REVIEW NOTES in GENERAL and INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Prepared and compiled by: REY MARK CLARENCE L. SINCER, LPT

Chemistry is a branch of science that involves the study of the composition, structure and
properties of matter. Often known as the central science, it is a creative discipline chiefly
concerned with atomic and molecular structure and its change, for instance
through chemical reactions.
Major Branches of Chemistry

Organic Chemistry: The study of carbon and its compounds; the study of the chemistry of life

Inorganic Chemistry: The study of compounds not covered by organic chemistry; the study
of inorganic compounds, or compounds that don't contain a C-H bond (many inorganic
compounds contain metals)

Analytical Chemistry: The study of the chemistry of matter and the development of tools to
measure properties of matter

Physical Chemistry: The branch of chemistry that applies physics to the study of chemistry,
which commonly includes the applications of thermodynamics and quantum mechanics to
chemistry

Biochemistry: The study of chemical processes that occur inside of living organisms

Matter- anything that has mass and occupy space (volume).

Matter

Pure
Mixture
Substance

Elements Compound Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Metal Inorganic Organic Solution Coarse

Mixture

Metalloid Acid
Suspension

Non-metal Base
Colloid

Salt

Useful Pure Substance (Elements)

Iron (Fe) – hemoglobin Carbon (C) – fuel

Phosphorus (P) – bone formation Gold (Au) – jewelries and ornaments
Copper (Cu) – melanin synthesis Iodine (I) – healthy thyroid gland
Selenium (Se) – Fat metabolism Potassium (K) – electrolyte balance
Oxygen (O) – respiration Silicon (Si) – electronic chips
Chlorine (Cl) – bleaching agent Nitrogen (N) – fertilizer

Useful Pure Substance (Compounds

Table Sugar (C H O ) – sweetener

Water (H 0)– almost universal solvent 12 22 11
2 Elements Metals vs. Non-metals
Baking soda (NaHCO ) – cleaning agent
Salt (NaCl) – flavoring, water balance 3

Sulfuric acid (H SO )– production of steel Pool chlorine (Ca(ClO) ) – disinfectant

2 4 Metals 2
Non-metals
Metal
Calcium carbonate (CaCO ) – building Carbon dioxide (CO ) – respiration
 Compounds Mixtures

Acid
Mixture
Elements
Pure
Inorganic Base
Substance
Compound
Organic Salt Heterogeneou
Homogeneous
s

MIXTURES

Mixtures

Heterogeneous
Homogeneous
Colloid-solutes are dispersed in the
solvent, appears coagulated (ex. Cheese,
butter, margarine, blood, fog, ink)

Solution Suspension- large solutes are

undissolved in the solvent (ex.
Antibiotics, syrup, paint, polish)

Coarse mixture- larger solutes are

mixed with another large substance(s)
(ex. Spaghetti, salad, pizza)

Properties of Matter

Can be observed or measured without

changing the fixed composition of the

Physical substance
Ex. Color, taste, odor, hardness, boiling
Extensive
Depends on how
Intensive
point Does not depend
much of a
on the size of the
particular sample
sample
is on hand
Characteristics that describes how the
substance interacts or fails to interact
Ex. Melting point,
Chemical with other substances to produce new
substances Ex. Volume, mass
boiling point,
Ex. Reactivity, flammability color, odor,
texture

Fundamental Properties of Matter

Mass- total amount of matter in a body
Volume- amount of space occupied by a body

Properties of Matter Special Properties of Matter

Hardness
General Properties that may
Resistance to scratch
 Changes in Matter

Change in state
Phase Change Ex. Solid to liquid or liquid to gas

When one or more physical properties of a

substance are changed without changing its
Physical Change chemical composition
Ex. Grinding of a substance to powder,
magnetizing iron

Any change that result in the production of one

or more substance that differ in chemical
Chemical Change properties and composition from the original
substances
Ex. Burning of wood, rusting of iron

Change in the identity of the element

Nuclear Change Ex. Radium to Lead

States of Matter Phase Change

- Phase change is a physical change.

Allotropy or Allotropism
It is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, known as
allotropes.
Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element; the atoms of elements are
bonded together in different manner.
Important Note:
The term allotropy is used for elements only, not for compounds.
Allotropes of carbon

Diamond – carbon atoms are bonded together in tetrahedral lattice

arrangement.
Graphite – carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of
hexagonal lattice
Graphene – single sheets of graphite
 Fullerenes – carbon atoms are bonded together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal formations (e.g.
Buckminster fullerene)

Separating Mixtures

Separation Technique Used to separate

Filtration Insoluble solids from a liquid
Sedimentation
Decantation
Centrifugation
Evaporation Soluble solids from a liquid
Separatory funnel Two miscible liquids
Sieving Two solids
Dissolution
Re-crystallization

How will you separate mixtures composed of:

- Iron filings and sand?
- Oil and water?
- Salt and sand?

• Iron filings and sand? – Use magnet. Only iron filings will be attracted to the magnet.
• Oil and water? – The oil will not mix with the water and will form a top layer. Slowly decant
the oil into another container.
• Salt and sand? – Add water to dissolve the salt. Filter the mixture. Sand remains on the
filter paper and the salt solution goes through. Let the water evaporate from the salt
solution and collect the salt crystals.
History of the Atom
Democritus
(460 BC – 370 BC)
- Proposed an Atomic Theory (along with his mentor Leucippus) which states that all atoms
are small, hard, indivisible and indestructible particles made of a single material formed
into different shapes and sizes.
- Aristotle did not support his atomic theory
Antoine Lavoisier
(1743 – 1794)
 Known as the “Father of Modern Chemistry”
 Was the first person to generate a list of thirty-three elements in his textbook
 Devised the metric system
 Was married to a 13-year old Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze; she assisted him with much of
his work
 Was a tax-collector that was consequently guillotined during the French Revolution
 Discovered/proposed that combustion occurs when oxygen combines with other elements
Discovered/proposed the Law of Conservation of Mass (or Matter) which states, in a
chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed
John Dalton
(1766 – 1844)
 In 1803, proposed an Atomic Theory which states:
o All substances are made of atoms; atoms are small particles that cannot be
created, divided, or destroyed.
o Atoms of the same element are exactly alike, and atoms of different elements are
different
o Atoms join with other atoms to make new substances
 Calculated the atomic weights of many various elements
 J.J. Thomson
(1856 – 1940)
 Proved that an atom can be divided into smaller parts
 While experimenting with cathode-ray tubes, discovered corpuscles, which were later
called electrons
 Stated that the atom is neutral
 In 1897, proposed the Plum Pudding Model which states that atoms mostly consist of
positively charged material with negatively charged particles (electrons) located
throughout the positive material
 Won a Nobel Prize

Ernest Rutherford
(1871 – 1937)
-In 1909, performed the Gold Foil Experiment and suggested the following characteristics of the atom:
o It consists of a small core, or nucleus, that contains most of the mass of the atom
o This nucleus is made up of particles called protons, which have a positive charge
o The protons are surrounded by negatively charged electrons, but most of the atom
is actually empty space
Did extensive work on radioactivity (alpha & beta particles, gamma rays/waves)
and was referred to as the “Father of Nuclear Physics” Was a student of J.J.
Thomson
Niels Bohr
(1885 – 1962)
-In 1913, proposed the Bohr Model, which suggests that electrons travel around the nucleus of an atom
in orbits or definite paths. Additionally, the electrons can jump from a path in one level to a path in
another level (depending on their energy)

Erwin Schrodinger
(1887-1961)
In 1926, he further explained the nature of electrons in an atom by stating that the exact location of an
electron cannot be stated; therefore, it is more accurate to view the electrons in regions called electron
clouds; electron clouds are places where the electrons are likely to be found.

James Chadwick
(1891 – 1974)
-Realized that the atomic mass of most elements was double the number of protons  discovery of the
neutron in 1932

Subatomic Particles

Structure of the Atom

There are two regions:
The nucleus
With protons and neutrons
 Positive charge
 Almost all the mass
Electron cloud
 Most of the volume of an atom
 The region where the electron can be found

particle symbol charge Mass location

Electron e Negative 1/1872 amu Outside
0
e-1 0 amu nucleus
0
β-1 (energy
levels)

Proton p Positive 1 amu Nucleus

1
p1
1
H1
 Neutron n neutral 1 amu nucleus
1
n0

Special notes on subatomic particles

 In a neutral atom, # of protons = #of electrons.
 Atoms are electrically neutral.
 If the number of protons does not equal the number of electrons you have a charged
atom known as an ion.
 # protons > # electrons forms a + ion (cation)
 # electrons > # protons forms a – ion (anion)
 The charge on the nucleus is positive.
 Most of the mass of an atom is in nucleus.
Atomic Number (z)
 1913—Henry Mosley
 Used to identify an atom
 Indicates the number of protons
 In a neutral atoms also gives the number of electrons
 Also called the Nuclear Charge

Isotopes
 Thomson (1912) found 2 types of neon atoms and Soddy (1910) found 2 types of uranium
atoms.
 2 elements that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers
 Based on atomic structure: 2 elements that have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons.
 For example: Cl-35 and Cl-37

Atomic Mass
 Decimal number
 Average of all the naturally occurring isotopes for a particular element
 If you round the atomic mass it gives you the mass number for the most common isotope.
 Unit is amu (atomic mass unit)
 1 amu is 1/12 the mass of C-12
 Gram atomic mass= amu but in grams

Relative Abundance

Naturally occurring chlorine consists of 75% Cl-35 and 25% Cl-37. Find the average atomic
mass.
Solution:
75(35) + .25(37)= 35.50 amu or
75(35) + 25(37) =35.50 amu

100

Example 1. Calculate the atomic mass of an element with isotope A occurring 70.0% of the time
with a mass of 13.0 amu and isotope B occurring 30.0% of the time with a mass of 15.0 amu.

Example 2. An element X has three isotopes

X-30 has a 50.0% abundance, X-28 has a 30.0% abundance and X-31 has a 20.0% abundance.
 The Chemistry of Light
Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
which ranges from radio waves to gamma
rays. Electromagnetic radiation waves, as
their names suggest are fluctuations of electric
and magnetic fields, which can transport
energy from one location to another.

How is light related with Atoms?

Quantum Mechanical Model of an ATOM

Niels Bohr – electrons move in a particular orbit.
Planetary Model
Louis de Broglie – dual nature of light particles.
Dual Nature of light.
Werner Heisenberg– it’s impossible to determine the momentum and position of an electron in
an atom.
Uncertainty Principle.
Erwin Schrodinger – light and atoms exhibit same properties since electrons may also behave
as wave.
Quantum (Wave) Mechanical Model

Atomic Orbital

In quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like
behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom. This function can be used to
calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around
the atom's nucleus.
In the periodic Table:

Quantum Numbers
 Orbitals and Electron Capacity of the First Four Principle Energy
Levels
Number of Maximum
Electron Principle Number of
Type of orbitals number of
energy orbitals
sublevel per electrons
level (n) per type
level(n2) (2n2)
1 s 1 1 2
s 1
2 4 8
p 3
s 1
3 p 3 9 18
d 5
s 1
p 3
4 16 32
d 5
f 7
Configuration and Orbital Notation
 Valence electrons are electrons found at the outermost energy level of an atom and participate
in the formation of a chemical bond.

Electron configuration as an ELEMENT LOCATOR

Example #1:
Write the electron configuration of Fluorine (Z=9,thus, 9 e- )

2 2 5
1s , 2s , 2p

2 2
Fluorine (Z=9): 1s , 2s ,
Example #2: 2p5
Write the electron configuration of Cobalt (Z=27,thus, 27 e- )

PERIODIC TABLE of Elements

Why Periodic?
The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, ordered by their atomic
number, electron configurations, and recurring.
Jons Jakob Berzelius
 Invented the chemical names and symbols of elements
 It uses the English and Latin name origins.
 Majority have symbols consisting of two letters with the first letter capitalized.
 Element names were after places, people, mythical and miscellaneous origins.

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

 In 1879, he initially grouped the elements by means of publishing a book that contained
the classification of elements into groups.
 IT DID NOT PROGRESSED.
Johannes Wolfgang Dobereiner
 Law of Triads
 Middle elements in the triad is the average of the masses of the first and third element,
Alexandre De Chancourtois
 The tellurix helix
John Alexander Newlands
 Law of octaves
Julius Lothar Meyer
 Incresing atomic number
DMITRI IVANOVICH MENDELEEV
- Father of the Periodic table of Elements
William Ramsay, Lord Rayleigh, and Morris Travers
- Noble gases
Henry Moseley
- Number of protons in an atom
- Worked with Mendeleev on the atomic number arrangement of elements
Glenn Seaborg
- Transuranium elements
- Seaborgium
Who created it?
 The quest for a systematic arrangement of the elements started with the discovery of
individual elements.
 By 1860 about 60 elements were known and a method was needed for organization.
 In 1869, Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev proposed arranging elements by atomic
weights and properties.
 The table contained gaps but Mendeleev predicted the discovery of new elements.

Arrangement
 The genius of the periodic table “is that it is organized like a big grid. The elements are
placed in specific places because of the way they look and act. If you have ever looked at
a grid, you know that there are rows (left to right) and columns (up and down). The
periodic table has rows and columns, too, and they each mean something different.”

Periods
 In the periodic table, elements have something in common if they are in the same row.
 All of the elements in a period have the same number of atomic orbital.
 Every element in the top row (the first period) has one orbital for its electrons. All of the
elements in the second row (the second period) have two orbitals for their electrons. It
goes down the periodic table like that.

Groups
 The periodic table has a special name for its columns, too. When a column goes from top
to bottom, it's called a group.

What do all the numbers mean?

ALKALI METALS
• very reactive metals that do not occur freely in nature
• malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity.
 • can explode if they are exposed to water

ALKALINE EARTH METALS

• very reactive
• not found free in nature

TRANSITION METALS
• ductile and malleable, and conduct electricity and heat
• iron, cobalt, and nickel, are the only elements known to produce a magnetic field

RARE EARTH ELEMENTS

• many are man-made
OTHER METALS
• are ductile and malleable
• are solid, have a high density
METALLOIDS
• have properties of both metals and non-metals
• some of the metalloids are semi-conductors. This means that they can carry an electrical
charge under special conditions. This property makes metalloids useful in computers and
calculators
NON-METALS
• not able to conduct electricity or heat very well
• very brittle
• Do not reflect light

HALOGENS
• halogen" means "salt-former" and compounds containing halogens are called "salts"
• exist in all three states of matter

NOBLE GASES
 do not form compounds easily
 they are the most stable due to having the maximum number of valence electrons their
outer shell can hold.
 they rarely react with other elements since they are already stable
Answer the following questions

1. Periodic table was solely developed by Dmitri Mendeleev. (True or False)

2. Transition Metals belong to the p block of the periodic table. (True or False)
3. Helium, Neon and argons belong to what family of elements?
4. The horizontal structure of the periodic table is known as_________.
5. Which of the following elements belong to alkaline earth metals? ( Li, Fe, Cd, S, Mg, Zn)

Periodicity
• Periodic trends are specific patterns that are present in the periodic table that illustrate
different aspects of a certain element, including its size and its electronic properties.
• Periodic trends, arising from the arrangement of the periodic table, provide chemists with
an invaluable tool to quickly predict an element's properties. These trends exist because
of the similar atomic structure of the elements within their respective group families or
periods, and because of the periodic nature of the elements.
Periodic Properties are…
• Atomic Numbers
• Oxidation states (atomic charge)
• Metallic property
• Electron Affinity
• Atomic Size
• Ionic Size
• Ionization Energy
• Electronegativity

Metallic Property
Metallic character decreases as you move across a period in the periodic table from left to right,
as well as, you move down from top to bottom. This occurs as atoms more readily accept
electrons to fill a valence shell than lose them to remove the unfilled shell.
Atomic Radius

Trend in the Atomic Size

Ionic Radius
 Ionization Energy

Electronegativity
Ionic Compound
Compounds are two or more elements that are held together by opposite charge
attraction.

12 (+)
10 (-) 8 (+)
+2 Charge 10 (-)
-2 Charge

Ionic Bond
Simply defined as the gain or loss of electrons of an atom. A very common example of it
is the formation of NaCl.

It is also important to memorize the oxidation of the ions that have fixed oxidation
numbers (positive or negative). In particular,those from groups 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A,
7A, 8A and the elements: Zn, Cd and Ag.
Common names are arbitrary names
 They are not based on the composition of the compound.
 They are based on an outstanding chemical or physical property.
Chemists prefer systematic names
- Systematic names precisely identify the chemical composition of the compound
Naming Ionic Compounds
- The positive ion (usually a metal) is named first while the negative ion (a non-
metal or a polyatomic ion) is named last.
The charge on the negative ion is used to determine the charge on the positive
ion.
- In-order for the total oxidation state to be zero, the total positive charge must
equal the total negative charge. A simple algebraic equation can be used to
determine the charge on a single metal ion.
This charge is expressed as a “Roman Numeral” in parenthesis that immediately
follows the name of the metal.
- If the positive ion is one that has a fixed oxidation number then no Roman
Numeral is used.
- Everyone should know the charge of fixed ions. These include metals in group 1A,
2A and the specific metals: Al, Zn, Cd & Ag (zinc, cadmium and silver).

Writing
Ionic

Formulas
 It is easier to write the formula of an ionic compound from its name than the
reverse.
 The oxidation number of the negative ion must be memorized in all cases. Refer
to the table of polyatomic ions.

POLYATOMIC IONS

Ions with -1 charge acetate C2H3O2-1

perbromate BrO4-1 Permanganate MnO4-1
bicarbonate HCO3-1
bromate BrO3-1 Ions with a -2 Charge
bromite BrO2-1 carbonate CO3-2
hypobromite BrO-1 phthalate C8H4O4-2
perchlorate ClO4-1 sulfate SO4-2
chlorate ClO3-1 sulfite SO3-2
chlorite ClO2-1 chromate CrO4-2
hypochlorite ClO-1 dichromate Cr2O7-2
periodate IO4-1 oxalate C2O4-2
iodate IO3-1 peroxide O2-2
iodite IO2-1 Ions with a -3 Charge
hypoiodite IO- phosphate PO4-3
nitrate NO3-1 phosphite PO3-3
nitrite NO2-1 arsenate AsO4-3
hydroxide OH-1 Ions with +1 charge
cyanide CN-1 ammonium ion NH4+1
thiocyanate SCN-1
 Covalent Compounds and its Identities

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is a chemical link between two atoms or
ions where the electron pairs are shared between them

Bond Polarity
Bond Electronegativity Difference
Ionic <3
Polar Covalent Between 0.3- 1.7
Non-polar covalent > 7

Ionic & Covalent Compounds

Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

Have positive & negative ions Neutral molecules
Solids Solids, liquids, or gases
High melting point & high boiling Lower melting & boiling points (often liquids
points or gases at room temp)
Separate into charged particles Remain as same molecules in water
in water
Conduct electricity when melted Poor conductors of electricity

Electron Dot Diagrams

1. Use to show how 2 or more atoms form a compound
2. Usually only include the valence electrons of the atom

The electron dot diagram shows The electron dot diagram shows
that Na has 1 electron to give up that Cl needs to gain 1 electron

Electron dot diagrams of diatomic elements

1. Some elements in nature only exist as diatomic elements (2 atoms chemically
bonded together)
2. Diatomic elements: An electron dot diagram for oxygen:
  H2
 O2
 N2
 F2 An electron dot diagram for fluorine

 Cl2
 Br2 I2

Naming binary covalent compounds

The last element in the compound is generally the element with the higher
electronegativity.
 It is given the suffix –ide, just as in binary ionic compounds.
 The prefix is used to indicate how many atoms of that element are in the
molecule.
 The prefix mono- is used for the second element when only one atom of
that element is present.

 Often a pair of elements can form several different compounds.

Ex: carbon & oxygen can form CO2 or CO
 CO2 = carbon dioxide
 CO = carbon monoxide

Prefix Meaning Prefix Meaning

Mono 1 Hexa 6
-
Di 2 Hepta 7
Tri 3 Octa 8
Tetra 4 Nona 9
Penta 5 Deca 10

Types of Chemical Reactions

Analogy Chemical Reaction
One person An ion or element
A couple A compound
Switching A replacement reaction
partners

Combustion
 Oxygen combines with a metal, non-metal, or compound
 Creates a metal oxide, non-metal oxide, or 2 or more oxides
 Releases energy – heat, light
 Can be a slower process too…
Synthesis
 2 or more reactants combine to make a product
 A + B  AB

Decomposition
 AB  A + B
 A compound breaks down into two or more substances

Single Replacement

 AB + C  AC + B
 A metal replaces a hydrogen
 A metal replaces another metal
 We use an activity series to predict which metals are “stronger”
and can knock out other metals from compounds

Activity Series
- The most active metals are at the top. These will replace
metals below them.
- The halogens are also listed in order of most active at the top
to least active at the bottom.
- More active elements replace less active elements in single
replacement reactions
- 2 AgNO3 + Cu  Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag
- Fe + Cu(NO3)2  Fe(NO3)2 + Cu
- Zn + 2HCL  ZnCl2 + H2
Double Replacement Reactions
 Produces a precipitate, liquid or gas
 All four of the ions switch partners
 Aqueous solution
 AB + CD  AC + BD
 AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
 CaCO3(aq) + 2 HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
 HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  HOH(l) + NaCl(aq)

How to identify a reaction?

Steps to determine type of reaction
1. Write the chemical equation
2. Determine what is happening in the reaction
 3. Use the table to identify the type of reaction
4. Check your answer by comparing the chemical equation to the generic equation

Example:
Solid calcium oxide and carbon dioxide gas react to produce solid calcium
carbonate.
1. CaO (s) + CO2 (g)  CaCO3 (s)
2. 2 compounds are reacting to form one compound
3. This is a synthesis reaction
4. A + B  AB

Summary
The main types of reactions:
 Combustion – reaction with oxygen
 Synthesis – two compounds or elements getting together
 Decomposition – One compound splitting up
 Replacement – Another ion moves in

Replacement Reactions: 2 types

 Single replacement – a stronger cation steps in and replaces a weaker anion
 Double replacement – 2 cations switch places, forming a precipitate, a liquid, or a
gas
You try it!
 Magnesium and Hydrochloric acid form Magnesium Chloride and Hydrogen
Ans:
 Carbon Dioxide and Water form Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)
Ans:
 Silver Nitrate and Sodium Chloride form Silver Chloride and Sodium Nitrate
Ans:
 Heating sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) releases water and carbon dioxide and
sodium carbonate
 Ans:

Writing Chemical equations

(Nomenclature Application)

Convert (word  chemical equation)

1. Zinc reacts with hydrogen chloride to form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
Ans:
2. Aluminum bromide reacts with chlorine gas to produce aluminum chloride and
liquid bromine.
Ans:
3. Nitric acid reacts with barium hydroxide to produce barium nitrate and water.
Ans:
4. Calcium sulfite decomposes when heated to form calcium oxide and sulfur
dioxide.
Ans:
5. Iron reacts with sulfuric acid to form Iron (II) sulfate and hydrogen gas.
Ans:
6. Ethanol burns in air to form carbon dioxide and water.
Ans:

STOICHIOMETRY
- Quantitative study of substances and their relationship to each other in chemical
reactions.
- The “Math” of Chemistry

The Mole
 In Chemistry, a counting unit derived from the term which means “heap” or a
“huge pile” and similar to the word “dozen” or a 12-count of anything.
 One mole = 602 billion trillion things 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 entities
6.02 X 1023 entities
 One mole is the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12 isotope.
 6.02 X 1023 is called Avogadro’s number.
 Amedeo Avogadro
(1776 – 1856)
 Mole is abbreviated as “mol” and has a symbol “n”

Just How Big is a Mole?

 Enough soft drink cans to cover the
surface of the earth to a depth of over 200 miles.
 If you had Avogadro's number of unpopped popcorn kernels, and spread them
across the United States of America, the country would be covered in popcorn to a
depth of over 9 miles.
 If we were able to count atoms at the rate of 10 million per second, it would take
about 2 billion years to count the atoms in one mole.

Mole Concept
A mole is equal to 3 things:
 1 mole = 6.02 X 1023 particles
- Atoms for elements
- Molecules for compounds
- Formula units for ions
 1mole = 22.4 L or 22,400 mL of a gas at STP
 1 mole = mass in grams
(Molar mass – mass in grams of a mole of a substance.)
- Atomic mass for elements
- Formula/Molecular mass for compounds

EXAMPLES: Mole to Particles

1 mole Au = 6.022 x 1023 atoms of Au
1 mole CO2 = 6.022 x 1023 molecules of CO2
1 mole H2O = 6.022 x 1023 formula units of H2

Conversion:
How many molecules are there in 3.0 mol of CaO?

EXAMPLES: Mole to Molar Volume

1 mole He gas = 22.4 L He has or 22,400 mL He gas
1 mole SO2 gas = 22.4 L SO2 has or 22,400 mL SO2 gas
Conversion:
How many moles are there in 44.80 liters of N2?

EXAMPLES: Mole to Molar Mass

1 mole CO2 = C = 1 x 12 = 12 g
 O = 2 x 16 = 32 g
Total = 44 g/mol
1) How many grams are there in 0.75 mol of CO2?
2) How many moles are there in 78 g of CO2?

Molar Conversion Diagram

Practice:
1) How many atoms are there in 3.5 moles of Fe?
2) How many moles are there in 8.52 x 1025 molecules of KCl?
3) How many formula units of Na are in 2.3 mol of Na2CO3?
4) How may grams are in 4.85 mol of ammonia, NH3?
5) How many moles are in 154 grams of propane, C3H8?
6) What is the mass of 2 moles of H2S ?
7) 80 grams of AlCl3 are produced in what number of moles of that compound?
8) At STP, what volume of Ar is needed to completely occupy 5.9 moles of it?
9) What is the number of moles required to cater 178.98 liters of HCl?
10)What is the number of moles required to cater 178.98 liters of HCl?

Percentage Composition
 Molar Mass
 Indicates the total mass of the elements in a mole of a compound.
 Percentage composition
Indicates the relative amount of each element present in a compound.
- How would you differentiate the actual from the molar mass?
- How do you compute for the molar mass of a compound?
- What are the guidelines in determining the percentage composition of elements in
a compound?

 Calculating the MOLAR MASS of a compound.

 Step 1 : Count the number of atoms of each element in the compound.
Step 2 : Multiply the number of atoms to the atomic mass of each element
obtained from the Periodic table.
Step 3: Add the masses of each element.
Example #1: Find the molar mass of H2O.
H- 2 x 1.0 g = 2.0 g
O- 1 x 16.0 g = 16.0 g
18.0 g = 1 mole H2O
Calculating the PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
Step 1 : Calculate molar mass
Step 2 : Divide the subtotal for each element’s mass by the molar mass.
Step 3: Multiply by 100 to convert to a percentage.
Example #1: Find the % composition of hydrogen and oxygen in H2O.
H- 2 x 1.0 g = 2.0 g / 18.0 g (100) = 11.11 %
O- 1 x 16.0 g = 16.0 g / 18.0 g (100) = 88.89 %
18.0 g 100.0 %
Water is composed of 11.11 % hydrogen and 88.89 % oxygen
Example #2: Find the molar mass of Ca(NO3)2.
Ca- 1 x 40.0 g = 40.0 g
N- 2 x 14.0 g = 28.0 g
O- 6 x 16.0 g = 96.0 g
164.0 g = 1 mole Ca(NO3)2
Find the molar mass of Ca(NO3)2.
Ca- 1 x 40.0 g = 40.0 g / 164.0 g (100) = 24.39%
N- 2 x 14.0 g = 28.0 g / 164.0 g (100) = 17.07%
O- 6 x 16.0 g = 96.0 g / 164.0 g (100) = 58.54%
164.0 g 100.0%
Ca(NO3)2 is composed of 24.39% Ca, 17.07% N, and 58.54% O.

Empirical & Molecular Formulas

Molecular Formulas
• Shows the actual number of each type of atom in a compound
• Not always the simplest formula
Ex: C6H12O6 = glucose
Contains 6 atoms of carbon, 12 atoms of hydrogen and 6 atoms of
oxygen in 1 molecule

 Empirical Formulas
• Is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms.
• Is calculated by dividing the subscripts in the actual (molecular) formula by a
whole number to give the lowest ratio.
Glucose
C6H12O6  6 = C1H2O1 = CH2O
molecular formula empirical formula
 Some Molecular and Empirical Formulas
•
• The molecular formula is the same or a multiple of the empirical.
 3 Steps for determining Chemical Formulas
1. Determine the percent composition of all elements.
2. Convert this information into an empirical formula
3. Find the true number of atoms/ elements in the compound (Molecular Formula)

Calculating Empirical Formula

1. If given % composition, assume 100 g of sample
2. Convert mass of each element to moles (gmol)
3. Divide each of these numbers by the smallest number
4. If necessary, multiply by the smallest number possible to
make each a whole number
5. These whole numbers are the subscripts in the empirical
formula called mole ratio

Example: The percentage composition of a compound is found to be 32.4%

sodium, 22.5% sulfur, 45.1 % oxygen. Determine the empirical formula.
Step 1: Assume 100 g of Sample
32.4% Na  32.4 g Na
22.5% S  22.5 g S
45.1% O  45.1 g O
Step 2: Convert grams to moles
32 g Na *1mol/22.99 g = 1.41 mol Na
22.5g S * 1 mol/ 32.06 g = 1.702 mol S
41.5g O * 1mol/ 15.99 g = 2. 82 mol O

Phosphoric acid is found in some soft drinks. A sample of phosphoric acid contains 0.086
g of hydrogen, 3.161 g of phosphorus, and 6.531 g of oxygen. What is the empirical
formula for phosphoric acid?
  Converting Decimals to Whole Numbers

When the number of moles for an element is a

decimal, all the moles are multiplied by a small
integer to obtain whole number.

Aspirin is 60.0% C, 4.5 % H and 35.5 % O. Calculate its empirical formula.

A compound consists of 72.2% magnesium and 27.8% nitrogen by mass. What is the
empirical formula of the compound?

Calculating Molecular Formula From Empirical Formula

• Find the empirical formula mass by adding up the weights of the atoms in the
empirical formula.
• Divide the molecular mass by the formula mass. This number tells you how many
times the empirical formula is repeated to make the molecular formula.
Ibuprofen, a common headache remedy, has an empirical formula of C7H9O and a molar
mass of approximately 215 g/mol. What is the molecular formula for ibuprofen?

A mixture of cyclopropane gas and oxygen is used in an anaesthetic. Cyclopropane

contains 85.7% C, and 14.3% H by mass. The molecular mass is 42.0 g/mol. What is
the empirical and molecular formula of the cyclopropane?

Epinephrine (adrenaline) is a hormone secreted into the bloodstream in times of danger and
stress. It is 59.0% carbon, 7.1% hydrogen, 6.2% oxygen, and 7.7% nitrogen by mass. Its molar
mass is about 180 g/mol. Find the empirical and molecular formulas of epinephrine.

OTHER EXAMPLES
1. Analysis shows a compound to contain 25.56 % K, 35. 41 % Cr, and 38. 03 % O.
Determine its empirical formula.
2. NutraSweet is 57.14% C, 6.16% H, 9.52% N, and 27.18% O. Calculate the
empirical formula of NutraSweet and find the molecular formula. (The molar mass
of NutraSweet is 294.30 g/mol)
Practice Problems
1. How many molecules of CO2 are found in 17.8 mol of CO2?
2. A certain laboratory procedure requires the use of 0.100 mol of Mg. How many
grams of Mg is required on this procedure?
 3. Find the number of moles present in 62.45 grams of Calcium.
4. What is the volume occupied by 56 mol of Hydrogen gas at STP?
5. Calculate the number of moles present in 87.98 liters of H3PO4.
6. Find the mass in grams present in 26.78 moles of Sulfuric Acid.
7. How many moles of Aluminum oxide is present if it weighs 18.65 grams?
8. Find the total mass that a 56.7 moles of KClO3 can hold.
9. What is the molar mass of Lithium hydroxide?
10. How many moles of glucose is present in a 20 g sample of it?
11. Determine the percent composition for every element found in the compound
ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) ?
12. What percentage of silver is present in the compound silver nitrate?
13. Solve to the percent composition for every element found in acetylene gas
(C2 H4) ?
14.Some rockets engines use a mixture of hydrazine (N2H4) and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) as the propellant system. Solve for the percent composition for these
compounds.
15. What is the empirical formula for a compound containing 38.8% carbon, 2%
hydrogen and 45.1% nitrogen?
16. A borane is a compound containing only boron and hydrogen. If a borane is found to
contain 88.45% boron, what is its empirical formula?

17. What is the empirical formula for a compound containing 26.57% potassium, 35.36%
chromium, and 38.07% oxygen?
18. A piece of iron ore is found to contain a compound containing 72.3 percent iron and 27.7
percent oxygen with a molecular mass of 231.4 g/mol. What is the molecular formula of the
compound?
19. A compound containing 40.0 percent carbon, 5.7 percent hydrogen and 53.3 percent
oxygen has an atomic mass of 175 g/mol. What is the molecular formula?
Solutions
- SOLUTIONS are homogenous mixtures containing two or more substances called the
solute (the dissolved substance) and solvent ((the dissolving medium)
- SOLVATION is the process of surrounding solute particles with solvent particles to form
solution.
- SOLUBILITY takes place when the maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a given
amount of solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
- SATURATED illustrates chemical equilibrium between amount of solute and the solvent.
- UNSATURATED contains less dissolved solute in a given amount of solvent.
- SUPERSATURATED contains more dissolved solute in a given amount of solvent.
Types and Examples of Solutions

Types of Solution Example Solvent Solute

Gas in Gas Air Nitrogen Oxygen gas

gas

Gas in Liquid Carbonated water Water CO2

Gas in Liquid Ocean water Water O2

Liquid in Liquid Antifreeze Water Ethylene glycol

Liquid in Liquid vinegar Water Acetic acid

 Liquid in Solid Dental amalgam Silver Mercury

Solid in Solid steel Iron Carbon

Factors Affecting Solubility

- Nature of the solute and solvent:
Liquids that dissolves each other are miscible while those which cannot are immiscible
due to polarity.
- Pressure:
Internal pressure is the pressure above the solution.
Effervescence is the rapid escape of gas in a solution.
Henry’s Law states that at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.
- Temperature:
Increasing the temperature increases the solubility of liquids.

Ways of Expressing the Solute in a Solution

Concentration Ratio
Description
% by mass Mass of solute/mass of solution x 100
% by volume Volume of solute/volume of solution x 100

Molarity Mole of solute/liter of solution

Molality Mole of solute/kilogram of solvent
Mole fraction Moles of solute/(moles of solute+moles of solvent

Percent by Mass
What is the percent by mass of NaHCO3 in a solution containing 20 g NaHCO3 dissolved in 600 g
of water?
% mass = m solute / m solution x 100
= 20 g / (20 g + 600 g)
= 3.23% NaHCO3

Percent by Volume
 What is the percent by volume of ethanol in a solution that contains 45 mL of ethanol
dissolved in 125 mL of water?
% volume = V solute / V solution x 100
= 45 mL / (45 mL + 125 mL)
= 26.47% ethanol
Molarity (m) = mol solute/ L solution
What is the molarity of an aqueous solution containing 45.0 g of HCl in 2.5 L of solution?
Mass solute = 45.0 g HCl (molar mass = 36 g/mol)
Volume solution = 2.5 L
 1) Grams to mole = 45.0 g /36 g/mol
= 1.25 mol HCl
2.) m = mol solute / liters solution
= 1.25 mol / 2.5 L
= 0.5 mol/L or 0.5 molar
Molality (M) = mol solute/ kg solvent
What is the molality of a solution containing 20.0 g of NaCl in 1 kg of water?
Mass solute = 20.0 g NaCl (molar mass = 58 g/mol)
kilogram solvent = 1000 g or 1 kg
1) Grams to mole = 20.0 g /58 g/mol
= 0.34 mol HCl
2) M = mol solute / kg solvent
= 0.34 mol / 1 kg
= 0.34 mol/kg or 0.34 molal
Mole Fraction (X)
= mol solute or mol solvent / mol solution
In a 100 g of sugar solution, 37.5 is HCl and 62.5 is H2O, compute for the mole fraction of
the HCl?
Mass HCl = 37.5 g x 1 mol = 1.04 mol HCl
36 g
Mass H2O = 62.5 g x 1 mol = 3.44 mol H2O
18 g
X HCl = mol HCl / (mol HCl + mol H20)
= 1.04 mol / (1.04 mol + 3.44 mol)
= 1.04 / 4.48 = 0.23
COLLOIDS
A suspension in another substance of particles with a dimension of 1.0 to 1000 nm.
Colligative Properties
- These are physical properties of liquid solutions dependent upon the concentration of the
solute particles and not on the identity of the nature of the solute.
- Vapor Pressure Reduction is the measure of the tendency of molecules to escape from a
liquid and change to gas.
- Boiling Point Elevation is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is
equal to the atmospheric pressure.
- Freezing Point Depression occurs when the concentration of solute causes the lowering
of the whole solution.
Solutions, Colloids, Suspensions
 Properties of Colloids

Applications of Colloids
 Mole Relationships in a Balanced Chemical Reaction
These are Stoichiometric relationships within a chemical reaction that exist between the
amount of moles with the number particles, mass, and volume of reactants and products.
Stoichiometric Relationships in a Balanced Equation
1) Mole to mole
= Mol (given) x Mole Ratio(unknown/given)
2) Mass to mass
- Convert mass of the given to mol using molar mass of the given.
- Convert mol of the given to mol of the unknown using the mole ratio from the balanced
equation.
- Convert mol of the unknown to mass of the unknown using the molar mass of the
unknown.
Examples:
1. How many grams are in 8.45 mol of propane (C3H8).
2. From the equation 4Co + 3O2 – 2Co2O3 ,
a. how many moles of Co2O3 are produced from the reaction of 5 moles of Co?
b. how many grams of Co2O3 is produced from 68.0 g of O2?
3) How many atoms are in 215 g of 24-karat gold (Au)?
4) How many molecules are in 7.54 mole of sulfur dioxide , SO2 in smog?

LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENTS

During a chemical reaction, one reactant will be consumed first before the other
 - Thus, a reactant that in a chemical reaction that limits the amount of product that
can be formed is called LIMITING REAGENT.
- When the limiting reagent is fully consumed, the remaining reactant after the
reaction stops is termed as the EXCESS REAGENT.

 Once the limiting reactant has been determined, you can use it to calculate how
much of the other reactants will be consumed, and how much of the products will
be produced.
 Determining the limiting reactant is important because the amount of the product
formed depends on this reactant.
Basic Steps in Determining Limiting and Excess Reagents
1) Create a balanced equation.
2) Calculate how much product (in grams) is produced by each reactant by using the
Mass to Mass conversion.
* The reactant which produces the lesser amount is the limiting reagent.
3) Find the amount of excess reagent by calculating the mass of non-limiting reactant
that reacted with the limiting reagent. Then subtract the amount that reacted from the
amount in the original sample.
Sample Problem:
A 2.00 g sample of ammonia (NH3) is mixed with 4.00 g of oxygen gas (O2). It resulted to
the formation of nitrogen oxide (NO) and water (H2O). Which is the limiting reactant and
how much excess reactant remains after the reaction has stopped.
(N=14 g) (H=1 g) (O=16 g)

Percent Yield
You can also use Stoichiometry calculations to determine percent yield in a reaction.
The amount that you actually get may be more or less than the amount that you would
predict in a Stoichiometry problem.
If you divide the actual yield by the theoretical yield (predicted), you can determine the %
yield.

How much product?

• The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that can be produced
from a given amount of reactant.
 • The actual yield is the amount of product actually produced when the chemical
reaction is carried out in an experiment.
• The percent yield of a product is the ratio of the actual yield expressed as a
percent.
Sample:
A reaction between solid sulfur and oxygen produces sulfur dioxide. If in the actual
reaction, only 680 g is produced from the predicted 780 g, how much is the percent
yield in the reaction?

• Percent yield is important in the cost effectiveness of many industrial

manufacturing processes.
• Laboratory reactions do not always produce the calculated amount of products.
• Reactants stick to containers.
• Competing reactions forming other products.

Kinetic Molecular Theory

1) Gases consist of very tiny particles having mass.
2) Gas particles move rapidly in straight lines, travel constantly and in random
directions.
3) Gases diffuse very rapidly that allows two or more gases to mix readily when
combined.
4) Due to wide spaces between gas particles, the forces of attraction between them
are negligible.
5) Gas particles collide with each other or with the walls of its container in a perfectly
elastic manner. Thus, energy is conserved.
6) All gases have the same average kinetic energy which is directly proportional to
the given temperature.

Properties of Gases
Gas Laws Quantities Equations
Properties Symbol Units
Boyle’s Law P&V P1V1=P2V2
Volume V mL, L
Pressure Charles’ Law
P V&T V1/T
atm, mm1=V1/T1
of Hg, torr,
kPa, N/m2
Gay-Lussac’s P&T P1/T1=P1/T1
O
TemperatureLaw T C, OF, K
Amount of n mol
gas in molesAvogadro’s V&n V1/n1=V1/n1
Law

Dalton’s Law P Ptotal =P1+P2+P3…

Graham’s Law E & molar MWA = VB

Gas Laws mass
MWB VA

Ideal Gas Law P, V, n, & T PV = nRT

 Boyle’s Law
● Named after Robert Boyle who investigated the relationship between PRESSURE
and VOLUME of a gas using a J-shaped tube apparatus.
● It states that the VOLUME of a gas is inversely proportional to its PRESSURE at
constant volume of a gas.
● P1V1=P2V2
Charles’ Law
● Named after Jacques Charles who investigated the relationship between
VOLUME and TEMPERATURE of a gas using a hydrogen balloon.
● It states that the VOLUME of a gas is directly proportional to its ABSOLUTE
TEMPERATURE at constant pressure of a gas.
● V1/T1=V2/T2
Gay-Lussac’s Law
● Named after Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac who investigated the relationship between
PRESSURE and TEMPERATURE of a gas.
● It states that the PRESSURE of a gas is directly proportional to its ABSOLUTE
TEMPERATURE at constant volume of a gas.
● P1/T1=P2/T2
Avogadro’s Law
● Named after Amedeo Avogadro who investigated the relationship between
VOLUME and AMOUNT in MOL of a gas.
● It states that the VOLUME of a gas is directly proportional to its AMOUNT in
MOLES at constant temperature and pressure of a gas.
● V1/n1=V2/n2

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

● Named after John Dalton who investigated the PRESSURE of gases.
● It states that the PRESSURES exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is the
sum of the partial pressures that each gas in the mixture exerts individually.
● Ptotal =P1+P2+P3…
Graham’s Law of Effusion
● Named after Thomas Graham who investigated on the MOTION of gas particles.
● DIFFUSION is the process by which gas gradually mixes with another while
EFFUSION is a related type of movement of gases which describes the passage
of gas particles from one container to another through tiny opening between
containers without collision between the particles.
● It states that the rate of EFFUSION is inversely proportional to the square root of
its MOLAR MASS.

Ideal Gas Law

● Combination of the Boyle’s, Charles’, Gay-Lussac’s, and Avogadro’s Laws in one
equation.
● It states that the VOLUME of a gas varies directly with the number of MOLES and
ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE and inversely proportional with PRESSURE.
● PV = nRT
● R= Ideal Gas Constant
= 0.0821 atm.L
mol.K