21EES101T-ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICSENGINEERING

UNIT 4 - Transducers and Sensors

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Electrical measuring instruments are classified as follows:
I. Depending on the quantity measured e.g. Voltmeter, Ammeter, Wattmeter,
Energymeter, Ohmmeter.
II. Depending on the different principles used for their working e.g. Moving Iron type,
Moving coil type, Dynamometer type, Induction type.
III. Depending on how the quantity is measured? e.g. Deflecting type, Integrating type,
Recording type.

The different types of torques associated with measuring instruments

1.Deflecting Torque
This torque acts on the moving system of the instrument to give the required deflection. It
exists as long as the instrument is connected to the supply. The deflecting torque shall ensure
a deflection proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured
2. Opposing Torque
This torque always opposes the deflecting torque. The moving system attains a steady
deflected position when the opposing torque equals the deflecting torque. The components of
the opposing torque are inertia torque, control torque and damping torque.
(a) Inertia Torque
This is due to the inertia of the moving system. The deflecting has to overcome this and make
the moving system move from its rest position.
(b) Control Torque This torque is always present in the instrument whether it is connected to
the supply or not. The control torque increases with the deflection of the moving system. It
opposes the deflecting torque. The moving system is brought to a steady deflected position
when the control torque is balanced by the deflecting torque. The control torque is also
essential to bring back the moving system to its initial or rest or zero position once the
instrument is disconnected from the supply.
The control torque can be produced using spring or gravity:
(b) (i) Spring control Two helical springs of rectangular cross section are connected to the
spindle of the moving system. With the movement of the pointer, the springs bet twisted in
the opposite direction.
Thus, the required amount of control is affected on the moving system. Also, once the
instrument is disconnected from the supply, the pointer (moving system) is brought back to
its initial position due to the twisted spring.
(b) (ii) Gravity control
In this method, adjustable small weights are added to some part of the moving system. When
the pointer deflects, this weight also takes a deflected position.
The gravitational force acting on the moving weight produces the required control torque

(c) Damping Torque This torque is produced only when the instrument is in operation. This
ensures that the moving system takes just the required time to reach its final deflected
position.

MOVING COIL INSTRUMENTS

1A PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT [PMMC]
Principle
A current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, a force is exerted. It tends to act on the
coil and moves it away from the field. This movement of the coil is used to measure current or
voltage.

Construction
N and S refer to the pole pieces of a permanent magnet. A soft iron core in the form of a
cylinder is placed in the space between the poles (C). In the permanent magnetic field is
placed a rectangular coil of many turns (MC) wound on a former (AF). The former is made of
aluminium or copper. To the moving coil is attached the spindle (Sp). Two helical springs (S)
are connected to the spindle to give the necessary control torque. A pointer (p) attached to
the spindle is made to move over a calibrated scale.

Working
A magnetic field of sufficient density is produced by the permanent magnet. The moving coil
carries the current or a current proportional to the voltage to be measured. Hence, an
electromagnetic force is produced which tends to act on the moving coil and moves it away
from the field. This movement makes the spindle move and so the pointer gives a
proportionate deflection.

Deflecting torque - It is directly proportional to the current or the voltage to be measured.

So, the instrument can be used to measure direct current and de voltage.
Control torque - Spring control
Damping torque - Eddy current damping. When the moving coil made of aluminium former is
moved due to the force exerted on it, it cuts the magnetic flux lines produced by the
permanent magnet. Hence, eddy currents are induced in the former.
As per Lenz's law, these eddy currents produce the required damping torque opposing the
motion of the moving coil.

1 B DYNAMOMETER TYPE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

Principle
Working principle of this type of instrument is same as that of permanent magnet moving coil
type. But the difference is that there is no permanent magnet in this instrument. Both the
operating fields are produced by the current and/ or the voltage to be measured.

Construction
The fixed coil (FC) is made in two sections. In the space between these two sections, a
moving coil (MC) is placed. The moving coil is attached to the spindle to which is attached a
pointer.
The pointer is allowed to move over a calibrated scale. Two helical springs are attached to the
spindle to give the required control torque. A piston attached to the spindle is arranged to
move inside an air chamber.
Working
The fixed coil and the moving coil carry currents. Thus, two magnetic field are produced.
Hence, an electromagnetic force tends to act on the moving coil and makes it move. This
makes the pointer give a proportionate deflection.

Deflecting Torque
(a) As voltmeter The two coils are electrically in series. They carry a current proportional
to the voltage to be measured. The deflecting torque is proportional to (voltage)². Hence, the
instrument can be used for measuring de and ac voltages.
(b) As ammeter The two coils are electrically in series. They carry the current to be
measured. The deflecting torque is proportional to (current)2. Hence, the instrument can be
used for measuring de and ac.
(c) As wattmeter Fixed coils carry the system current. Moving coil carrys a current proportional
to the system voltage. The design is such that the deflecting torque is proportional to VI cos o,
i.e. power to be measured.
Control torque: Spring Control
Damping torque: Air damping

2 MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

2A ATTRACTION TYPE
Moving Iron Instruments are used mainly to measure voltage or current.

Principle
It is well known that a soft iron piece gets magnetised when it is brought into a magnetic field
produced by a permanent magnet. The same phenomenon hap- pens when the soft iron piece
is brought near either of the ends of a coil carrying current. The iron piece is attracted towards
that portion where the magnetic flux density is more. This movement of the soft iron piece is
used to measure the current or voltage which produces the magnetic field.

Construction
The instrument consists of a working coil. It carries the current to be measured or a current
proportional to the voltage to be measured. A soft iron disc is attached to the spindle. To the
spindle, a pointer is also attached. The pointer is made to move over a calibrated scale. The
moving iron (soft iron disc) is pivoted such that it is attracted towards the centre of the coil
where the magnetic field is maximum.
Working
The working coil carries a current which produces a magnetic field. The moving disc is
attracted towards the centre of the coil where the flux density is maximum. The spindle is,
therefore, moved. Thus, the pointer, attached to the spindle gives a proportional deflection.

Deflecting Torque
Produced by the current or the voltage to be measured. It is proportional to the square of the
current or voltage. Hence, the instrument can be used to measure d.c. or a.c scale is non-
uniform.
Control torque: Spring or gravity
Damping: Air friction damping

2B REPULSION TYPE MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT

Principle
Two iron pieces kept with close proximity in a magnetic field get magnetized to the same
polarity. Hence, a repulsive force is produced. If one of the two pieces is made movable, the
repulsive force will act on it and move it on to one side. This movement is used to measure
the current or voltage which produces the magnetic field.

Construction
The instrument consists of a working coil which carries a current proportional to voltage or the
current to be measured. There are two iron pieces-fixed and moving. The moving iron is
connected to the spindle to which is attached a pointer. It is made to move over a calibrated
scale.

Working
When the operating coil carries current, a magnetic field is produced. This field magnetises
similarly both the soft iron pieces. Thus, a repulsive force is produced which acts on the
moving iron and pushes it away from its rest position. Thus, the spindle moves and hence the
pointer gives a proportionate deflection. Whatever be the direction of current in the coil, the
two irons are always similarly magnetised.
Deflecting Torque Produced by the current or the voltage to be measured it is proportional to
the square of the current or voltage. Hence, the instrument can be used for de and ac.
Control torque: Spring or Gravity
Damping: Pneumatic (i.e. air damping)

NOTE:
1. MC instruments are used for the measurement of DC Quantities only.

2. MI instruments are used for the measurement of both DC & AC Quantities.

Digital Multimeter (DMM)

A digital multimeter is an instrument used to measure electrical values including ac voltage,

dc voltage, ac current, dc current and resistance. In addition to some digital multimeters
measure capacitance, transistor, continuity buzzer, temperature, etc dependent upon the
particular test instrument..
How a DMM works – Fundamentals
For the DMM, one of the key processes involved in this is that of the analogue to digital
conversion. There are many forms of analogue to digital converter, ADC. However the one
that is most widely used in digital multimeters, DMMs is known as the successive
approximation register or SAR.
Some SAR ADCs may only have resolution levels of 12 bits, but those used in test
equipment including DMMs generally have 16 bits or possibly more dependent upon the
application.
Typically for DMMs resolution levels of 16 bits are generally used, with speeds of 100k
samples per second. These levels of speed are more than adequate for most DMM
applications, where high levels of speed are not normally required. Typically for most bench or
general test instruments, measurements only need to be taken at a maximum rate of a few a
second, possible ten a second.

As the name implies, the successive approximation register ADC operates by successively
homing in on the value of the incoming voltage.
The first stage of the process is for the sample and hold circuit to sample the voltage at the
input of the DMM and then to hold it steady.
With a steady input voltage, the register starts at half its full-scale value.
This would typically require the most significant bit, MSB set to "1" and all the remaining ones
set to "0". Assuming that the input voltage could be anywhere in the range, the mid-range
means that the ADC is set in the middle of the range, and this provides a faster settling time.
As it only has to move a maximum of the full scale rather than possibly 100%.
To see how it works take the simple example of a 4-bit SAR. Its output will start at 1000. If the
voltage is less than half the maximum capability the comparator output will be low and that
will force the register to a level of 0100. If the voltage is above this, the register will move to
0110, and so forth until it homes in on the nearest value.
SAR converters need one approximating cycle for each output bit, i.e. an n-bit ADC will require
n cycles.
DMM operation
Although the analogue to digital converter forms the key element within the test
instrument, to fully understand how a digital multimeter works, it is necessary to look at some
of the other functions around the analogue to digital converter, ADC. Although the ADC will
take very many samples the overall digital multimeter will not display or return every sample
taken. Instead, the samples are buffered and 'averaged' to achieve high accuracy and
resolution.
Buffering and 'averaging' will overcome the effects of small variations such as noise,
etc., noise created by the analogue first stages of the DMM being an important factor that
needs to be overcome to achieve the highest accuracy.

The basic measurement that is made is that of voltage - the analogue to digital converter
converts an analogue voltage into a digital format so that it can be processed by the
processing circuitry.
In order to measure large voltages, potential divider networks can be made on the input of
the ADC. This can precondition the input voltage to fall within the range of the ADC.
Similarly current measurements can be made by monitoring the voltage across a known
resistor.
In this way the DMM uses very similar measurement techniques to that of the analogue meter
where series resistors and parallel shunts were used.
To measure resistance requires a slightly different approach, often measuring the voltage
across the resistor via a known resistance from a stabilised voltage in the meter.
One of the other elements of the digital multimeter is the display. Rather than using an
analogue panel meter, digital multimeters use a numeric display. Typically this is a liquid
crystal display, so be careful when using it outside if it gets cold as liquid crystal displays do
not function below about 0°C.
Typically the displays are relatively large and it is possible to see all the digits quite easily. In
the dark the digits may be more difficult to see, but some DMMs have backlights to provide
additional light for these circumstances.

Measurement time
One of the key areas of understanding how a digital multimeter works is related to the
measurement time. Apart from the basic measurement there are a number of other functions
that are required and these all take a little time. Accordingly the measurement time of a
digital multimeter, DMM, may not always to be appear straight forward.
It is always best to give the DMM time to settle, although in most cases the speed at which
measurements are taken is very fast and will not bother the manual user. Where DMMs that
have computer control are used, a little additional time may need to be added to the
programme for this. These automated DMMs tend to be ones in bench style boxes rather than
the hand held style manual ones.

Typical DMM controls and connections

The interfaces on the front of a digital multimeter are normally very straightforward. The basic
digital multimeter will typically have a switch, display, and the connections for the test
probes.
The main connection on a typical digital multimeter are given in the image and description
below, but obviously the exact layout and capabilities will be dependent upon the particular
test instrument in use.
1.Display The display on a DMM is normally easy to see and read. Most have four digits, the
first of which can often only be either a 0 or 1, and there will normally be a + / - indication as
well. There may also be a few other smaller indicators such as AC / DC etc dependent upon
the model of DMM
2.Main connections There will be some main connections for the probes to connect to.
Although only two are needed at any one time, there may be three or four. Typically these
may be:
• Common - for use with all measurements and this will take the negative or black
lead and probe.
• Volts, ohms, frequency - this connection is used for most measurements and will
take the positive or red lead and probe.
• Amps and milliamps - this connection is used for the current measurements and
will again take the red lead and probe.
• High current - there is often a separate connection for high current
measurements. Care must be taken to use this rather than the low current
connection if high levels of current are anticipated
• These are typical connections for a multimeter and each model of multimeter
may have its own requirements and connections.
3.Main switch There will usually be a single main rotary switch to select the type of
measurement to be made and the range that is needed.
4.Additional connections There may be additional connections for other measurements
such as temperature where a thermocouple will need its own connections. Some meters are
also able to measure the gain of transistors, and these will require separate connections on
the meter.
5.Additional buttons and switches There will be a few additional buttons and switches.
The main one will obviously be the on/off button. Other functions including items such as peak
hold may also be available
The switches and controls are normally set out with the main range switch occupying the
central position within the multimeter panel. The display typically occupies a position at the
top of the instrument so that it is easy to see and it is free from being obscured by leads and
also it can still be seen if the switch is being operated.
Digital storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
Definition: The digital storage oscilloscope is an instrument which gives the storage of a
digital waveform or the digital copy of the waveform. It allows us to store the signal or the
waveform in the digital format, and in the digital memory also it allows us to do the digital
signal processing techniques over that signal. The maximum frequency measured on the
digital signal oscilloscope depends upon two things they are: sampling rate of the scope and
the nature of the converter. The traces in DSO are bright, highly defined, and displayed within
seconds.
Block Diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope
The block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope consists of an amplifier, digitizer,
memory, analyzer circuitry. Waveform reconstruction, vertical plates, horizontal plates,
cathode ray tube (CRT), horizontal amplifier, time base circuitry, trigger, and clock. The block
diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the below figure.

As seen in the above figure, at first digital storage oscilloscope digitizes the analog input
signal, then the analog input signal is amplified by amplifier if it has any weak signal. After
amplification, the signal is digitized by the digitizer and that digitized signal stores in memory.
The analyzer circuit process the digital signal after that the waveform is reconstructed (again
the digital signal is converted into an analog form) and then that signal is applied to vertical
plates of the cathode ray tube (CRT).
The cathode ray tube has two inputs they are vertical input and horizontal input. The vertical
input signal is the ‘Y’ axis and the horizontal input signal is the ‘X’ axis. The time base circuit
is triggered by the trigger and clock input signal, so it is going to generate the time base
signal which is a ramp signal. Then the ramp signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier,
and this horizontal amplifier will provide input to the horizontal plate. On the CRT screen, we
will get the waveform of the input signal versus time.
The digitizing occurs by taking a sample of the input waveform at periodic intervals. At the
periodic time interval means, when half of the time cycle is completed then we are taking the
samples of the signal. The process of digitizing or sampling should follow the sampling
theorem. The sampling theorem says that the rate at which the samples are taken should be
greater than twice the highest frequency present in the input signal. When the analog signal
is not properly converted into digital then there occurs an aliasing effect.
DSO Operation Modes
The digital storage oscilloscope works in three modes of operations they are roll mode, store
mode, and hold or save mode.
Roll Mode: In roll mode, very fast varying signals are displayed on the display screen.
Store Mode: In the store mode the signals stores in memory.
Hold or Save Mode: In hold or save mode, some part of the signal will hold for some time
and then they will be stored in memory.
These are the three modes of digital storage oscilloscope operation
Waveform Reconstruction
There are two types of waveform reconstructions they are linear interpolation and sinusoidal
interpolation.
Linear Interpolation: In linear interpolation, the dots are joined by a straight line.
Sinusoidal Interpolation: In sinusoidal interpolation, the dots are joined by a sine wave.

The maximum frequency of the signal which is measured by the digital oscilloscope depends
on the two factors. Theses factors are the
1. Sampling rate 2. Nature of converter.
Sampling Rate – For safe analysis of input signal the sampling theory is used. The sampling
theory states that the sampling rate of the signal must be twice as fast as the highest
frequency of the input signal. The sampling rate means analogue to digital converter has a
high fast conversion rate.
Converter – The converter uses the expensive flash whose resolution decreases with the
increases of a sampling rate. Because of the sampling rate, the bandwidth and resolution of
the oscilloscope are limited. The need of the analogue to digital signal converters can also be
overcome by using the shift register. The input signal is sampled and stored in the shift
register. From the shift register, the signal is slowly read out and stored in the digital form.
This method reduces the cost of the converter and operates up to 100 megasample per
second.

Applications
The applications of the DSO are
• It checks faulty components in circuits
• Used in the medical field
• Used to measure capacitor, inductance, time interval between signals, frequency and time
period
• Used to observe transistors and diodes V-I characteristics
• Used to analyze TV waveforms
• Used in video and audio recording equipment’s
• Used in designing
• Used in the research field
• For comparison purpose, it displays 3D figure or multiple waveforms • It is widely used an
oscilloscope
Advantages
• Portable
• Have the highest bandwidth
• The user interface is simple
• Speed is high
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the DSO are
• Complex
• High cost

Transducer
Transducer is a device which converts the energy from one form to another form. This energy
may be electrical, mechanical, chemical, optical or thermal. The transducer that have
electrical energy in input or output is known as electrical transducer, [Mostly output ].
The transducers are classified as (i) Active and (ii) Passive transducers.
Active transducers, also known as self generating type, develop their own voltage or
current as the output signal. The energy required for production of this output signal is
obtained from the physical phenomenon being measured.
Passive transducers, also known as externally powered transducers, derive the power
required for energy conversion from an external power source

Comparison between active and passive transducer

A few examples of active and passive transducers are given in Table

Basic requirements of a transducer are:
(i) Linearity: The input-output characteristics of the transducer should be linear.
(ii) Ruggedness: The transducer should withstand overloads, with measures for overload
protection.
(iii) Repeatability: The transducer should produce identical output signals when the same
input signal is applied at different times under the same environmental conditions.
(iv) High stability and reliability: The output from the transducer should not be affected by
temperature, vibration and other environmental variations and there should be minimum error
in measurements.
(v) Good dynamic response: In industrial, aerospace and biological applications, the input
to the transducer will not be static but dynamic in nature, i.e. the input will vary with time.
The transducer should respond to the changes in input as quickly as possible.
(vi) Convenient instrumentation: The transducer should produce a sufficiently high analog
output signal with high signal-to-noise ratio, so that the output can be measured either
directly or after suitable amplification.
(vii) Good mechanical characteristics: The transducer, under working conditions, will be
subjected to various mechanical strains. Such external forces should not introduce any
deformity and affect the performance of the transducer.

Types of active and passive transducers

Displacement Transducer
Define : A Displacement Transducer is an electromechanical device used to convert
mechanical motion or vibrations into a variable electric signals.
Types:
a. Capacitive Transducer
b. Inductive
b (i).Variable Inductance
 b (ii). Linear Variable Differential Transformer [LVDT]

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by

where A = area of each plate in m²

d = distance between parallel plates in m
E = dielectric constant (permittivity) of free space in F/m
ε, = relative dielectric constant (permittivity) The capacitance is directly proportional to the
area of the plate (A) and inversely proportional to the distance between the parallel plates (d).
Obviously, any variation in A or d causes a corresponding variation in the capacitance. This
principle of variation in d is used in the capacitive transducer, shown in Fig.
When a force is applied to a diaphragm which acts as one plate of a capacitor, the distance
between the diaphragm and the static plate is changed. The resulting change in capacitance
can be measured with an a.c. bridge or an oscillator circuit in which the change in
frequency can be measured by an electronic counter and it is a measure of the magnitude of
the applied force. In capacitor microphone, the same principle is used in which sound pressure
varies the capacitance between the fixed plate and a movable diaphragm.
The capacitive transducer can measure static and dynamic changes. The draw- back of this
transducer is its sensitivity to temperature variations.

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
When a force is applied to the
ferromagnetic armature, the air gap, as
shown in fig is changed thereby varying
the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Thus the applied force is measured by
the change of inductance in a single coil.
 The inductive transducer enables static and dynamic measurements. Its drawback is that it
has limited frequency response.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
The most widely used inductance transducer is the Linear Variable DifferentiaTransformer
(LVDT) and is shown in Fig. (a). It consists of a primary coil and two exactly similar secondary
coils with a rod shaped magnetic core positioned centrally inside the coil. An alternating
current is fed into the primary and voltages V O1 and VO2 are induced in the secondary coils.
As these coils are connected in series opposition, the output voltage V O = Vo1 - Vo2. If the core
is placed ideally in the central position (null position or reference position), Vo₁ = Vo 2 and
hence the output voltage Vo = 0.
In practice due to incomplete balance, a residual voltage usually remains with the core in this
position. As shown in Fig. 11.3, when the core is displaced from the null position, the induced
voltage in the secondary towards which the core has moved increases while that in the other
secondary decreases. This results in a differential voltage output from the transformer.
The output voltage produced by the displacement of the core is linear over a considerable
range [Fig. (b)] but flattens out at both ends, and the voltage phase changes by 180° as the
core moves through the centre position.
LVDT provides continuous resolution
and shows low hysteresis and hence,
repeatability is excellent under all
conditions. As there are no sliding
contacts, there is less friction and
less noise.
It is sensitive to vibrations and
temperature. The receiving
instrument must be selected to
operate on ac signals or a
demodulator network must be used if
a de out- put is required.

Advantages, disadvantages and Applications of LVDT

Advt: 1. High Range -1.25mm to 250mm.
2. Low hysteresis
3. Simple, light in weight and easy to maintain.
4. Low Power Consumption
Disadvt: 1. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is possible.
2. Temperature affects the performance of transducer.
Uses:
1. The LVDT can be used in all applications where displacements ranging from fraction of a
mm to a few cm have to be measured.
2. Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used as a device to measure force, weight and
pressure.
Thermoelectric Transducers
Define – Converts Temperature to electrical signal or electrical signal to temperature.
Types -
1.Thermistor - Exhibits a large change in resistance proportional to a small change in
temperature.
2. Thermocouple - To convert thermal potential difference in to electric potential difference.

Thermistor
A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor whose electrical
resistance varies with changes in temperature. Although all resistors’ resistance will fluctuate
slightly with temperature, a thermistor is particularly sensitive to temperature changes.
Thermistors act as a passive component in a circuit. They are an accurate, cheap, and
robust way to measure temperature.
While thermistors do not work well in extremely hot or cold temperatures, they are the sensor
of choice for many different applications.
Thermistors are ideal when a precise temperature reading is required.
The circuit symbol for a thermistor is shown below:

Construction of Thermistor
A thermistor is made of oxides of metals such as Nickel, Manganese, Cobalt, Copper, Uranium
etc. It is available in a variety of shapes and sizes. Commonly used for configurations are Disk
type, Bead type and Rod type.
The disc type thermistor and rod type thermistor is
used when greater power dissipation is required.
The rod type thermistor has high power handling
capacity.
The smallest thermistor in these configurations
is the bead type thermistor. its diameter is low as
0.15 mm. The measurement element is typically
encapsulated in a glass probe. It is commonly used
for measuring the temperature of liquids.

Working Principle of Thermistors

The thermistor works on the simple principle of change in resistance due to a change in
temperature. When the ambient temperature changes the thermistor starts self-heating its
elements. its resistance value is changed with respect to this change in temperature. This
change depends on the type of thermistor used. The resistance temperature characteristics of
different types of thermistors are given in the following section.
Types of Thermistors
The two basic types of thermistors available are the NTC and PTC types.
NTC Thermistor
NTC stands for Negative Temperature coefficient. They are ceramic semiconductors that have
a high Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance. The resistance of an NTC will decrease
with increasing temperature in a non-linear manner.
PTC Thermistor
PTC thermistors are Positive Temperature Coefficient resistors and are made of polycrystalline
ceramic materials. The resistance of a PTC will increase with increasing temperature in a non-
linear manner. The PTC thermistor shows only a small change of resistance with temperature
until the switching point(TR) is reached.
The temperature resistance characteristics of an NTC and a PTC is shown in the following
figure.

Advantages of thermistors
Less expensive., More sensitive than other sensors, Fast response, Small in size.
Disadvantages of thermistors
Limited Temperature range, Resistance to temperature ratio correlation is non-linear,
An inaccurate measurement may be obtained due to the self-heating effect, Fragile.

Applications of thermistors
NTC Thermistor Application:
Digital Thermostats.
Thermometers.
Battery pack temperature monitors.
In-rush-current limiting devices
PTC Thermistor Application:
Over-current protection
In-rush-current protection
Thermocouple
Thermocouple, also called as thermoelectric thermometer, a temperature-
measuring device consisting of two wires of different metals joined at each end. One junction
is placed where the temperature is to be measured, and the other is kept at a constant lower
temperature.
A measuring instrument is connected in the circuit. The temperature difference causes the
development of an electromotive force (known as the Seebeck effect) that is approximately
proportional to the difference between the temperatures of the two junctions. Temperature
can be read from standard tables, or the measuring instrument can be calibrated to read
temperature directly.

Any two different metals or metal alloys exhibit the thermoelectric effect, but only a few are
used as thermocouples—e.g., antimony and bismuth, copper and iron, or copper and
constantan (a copper-nickel alloy). Usually platinum, either with rhodium or a platinum-
rhodium alloy, is used in high-temperature thermocouples.
Thermocouple types are named (e.g., type E [nickel, chromium, and constantan],
J [iron and constantan],
N [two nickel-silicon alloys, one of which contains chromium and magnesium],
B [a platinum-rhodium alloy]) according to the metals used to make the wires.
The most common type is K (nickel-aluminum and nickel-chromium wires) because of
its wide temperature range (from about −200 to 1,260 °C [−300 to 2,300 °F]) and low cost.

The applications of thermocouples are listed below:

It is used to monitor the temperature in the steel and iron industries. For, this type of
application, type B, S, R, and K thermocouples are used in the electric arc furnace.
The principle of a thermocouple is used to measure the intensity of incident radiation
(especially visible and infrared light). This instrument is known as a thermopile radiation
sensor.
It is used in the temperature sensors in thermostats to measure the temperature of the office,
showrooms, and homes.
The thermocouple is used to detect the pilot flame in the appliances that are used to generate
heat from gas like a water heater.
To test the current capacity, it is installed to monitor the temperature while testing the
thermal stability of switchgear equipment.
The number of thermocouples is installed in the chemical production plant and petroleum
refineries to measure and monitor temperature at different stages of the plant.
Piezoelectric Transducer [ Piezoelectric sensor ]
A piezoelectric transducer (also known as a piezoelectric sensor) is a device that uses the
piezoelectric effect to measure changes in acceleration, pressure, strain, temperature or force
by converting this energy into an electrical charge.
A transducer can be anything that converts one form of energy to another. The
piezoelectric material is one kind of transducers. When we squeeze this piezoelectric material
or apply any force or pressure, the transducer converts this energy into voltage. This voltage
is a function of the force or pressure applied to it.

A piezoelectric transducer consists of quartz crystal which is made from silicon and oxygen
arranged in crystalline structure (SiO2). Generally, unit cell (basic repeating unit) of all crystal
is symmetrical but in piezoelectric quartz crystal, it is not. Piezoelectric crystals are
electrically neutral.
The atoms inside them may not be
symmetrically arranged but their electrical
charges are balanced means positive charges
cancel out negative charge. The quartz crystal
has the unique property of generating electrical
polarity when mechanical stress applied to it
along a certain plane. Basically, There are two
types of stress. One is compressive stress and
the other is tensile stress.
When there is unstressed quartz no
charges induce on it. In the case of compressive
stress, positive charges are induced on one side
and negative charges are induced in the
opposite side. The crystal size gets thinner and
longer due to compressive stress. In the case of
tensile stress, charges are induced in reverse as compare to compressive stress and quartz
crystal gets shorter and fatter.

Applications
Air Piezoelectric transducers are regularly utilized in automobile, proximity, and level sensors.
They are used in medical diagnostics, infertility treatments, and in ultrasonic imaging for
medical applications.
They are usually employed in residential products like motion and object identifiers, home
security alarms, and pest deterrents. Producers apply them to popular electronic instruments
such as games, toys, and remote-control units. You can also find them in electric
toothbrushes, inkjet printers, and buzzers.
As piezoelectric materials cannot measure static variations, these are basically employed for
measuring plate roughness, in accelerometers, and as a vibration detector. For instance, they
are utilized in seismographs to evaluate the vibrations in rockets, or in strain gauges to
estimate the vibrations of applied force and stress. They are also utilized for researches on
blast waves and high-speed shock waves.
Piezoelectric transducers are also used by automotive producers to evaluate detonations in
engines. They are also employed in automobile seat belts to lock in the reaction to a rapid
reduction.
The sound pressure is transformed into an electric signal in microphones and this signal is
eventually increased to generate a louder sound. In electric lighter in kitchens, when the
pressure is applied to the piezoelectric transducer, it produces an electric signal which
eventually causes the flash to fire up.
They are also employed in restaurants or airports. In this condition, when a person
steps near the door, the door opens automatically using a Piezoelectric transducer. The
concept utilized is that when a person is near the door, an electric effect is generated and the
door opens automatically.

Photoelectric Transducer
The photoelectric transducer can be defined as, a transducer which changes the energy from
the light to electrical. It can be designed with the semiconductor material. This transducer
utilizes an element like photosensitive which can be used for ejecting the electrons as the
light beam soak ups through it. The electron discharges can change the photosensitive
element’s property. Therefore the flowing current stimulates within the devices. The flow of
the current’s magnitude can be equivalent to the whole light absorbed with the photosensitive
element.
The diagram of the photoelectric transducer is shown below. This transducer soak ups the
light radiation which drops over the semiconductor material. The light absorption can boost
the electrons in the material, & therefore the electrons begin to move. The electron mobility
can generate three effects like
The material resistance will be changed.
The semiconductor’s o/p current will be changed.
The semiconductor’s o/p voltage will be changed.

Photoelectric Transducer Classification

These transducers are classified into five types which include the following
• Photo emissive Cell
• Photodiode
• Phototransistor
• Photo-voltaic cell
• Photoconductive Cell

Working Principle
The working principle of Photoelectric Transducer can be classified like photoemissive,
photovoltaic otherwise photoconductive. In photoemissive type devices, once the radiation
drops over a cathode can cause emission of electrons from the cathode plane. The output of
the PV cells can generate a voltage which is relative to the intensity of radiation. The
occurrence of radiation can be IR (infrared), UV (ultraviolet), X-rays, gamma rays, and visible
light. In photo-conductive devices, the material’s resistance can be changed once it is light
up.
Applications of Photoelectric Transducer
The applications of this transducer mainly include the
following.
• These transducers are used in biomedical applications
• Pickups of pulse
• Pneumograph respiration
• Measure blood pulsatile volume changes
• Records Body movements.

Hall Effect Transducer

The hall effect element is a type of transducer used for measuring the magnetic
field by converting it into an emf. The direct measurement of the magnetic field is not
possible. Thus the Hall Effect Transducer is used. The transducer converts the magnetic
field into an electric quantity which is easily measured by the analogue and digital meters.
Principle of Hall Effect Transducer
The principle of hall effect transducer is that if the current carrying strip of the conductor is
placed in a transverse magnetic field, then the EMF develops on the edge of the conductor.
The magnitude of the develop voltage depends on the density of flux, and this property of a
conductor is called the Hall effect. The Hall effect element is mainly used for magnetic
measurement and for sensing the current.
The metal and the semiconductor has the property of hall effect which depends on the
densities and the mobility of the electrons.
Consider the hall effect element shown in the figure below. The current supply through the
lead 1 and 2 and the output is obtained from the strip 3 and 4. The lead 3 and 4 are at same
potential when no field is applied across the strip.
When the magnetic field is applied to the
strip, the output voltage develops across the
output leads 3 and 4. The develops voltage
is directly proportional to the strength of the
material.
The current and magnetic field strength both can be measured with the help of the output
voltages. The hall effect EMF is very small in conductors because of which it is difficult to
measure. But semiconductors like germanium produces large EMF which is easily measured
by the moving coil instrument.
Applications of Hall Effect Transducer
The following are the application of the Hall effect Transducers.
1. Magnetic to Electric Transducer – The Hall effect element is used for converting the
magnetic flux into an electric transducer. The magnetic fields are measured by placing the
semiconductor material in the measurand magnetic field. The voltage develops at the end of
the semiconductor strips, and this voltage is directly proportional to the magnetic field
density.
The Hall Effect transducer requires small space and also gives the continuous signal
concerning the magnetic field strength. The only disadvantage of the transducer is that it is
highly sensitive to temperature and thus calibration requires in each case.
2. Measurement of Displacement – The Hall effect element measures the displacement of
the structural element. For example – Consider the ferromagnetic structure which has a
permanent magnet.
The hall effect transducer placed between the poles of the permanent magnet. The magnetic
field strength across the hall effect element changes by changing the position of the
ferromagnetic field.

3. Measurement of Current – The hall effect transducer is also used for measuring the
current without any physical connection between the conductor circuit and meter.
The AC or DC is applied across the conductor for developing the magnetic field. The strength
of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the applied current. The magnetic field
develops the emf across the strips. And this EMF depends on the strength of the conductor.
4. Measurement of Power – The hall effect transducer is used for measuring the power of
the conductor. The current is applied across the conductor, which develops the magnetic field.
The intensity of the field depends on the current. The magnetic field induces the voltage
across the strip. The output voltage of the multiplier is proportional to the power of the
transducer.

Introduction to Opto-electronics Devices

Definition : Converts light energy to electrical energy and vice versa.
Types:
• Laser diode, light-emitting diode - convert electrical power into forms of light.
• Photodiode, photo resistor, phototransistor, photomultiplier tube, solar cells - converts
changing light levels into electrical form.
• The major developments of optoelectronic devices are:
1. They have a longer wavelength.
2. They are easily fabricated materials.
3. They are of low cost.
4. They have high optoelectronic conversion efficiency.
 5. These are Nano-scale devices.
6. They have high power light sources.

Light-dependent resistor (LDR) / Photo-resistor / photocell /

photo-conductive cell
A light dependent resistor is an electronic component that is sensitive to light. When light falls
upon it, then the resistance decreases. Values of the resistance of the LDR may decrease over
many orders of magnitude the value of the resistance falling as the level of light increases.
It is common for the values of resistance of an LDR to be several megaohms in
darkness and then to fall to a few hundred ohms in bright light.
LDRs are made from semiconductor materials to enable them to have their light
sensitive properties. Many materials can be used, but one popular material for these
photoresistors is cadmium sulphide. Also lead sulphide, PbS and indium antimonide are also
used to manufacture LDRs.
Symbols

Working Principle of light dependent resistor (LDR)

An LDR or photoresistor is made any semiconductor material with a high resistance. It
has a high resistance because there are very few electrons that are free and able to move -
the vast majority of the electrons are locked into the crystal lattice and unable to move.
Therefore in this state there is a high LDR resistance.
As light falls on the semiconductor, the light photons are absorbed by the
semiconductor lattice and some of their energy is transferred to the electrons.
The amount of energy transferred to the electrons gives some of them sufficient energy
to break free from the crystal lattice so that they can then conduct electricity. This results in a
lowering of the resistance of the semiconductor and hence the overall LDR resistance.
The process is progressive, and as more light shines on the LDR semiconductor, so
more electrons are released to conduct electricity and the resistance falls further.

Characteristics of light dependent resistor (LDR)

Photoresistor/ LDR’s are light-dependent devices whose resistance is decreased when
light falls on them and that is increased in the dark. When a light dependent resistor is kept in
dark, its resistance is very high. This resistance is called as dark resistance. It can be as high
as 1012 Ω and if the device is allowed to absorb light its resistance will be decreased
drastically. If a constant voltage is applied to it and the intensity of light is increased the
current starts increasing. The figure below shows the resistance vs. illumination curve for a
particular LDR.
Photoresistor / LDR structure
Structurally the photoresistor is a light sensitive resistor that has a horizontal body that is
exposed to light.
The basic format for a photoresistor is that shown below:

The active semiconductor region is normally deposited onto a semi-insulating substrate and
the active region is normally lightly doped.
In many discrete photoresistor devices, an interdigital pattern is used to increase the area of
the photoresistor that is exposed to light. The pattern is cut in the metallisation on the surface
of the active area and this lets the light through. The two metallise areas act as the two
contacts for the resistor. This area has to be made relatively large because the resistance of
the contact to the active area needs to be minimised.

Types of light dependent resistor

Light dependent resistors, LDRs or photoresistors fall into one of two types or categories:
Intrinsic light dependent resistor : Intrinsic photoresistors use un-doped semiconductor
materials including silicon or germanium. Photons fall on the LDR excite electrons moving
them from the valence band to the conduction band.
As a result, these electrons are free to conduct electricity. The more light that falls on the
device, the more electrons are liberated and the greater the level of conductivity, and this
results in a lower level of resistance.
Extrinsic light dependent resistor : Extrinsic photoresistors are manufactured from
semiconductor of materials doped with impurities. These impurities or dopants create a new
energy band above the existing valence band.
As a result, electrons need less energy to transfer to the conduction band because of the
smaller energy gap.
Regardless of the type of light dependent resistor or photoresistor, both types exhibit an
increase in conductivity or fall in resistance with increasing levels of incident light.
Applications of light dependent resistor (LDRs)
Photoresistors (LDRs) have low cost and simple structure and are often used as light sensors.
Other applications of photoresistors include:
• Detect absences or presences of light like in a camera light meter.
• Used in street lighting design (can be combined with a good Arduino starter kit to act as
a street light controller)
• Alarm clocks
• Burglar alarm circuits
• Light intensity meters
• Used as part of a SCADA system to perform functions such as counting the number of
packages on a moving conveyor belt
Photodiodes

Photodiodes are a class of diodes that convert light energy to electricity. Their working is
exactly the opposite of LEDs which are also diodes but they convert electricity to light energy.
Photodiodes can also be used in detecting the brightness of the light.
A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric
current. They are also called photo detectors, a light detector, and a photo-sensor.
Photodiodes are designed to work in reverse bias condition. Typical photodiode materials are
Silicon, Germanium and Indium gallium arsenide.

Photodiode Working
A photodiode is subjected to photons in the form of light which affects the generation
of electron-hole pairs. If the energy of the falling photons (hv) is greater than the energy gap
(Eg) of the semiconductor material, electron-hole pairs are created near the depletion region
of the diode. The electron-hole pairs created are separated from each other before
recombining due to the electric field of the junction. The direction of the electric field in the
diode forces the electrons to move towards the n-side and consequently the holes move
towards the p-side. As a result of the increase in the number of electrons on the n-side and
holes on the p-side, a rise in the electromotive force is observed. Now when an external load
is connected to the system, a current flow is observed through it.
The more the electromotive force created, the greater the current flow. The magnitude
of the electromotive force created depends directly upon the intensity of the incident light.
This effect of the proportional change in photocurrent with the change in light intensity can be
easily observed by applying a reverse bias.
Since photodiodes generate current flow directly depending upon the light intensity received,
they can be used as photodetectors to detect optical signals. Built-in lenses and optical filters
may be used to enhance the power and productivity of a photodiode.

Applications of Photodiode
• Photodiodes are used in simple day-to-day applications. The reason for their prominent
use is their linear response of photodiode to light illumination.
• Photodiodes with the help of optocouplers provide electric isolation. When two isolated
circuits are illuminated by light, optocouplers are used to couple the circuit optically.
Optocouplers are faster compared to conventional devices.
• Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke detectors.
• Photodiodes are used in numerous medical applications. They are used in instruments
that analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas
monitors.
• Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels.
• Photodiodes are used in logic circuits.
• Photodiodes are used in the detection circuits.
• Photodiodes are used in character recognition circuits.
• Photodiodes are used for the exact measurement of the intensity of light in science and
industry.
• Photodiodes are faster and more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence
are frequently used for lighting regulation and optical communication.
Phototransistors
A Phototransistor is an electronic switching and current amplification component which relies
on exposure to light to operate. When light falls on the junction, reverse current flows which
are proportional to the luminance. Phototransistors are used extensively to detect light pulses
and convert them into digital electrical signals. These are operated by light rather than
electric current. Providing a large amount of gain, low cost and these phototransistors might
be used in numerous applications. It is capable of converting light energy into electric energy.
Phototransistors work in a similar way to photoresistors commonly known as LDR (light
dependent resistor) but are able to produce both current and voltage while photoresistors are
only capable of producing current due to change in resistance.
Phototransistors are transistors with the base terminal exposed. Instead of sending
current into the base, the photons from striking light activate the transistor. This is because a
phototransistor is made of a bipolar semiconductor and focuses on the energy that is passed
through it. These are activated by light particles and are used in virtually all electronic devices
that depend on light in some way. All silicon photosensors (phototransistors) respond to the
entire visible radiation range as well as to infrared.

Construction
A phototransistor is nothing but an ordinary bi-polar transistor in which the base region is
exposed to illumination. It is available in both the P-N-P and N-P-N types having different
configurations like common emitter, common collector, and common base but generally,
common emitter configuration is used. It can also work while the base is made open.
Compared to the conventional transistor it has more base and collector areas.
Ancient phototransistors used single semiconductor materials like silicon and
germanium but now a day’s modern components use materials like gallium and arsenide for
high-efficiency levels. The base is the lead responsible for activating the transistor. It is the
gate controller device for the larger electrical supply. The collector is the positive lead and the
larger electrical supply. The emitter is the negative lead and the outlet for the larger electrical
supply.

With no light falling on the device there will be a small current flow due to thermally
generated hole-electron pairs and the output voltage from the circuit will be slightly less than
the supply value due to the voltage drop across the load resistor R. With light falling on the
collector-base junction the current flow increases. With the base connection open circuit, the
collector-base current must flow in the base-emitter circuit, and hence the current flowing is
amplified by normal transistor action.
The collector-base junction is very sensitive to light. Its working condition depends upon the
intensity of light. The base current from the incident photons is amplified by the gain of the
transistor, resulting in current gains that range from hundreds to several thousand. A
phototransistor is 50 to 100 times more sensitive than a photodiode with a lower level of
noise.
A phototransistor activates once the light strikes the base terminal & the light triggers the
phototransistor by allowing the configuration of hole-electron pairs as well as the current flow
across the emitter or collector. When the current increases, then it is concentrated as well as
changed into voltage.
Generally, a phototransistor doesn’t include a base connection. The base terminal is
disconnected as the light is used to allow the flow of current to supply throughout the
phototransistor.
Applications of Phototransistors
The Areas of application for the Phototransistor include:
Punch-card readers.
Security systems
Encoders – measure speed and direction
IR detectors photo
electric controls
Computer logic circuitry.
Relays
Lighting control (highways etc)
Level indication
Counting systems

Photovoltaic cells (solar cells)

A photovoltaic (PV) cell is an energy harvesting technology, that converts solar energy into
useful electricity through a process called the photovoltaic effect. There are several
different types of PV cells which all use semiconductors to interact with
incoming photons from the Sun in order to generate an electric current.

Layers of a PV Cell
A photovoltaic cell is comprised of many layers of materials, each with a
specific purpose. The most important layer of a photovoltaic cell is the specially
treated semiconductor layer. It is comprised of two distinct layers (p-type and n-type—see
Figure 2), and is what actually converts the Sun's energy into useful electricity through a
process called the photovoltaic effect (see below). On either side of the semiconductor is a
layer of conducting material which "collects" the electricity produced. Note that the backside
or shaded side of the cell can afford to be completely covered in the conductor, whereas the
front or illuminated side must use the conductors sparingly to avoid blocking too much of
the Sun's radiation from reaching the semiconductor.
The final layer which is applied only to the illuminated side of the cell is the anti-reflection
coating. Since all semiconductors are naturally reflective, reflection loss can be significant.
The solution is to use one or several layers of an anti-reflection coating (similar to those used
for eyeglasses and cameras) to reduce the amount of solar radiation that is reflected off the
surface of the cell.

Photovoltaic Effect
The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in
a photovoltaic cell when it is exposed to sunlight. These solar cells are composed of two
different types of semiconductors—a p-type and an n-type—that are joined together to create
a p-n junction. By joining these two types of semiconductors, an electric field is formed in the
region of the junction as electrons move to the positive p-side and holes move to the negative
n-side. This field causes negatively charged particles to move in one direction and positively
charged particles in the other direction.[5] Light is composed of photons, which are simply
small bundles of electromagnetic radiation or energy. When light of a suitable wavelength is
incident on these cells, energy from the photon is transferred to an electron of the
semiconducting material, causing it to jump to a higher energy state known as the conduction
band. In their excited state in the conduction band, these electrons are free to move through
the material, and it is this motion of the electron that creates an electric current in the cell.

Solar Cell Efficiency

Efficiency is a design concern for photovoltaic cells, as there are many factors that limit their
efficiency. The main factor is that 1/4 of the solar energy to the Earth cannot be converted
into electricity by a silicon semiconductor. The physics of semiconductors requires a
minimum photon energy to remove an electron from a crystal structure, known as the band-
gap energy. If a photon has less energy than the band-gap, the photon gets absorbed
as thermal energy.
For silicon, the band-gap energy is 1.12 electron volts.Since the energy in the photons from
the sun cover a wide range of energies, some of the incoming energy from the Sun does not
have enough energy to knock off an electron in a silicon PV cell. Even from the light
that can be absorbed, there is still a problem.
Any energy above the band-gap energy will be transformed into heat. This also cuts the
efficiency because that heat energy is not being used for any useful task.Of the electrons that
are made available, not all of them will actually make it to the metal contact and generate
electricity. Some electrons will not be accelerated sufficiently by the voltage inside the
semiconductor to leave the system. These effects combine to create a theoretical efficiency of
silicon PV cells is about 33%.
There are ways to improve the efficiency of PV cells, all of which come with an increased cost.
Some of these methods include increasing the purity of the semiconductor, using a more
efficient semiconducting material such as Gallium Arsenide, by adding additional layers or p-n
junctions to the cell, or by concentrating the Sun's energy using concentrated photovoltaics.
On the other hand, PV cells will also degrade, outputting less energy over time, due to a
variety of factors including UV exposure and weather cycles. A comprehensive report from the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) states that the median degradation rate is
0.5% per year.
Types of PV Cells:
Photovoltaic cell can be manufactured in a variety of ways and from many different materials.
The most common material for commercial solar cell construction is Silicon (Si), but others
include Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) and Copper Indium Gallium
Selenide (CIGS). Solar cells can be constructed from brittle crystalline structures (Si, GaAs) or
as flexible thin-film cells (Si, CdTe, CIGS). Crystalline solar cells can be further classified into
two categories—monocrystalline and polycrystalline. As the names suggest, monocrystalline
PV cells are comprised of a uniform or single crystal lattice, whereas polycrystalline cells
contain different or varied crystal structures.

Optocoupler
An optocoupler (also called an opto-isolator, photocoupler, or optical isolator) is an
semiconductor device that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by using
light. Optocoupler prevent high voltages from affecting the system receiving the signal.
Two parts are used in an optocoupler: an LED that emits infrared light and a photosensitive
device that detects light from the LED. Both parts are contained within a black box with pins
for connectivity. The input circuit takes the incoming signal, whether the signal is AC or DC,
and uses the signal to turn on the LED.

The photosensor is the output circuit that detects the light and depending on the type of
output circuit, the output will be AC or DC. Current is first applied to the optocoupler, making
the LED emit an infrared light proportional to the current going through the device. When the
light hits the photosensor a current is conducted, and it is switched on. When the current
flowing through the LED is interrupted, the IR beam is cut-off, causing the photosensor to stop
conducting.
Types of Optocoupler
There are four configurations of optocouplers, the
difference being the photosensitive device used.
Phototransistor and Photo-Darlington are typically
used in DC circuits, and Photo-SCR and Photo-TRIAC
are used to control AC circuits. In the photo-transistor
optocoupler, the transistor could either be PNP or
NPN. The Darlington transistor is a two transistor
pair, where one transistor controls the other
transistor’s base. The Darlington transistor provides
high gain ability.
An Optocoupler Can Effectively:
• Remove electrical noise from signals
• Isolate low-voltage devices from high-voltage circuits. The device is able to avoid
disruptions from voltage surges (ex: from radio frequency transmissions, lightning
strikes, and spikes in a power supply)
• Allow the usage of small digital signals to control larger AC voltages.
Advantages
• Optocouplers allow easy interfacing with logic circuits.
• Electrical isolation provides circuit protection.
• It allows wideband signal transmission.
• It is small in size and lightweight device.
Disadvantages
• The operational speed of Optocouplers is low.
• In case of a very high power signal, the possibility of signal coupling may arise.
Applications
• It is used in high power inverters.
• It is used in high power choppers.
• In AC to DC converters optocouplers are widely used.

Liquid crystal display (LCD)

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated

optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals combined
with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using
a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.
LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or
fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed or hidden. For instance:
preset words, digits, and seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock, are all good examples
of devices with these displays.
They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of
small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can either be normally on
(positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer arrangement. For example, a character
positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on a background that is the color of the
backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of
the same color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give them
their characteristic appearance.

Construction of LCD
Simple facts that should be considered while making an
LCD:
1. The basic structure of the LCD should be controlled
by changing the applied current.
2. We must use polarized light.
3. The liquid crystal should able be to control both of the
operations to transmit or can also able to change the
polarized light.
As mentioned above that we need to take two polarized glass pieces filter in the making of
the liquid crystal. The glass which does not have a polarized film on the surface of it must be
rubbed with a special polymer that will create microscopic grooves on the surface of the
polarized glass filter. The grooves must be in the same direction as the polarized film.
Now we have to add a coating of pneumatic liquid phase crystal on one of the polarizing filters
of the polarized glass. The microscopic channel causes the first layer molecule to align with
filter orientation. When the right angle appears at the first layer piece, we should add a
second piece of glass with the polarized film. The first filter will be naturally polarized as the
light strikes it at the starting stage.
Thus the light travels through each layer and guided to the next with the help of a molecule.
The molecule tends to change its plane of vibration of the light to match its angle. When the
light reaches the far end of the liquid crystal substance, it vibrates at the same angle as that
of the final layer of the molecule vibrates. The light is allowed to enter into the device only if
the second layer of the polarized glass matches with the final layer of the molecule.

Working of LCD
The principle behind the LCDs is that when an electrical current is applied to the liquid crystal
molecule, the molecule tends to untwist. This causes the angle of light which is passing
through the molecule of the polarized glass and also causes a change in the angle of the top
polarizing filter. As a result, a little light is allowed to pass the polarized glass through a
particular area of the LCD.
Thus that particular area will become dark compared to others. The LCD works on the
principle of blocking light. While constructing the LCDs, a reflected mirror is arranged at the
back. An electrode plane is made of indium-tin-oxide which is kept on top and a polarized
glass with a polarizing film is also added on the bottom of the device. The complete region of
the LCD has to be enclosed by a common electrode and above it should be the liquid crystal
matter.
Next comes the second piece of glass with an electrode in the form
of the rectangle on the bottom and, on top, another polarizing film. It must be considered that
both the pieces are kept at the right angles. When there is no current, the light passes
through the front of the LCD it will be reflected by the mirror and bounced back. As the
electrode is connected to a battery the current from it will cause the liquid crystals between
the common-plane electrode and the electrode shaped like a rectangle to untwist. Thus the
light is blocked from passing through. That particular rectangular area appears blank.

Advantages
• LCD’s consumes less amount of power compared to CRT and LED
• LCD’s are consist of some microwatts for display in comparison to some mill watts for
LED’s
• LCDs are of low cost
• Provides excellent contrast
• LCD’s are thinner and lighter when compared to cathode-ray tube and LED
Disadvantages
• Require additional light sources
• Range of temperature is limited for operation
• Low reliability
• Speed is very low
• LCD’s need an AC drive

Applications
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer
monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small
LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital
cameras, watches, digital clocks, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones.
LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video
game devices and clocks.
LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all
applications. LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma
displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to very
large television receivers. LCDs are slowly being replaced by OLEDs.
Proximity sensor
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any
physical contact.
A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic
radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The object
being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target.
Different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive
proximity sensor or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive
proximity sensor always requires a metal target.

Operating Principles
Detection Principle of Inductive Proximity Sensors
Inductive Proximity Sensors detect magnetic loss due to eddy currents that are generated on
a conductive surface by an external magnetic field. An AC magnetic field is generated on the
detection coil, and changes in the impedance due to eddy currents generated on a metallic
object are detected.
Other methods include Aluminum-detecting Sensors, which detect the phase component of
the frequency, and All-metal Sensors, which use a working coil to detect only the changed
component of the impedance. There are also Pulse-response Sensors, which generate an eddy
current in pulses and detect the time change in the eddy current with the voltage induced in
the coil.
The sensing object and Sensor form what appears to be a transformer-like relationship.

The transformer-like coupling condition is replaced by impedance changes due to eddy-

current losses.
The impedance changes can be viewed as changes in the resistance that is inserted in series
with the sensing object. (This does not actually occur, but thinking of it this way makes it
easier to understand qualitatively.)

Detection Principle of Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the capacitance between the sensing object
and the Sensor. The amount of capacitance varies depending on the size and distance of the
sensing object. An ordinary Capacitive Proximity Sensor is similar to a capacitor with two
parallel plates, where the capacity of the two plates is detected. One of the plates is the
object being measured (with an imaginary ground), and the other is the Sensor's sensing
surface. The changes in the capacity generated between these two poles are detected.
The objects that can be detected depend on their dielectric constant, but they include resin
and water in addition to metals.

Detection Principle of Magnetic Proximity Sensors

The reed end of the switch is operated by a magnet.
When the reed switch is turned ON,
the Sensor is turned ON.

Applications
• Parking sensors, systems mounted on car bumpers that sense distance to nearby cars
for parking
• Inductive sensors
• Ground proximity warning system for aviation safety
• Vibration measurements of rotating shafts in machinery
• Top dead centre (TDC)/camshaft sensor in reciprocating engines.
• Sheet break sensing in paper machine.
• Anti-aircraft warfare
• Roller coasters
• Conveyor systems
• Beverage and food can making lines
• Mobile devices
• Touch screens that come in close proximity to the face
• Attenuating radio power in close proximity to the body, in order to reduce radiation
exposure
• Automatic faucets.

IR Sensor

IR sensor is an electronic device, that emits the light in order to sense some object of the
surroundings. It measures and detects infrared radiation in its surrounding environment.
There are two types of infrared sensors: active and passive. Active infrared sensors both emit
and detect infrared radiation. Active IR sensors have two parts: a light emitting diode (LED)
and a receiver. When an object comes close to the sensor, the infrared light from the LED
reflects off of the object and is detected by the receiver. Active IR sensors act as proximity
sensors, and they are commonly used in obstacle detection systems (such as in robots).
Passive infrared (PIR) sensors only detect infrared radiation and do not emit it from an LED.
Passive infrared sensors are comprised of:
Two strips of pyroelectric material (a pyroelectric sensor)
An infrared filter (that blocks out all other wavelengths of light)
A Fresnel lens (which collects light from many angles into a single point)
• A housing unit (to protect the sensor from other environmental variables, such as
humidity)
Pressure Sensor
A pressure sensor is a transducer that senses pressure and converts it into an electric signal
where the amount depends upon the pressure applied. A pressure transducer consists of a
pressure-sensitive element that can measure, detect or monitor the pressure being applied
and electronic components to convert the information into an electrical output signal.
Pressure is defined as the amount of force (exerted by a liquid or
gas) applied to a unit of “area” (P=F/A), and the common units of pressure are Pascal (Pa), Bar
(bar), N/mm2 or psi (pounds per square inch). Pressure sensors often utilize piezoresistive
technology, as the piezoresistive element changes its electrical resistance proportional to the
strain (pressure) experienced.
Most of the pressure sensor works on the principle and piezo-
resistive effect, which is measured by the strain gauge. A metal foil strain gage is a
transducer whose electrical resistance varies with applied force. In other words, it converts
force, pressure, tension, compression, torque, and weight into a change in electrical
resistance, which can then be measured.

Strain gauges are electrical conductors tightly attached to a film in a zigzag shape. When this
film is pulled, it — and the conductors — stretches and elongates. When it is pushed, it is
contracted and gets shorter. This change in shape causes the resistance in the electrical
conductors to also change. The strain applied in the load cell can be determined based on this
principle, as strain gauge resistance increases with applied strain and diminishes with
contraction.
Structurally, a pressure sensor is made of a metal body (also called
flexure) to which the metal foil strain gauges are bonded. These force measuring sensors
body is usually made of aluminum or stainless steel, which gives the sensor two important
characteristics: (1) provides the sturdiness to withstand high loads and (2) has the elasticity
to minimally deform and return to its original shape when the force is removed.
The strain gauges are arranged in what is called a Wheatstone
Bridge Amplifier Circuit (see below animated diagram). This means that four strain gages are
interconnected as a loop circuit and the measuring grid of the force being measured is aligned
accordingly.

The strain gauge bridge amplifiers provide regulated

excitation voltage and convert the mv/V output signal
into another form of signal that is more useful to the
user. The signal generated by the strain gage bridge is a
low strength signal and may not work with other
components of the system, such as PLC, data acquisition
modules (DAQ) or computers. Thus, pressure sensor
signal conditioner functions include excitation voltage,
noise filtering or attenuation, signal amplification, and
output signal conversion.
Furthermore, the change in the pressure sensor
amplifier output is calibrated to be proportional to the force applied to the flexure, which can
be calculated via the pressure sensor circuit equation.

Types of pressure sensors

Pressure sensors can be classified in terms of pressure ranges they measure, temperature
ranges of operation, and most importantly the type of pressure they measure. Pressure
sensors are variously named according to their purpose, but the same technology may be
used under different names.
Absolute pressure sensor
This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum. Absolute pressure sensors are
used in applications where a constant reference is required, like for example, high-
performance industrial applications such as monitoring vacuum pumps, liquid pressure
measurement, industrial packaging, industrial process control and aviation inspection.
Gauge pressure sensor
This sensor measures the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. A tire pressure gauge is
an example of gauge pressure measurement; when it indicates zero, then the pressure it is
measuring is the same as the ambient pressure. Most sensors for measuring up to 50 bar are
manufactured in this way, since otherwise the atmospheric pressure fluctuation (weather) is
reflected as an error in the measurement result.
Vacuum pressure sensor
This term can cause confusion. It may be used to describe a sensor that measures pressures
below atmospheric pressure, showing the difference between that low pressure and
atmospheric pressure, but it may also be used to describe a sensor that measures absolute
pressure relative to a vacuum.

Differential pressure sensor

This sensor measures the difference between two pressures, one connected to each side of
the sensor. Differential pressure sensors are used to measure many properties, such as
pressure drops across oil filters or air filters, fluid levels (by comparing the pressure above and
below the liquid) or flow rates (by measuring the change in pressure across a restriction).
Technically speaking, most pressure sensors are really differential pressure sensors; for
example a gauge pressure sensor is merely a differential pressure sensor in which one side is
open to the ambient atmosphere.

Sealed pressure sensor

This sensor is similar to a gauge pressure sensor except that it measures pressure relative to
some fixed pressure rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure (which varies according to
the location and the weather).

Applications of pressure sensors

Automotive applications
In automobiles, hydraulic brakes are a crucial component in passenger safety. The ability to
control a vehicle using brakes is down to a complex blend of components, including pressure
sensors. These can be used to monitor pressure within the chambers of the braking system,
alerting drivers and engine management systems alike if pressures are too low to be effective.
If pressure inside chambers is not measured, systems can fail without the driver knowing and
lead to a sudden loss of braking efficacy and accidents.
Life-saving medical applications
Raising the air pressure in a sealed chamber containing a patient is known as hyperbaric
therapy. It can be effective for treating a number of medical conditions, from skin grafts, burn
injuries, and carbon monoxide poisoning to decompression sickness experienced by divers.
Measuring blood pressure correctly is crucial to patient care, as errors in readings can lead to
a misdiagnosis. Thanks to recent innovations, tiny pressure sensors can even be implanted
into the body, known as In Vivo Blood Pressure Sensing for more accurate monitoring.
Automated building applications
As building and home automation technologies become increasingly popular, pressure sensors
continue to play a central role in controlling the environments we live in. Refrigeration
systems are one such example. Common coolants in HVACs like ammonia can cause
significant danger to people in the event of a leak. Using relative pressure sensors to monitor
the pressure of the ammonia as it passes through the system ensures it stays within safe
limits.
Life-enhancing consumer applications
The things we use, carry and wear on a daily basis are growing in intelligence. Adding a
pressure sensor to a consumer device can provide new information for an improved user
experience.
Take vacuum cleaners, or example. By measuring suction changes, they can detect what kind
of flooring is being cleaned and adjust settings accordingly, or notify their owners when a filter
needs replacing.
Industrial applications
Submersible pressure sensors can be used to measure liquid pressures (up to 30 PSI) with
either a voltage or current (4-20mA) output in liquid tanks. By positioning these sensors at the
bottom of a tank, you can get an accurate reading of the contents in order to alert workers or
the process control system when levels in the tank fall below safe limits
Introduction to Biosensor
Biosensors can be defined as analytical devices which include a combination of biological
detecting elements like a sensor system and a transducer. When we compare with any other
presently existing diagnostic device, these sensors are advanced in the conditions of
selectivity as well as sensitivity. The applications of these Biosensors mainly include
checking ecological pollution control, in the agriculture field as well as food industries. The
main features of biosensors are stability, cost, sensitivity, and reproducibility.
Main Components of a Biosensor

The block diagram of the biosensor includes three segments namely, sensor, transducer, and
associated electrons. In the first segment, the sensor is a responsive biological part, the
second segment is the detector part that changes the resulting signal from the contact of the
analyte, and for the results, it displays in an accessible way. The final section comprises an
amplifier which is known as a signal conditioning circuit, a display unit as well as the
processor.
Working Principle of Biosensor
Usually, a specific enzyme or preferred biological material is deactivated by some of the usual
methods, and the deactivated biological material is in near contact with the transducer. The
analyte connects to the biological object to shape a clear analyte which in turn gives the
electronic reaction that can be calculated. In some examples, the analyte is changed to a
device that may be connected to the discharge of gas, heat, electron ions, or hydrogen ions.
In this, the transducer can alter the device linked convert it into electrical signals which can
be changed and calculated.

Working of Biosensors
The electrical signal of the transducer is frequently low and overlays upon a fairly high
baseline. Generally, the signal processing includes deducting a position baseline signal,
obtained from a related transducer without any biocatalyst covering.
The comparatively slow character of the biosensor reaction significantly eases the electrical
noise filtration issue. In this stage, the direct output will be an analog signal however it is
altered into digital form and accepted to a microprocessor phase where the information is
progressed, influenced to preferred units, and o/p to a data store.
Features
A biosensor includes two main distinct components like Biological component such as cell,
enzyme and a physical component like an amplifier and transducer.
The biological component identifies as well as communicates through the analyte for
generating a signal that can be sensed through the transducer. The biological material is
properly immobilized over the transducer & these can be frequently used numerous times for
a long period.
Types of Biosensors
Electrochemical Biosensor, Amperometric Biosensor, Potentiometric Biosensor, Impedimetric
Biosensor, Voltammetric Biosensor, Physical Biosensor, Piezoelectric Biosensors,
Thermometric Biosensor, Optical Biosensor, Wearable Biosensors, Enzyme Biosensor, DNA
Biosensor, Immunosensors , Magnetic Biosensors, Resonant Biosensors, Thermal Detection
Biosensor
Biosensors Applications
Biosensor devices include a biological element as well as a physiochemical detector and the
main function of this device is to detect analytes. So, the applications of biosensors are in a
wide range. These devices are applicable in the medical, food industry, the marine sector as
they offer good sensitivity & stability as compared with the usual techniques. In recent years,
these sensors have become very popular, and they are applicable in different fields which are
mentioned below
Common healthcare checking, Metabolites Measurement, Screening for sickness, Insulin
treatment, Clinical psychotherapy & diagnosis of disease, In Military, Agricultural, and
Veterinary applications, Drug improvement, offense detection, Processing & monitoring in
Industrial, Ecological pollution control, Diagnostic & Clinical, Industrial & Environmental
Applications, Study & Interaction of Biomolecules, Development of Drug, Detection of Crime,
Medical Diagnosis, Monitoring of Environmental Field, Quality Control, Process Control in
Industries, Pharmaceuticals Manufacturer & Organs Replacement.

Sensors for smart building

Sensors Used in Smart Buildings are solely dedicated to providing smart facilities to their
workers and people while providing their users with an efficient and comfortable humanized
building environment within the budget.
Popular Sensors Used in Smart Buildings
1. Passive Infrared (PIR) Sensors
What is it: Similar to its name, PIR technology refers to the fact that PIR devices do not
spread energy for detection but work by receiving infrared radiation emitted or reflected from
objects. PIR sensors are typically mounted under desks, to detect when and for how long
the workspace is being used.
How they Work: As discussed above, PIR Sensors operate by leveraging infrared radiation
that is either emitted or reflected from objects. However, PIR sensors cannot capture who
exactly used the space.

2. Temperature & Humidity Sensors

What is it: According to its name, temperature sensors can measure the temperature in the
environment. This is one of the most commonly used Sensors used in Smart Buildings as they
work according to the user’s requirements and its position of installation. Similarly, humidity
sensors measure the relative humidity in the air and are often used in combination with
temperature sensors.
How they Work: In simple terms, temperature and humidity sensors measure the
temperature and humidity of the surrounding area within fixed intervals and if any
fluctuations are seen at anytime that crosses the fixed threshold limit set in the sensor, the
sensors instantly send out the signal assigned to it.
3. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Room Sensors
What is it: Air quality sensors are typically used to monitor the concentration of pollutants in
the air of the concerned area. It forms an important part of air purifiers and fresh air systems
working in the facility, thus coming under the list of popular Sensors Used in Smart Buildings.
How they Work: IAQ sensors deploy IoT and computer technology to configure the air
quality data to collect indoor air temperature and humidity, particulate matter, TVOC,
illuminance, formaldehyde, noise, carbon dioxide and other environmental factors in real-
time.
4. Water Leak sensors
What is it: Despite having regular and timely inspections in any building, water leakage from
the drain systems or HVAC system is a common occurrence. The water leak sensor is a liquid
leak detection device.
How they Work: Considering the complex structures of the drain system, HVAC system and
air conditioning system in a building, keeping a track of every gap is nearly impossible,
therefore water leak sensors are often employed to give an alarm as soon as it detects a
water leak.
5. Thermal imaging
Thermal imaging cameras can provide a host of benefits including the identification of
heating/cooling leak points, monitoring of high-voltage systems and even checking the
temperatures of occupants as the enter a building. Until recently, thermal imaging cameras
were very expensive and the thought of strategically placing sensors throughout a building
was simply not cost-effective. However, advancements in the technology are lowering prices
to the point where thermal cameras can be deployed. This type of data can be collected and
combined with other building-centric data to preemptively identify aspects of a facility or its
occupants that need addressing.
6. Ambient lighting
Smart lighting systems are great, but their true benefits become more apparent when
combined with other IoT sensor information such as occupancy levels and ambient light
sensor data. The ability to utilize daylight as best as possible can help cut energy costs by
intelligently maintaining the amount of electrical light required in occupied parts of a building
while bringing in outdoor lighting where needed. Doing so can create a comfortable
environment for occupants while reducing lighting costs to the bare minimum.
7. Door/cabinet open/close detection
The protection of occupants and resources within a building can be a time consuming and
difficult challenge without the use of technology geared toward automating these monitoring
processes. Sensors can be installed at critical doors, entryways, and cabinets to monitor
open/closed activities in real-time. These sensors can either be hardwired into the network or
leverage Wi-Fi or LTE/5G for connectivity back to a centralized monitoring/alerting platform.
Historical information can then be used to retroactively investigate any instances where
people or resources need to be located.

Benefits of smart building sensors

Smart building sensors can collect and analyze real-time data, and
make optimal solutions to problems. It is of great significance to modern architecture:
• Can save building energy
• Improve the sustainability of building use
• Real-time monitoring reduces maintenance costs
• Optimize space utilization
Enhance the safety, comfort and safety of tenants