--; break; //update coordinates
case 's': y++; break;
case 'e': x++; break;
case 'w': x--; break;
} //end switch
} //end while
return 0;
} //end main()

Chapter 3 - 26
 Other Control Statements
• The break Statement • The continue Statement
// showprim.cpp // divdo2.cpp
// displays prime number distribution // demonstrates CONTINUE statement
#include <iostream> #include <iostream>
using namespace std; using namespace std;
#include <conio.h> //for getche() Output:
int main() Enter dividend: 10
Enter divisor: 0
int main() {
Illegal divisor
{ long dividend, divisor; Enter dividend:
const unsigned char WHITE = 219; //solid color char ch;
(primes)
const unsigned char GRAY = 176; //gray (non primes) do {
unsigned char ch; cout << "Enter dividend: "; cin >> dividend;
//for each screen position cout << "Enter divisor: "; cin >> divisor;
for(int count=0; count<80*25-1; count++) if( divisor == 0 ) //if attempt to
{ { //divide by 0,
ch = WHITE; //assume it's prime cout << "Illegal divisor\n"; //display message
for(int j=2; j<count; j++) //divide by every continue; //go to top of
integer from loop
if(count%j == 0) //2 on up; if remainder is 0, }
{ cout << "Quotient is " << dividend / divisor;
ch = GRAY; //it's not prime cout << ", remainder is " << dividend % divisor;
break; //break out of inner
loop cout << "\nDo another? (y/n): ";
} cin >> ch;
cout << ch; //display the character } while( ch != 'n' );
} return 0;
getche(); //freeze screen until keypress }
return 0;
}

Chapter 2 - 27

Summary (1)
• Relational operators compare two values to see whether they’re equal,
whether one is larger than the other, and so on.
– The result is a logical or Boolean (type bool ) value, which is true or false.
– False is indicated by 0, and true by 1 or any other non-zero number.
• There are three kinds of loops in C++.
– The for loop is most often used when you know in advance how many times you
want to execute the loop.
– The while loop and do loops are used when the condition causing the loop to
terminate arises within the loop, with the while loop not necessarily executing at
all, and the do loop always executing at least once.
• A loop body can be a single statement or a block of multiple statements
delimited by braces. A variable defined within a block is visible only
within that block.

Chapter 3 - 28
 Summary (2)
• There are four kinds of decision-making statements.
– The if statement does something if a test expression is true.
– The if...else statement does one thing if the test expression is true, and another
thing if it isn’t. The else if construction is a way of rewriting a ladder of nested
if...else statements to make it more readable.
– The switch statement branches to multiple sections of code, depending on the
value of a single variable.
– The conditional operator simplifies returning one value if a test expression is true,
and another if it’s false.
• Logiical operators:
– The logical AND and OR operators combine two Boolean expressions to yield
another one, and the logical NOT operator changes a Boolean value from true to
false, or from false to true.
• The break statement sends control to the end of the innermost loop or
switch in which it occurs.
• The continue statement sends control to the top of the loop in which it
occurs.
Chapter 3 - 29