UNIT-V

AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
INTRODUCTION
 AC voltage controllers (ac line voltage controllers) are employed to vary the RMS
value of the alternating voltage applied to a load circuit by introducing Thyristors
between the load and a constant voltage ac source.
 The RMS value of alternating voltage applied to a load circuit is controlled by
controlling the triggering angle of the Thyristors in the ac voltage controller
circuits.
 In brief, an ac voltage controller is a type of thyristor power converter which is
used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply to obtain a
variable voltage ac output.
 The RMS value of the ac output voltage and the ac power flow to the load is
controlled by varying (adjusting) the trigger angle ‘’
V 0 (RM S)
AC Vs AC Va ria b le AC
Inp ut Vo lta g e RM S O /P Vo lta g e
Vo lta g e fs C o ntro lle r
fs fS

Fig.1

TYPE OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

 The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type of input ac
supply applied to the circuit.
 Single Phase AC Controllers.
 Three Phase AC Controllers.
 Single phase ac controllers operate with single phase ac supply voltage of 230V RMS at
50Hz in our country.
 Three phase ac controllers operate with 3 phase ac supply of 400V RMS at 50Hz supply
frequency.
 Each type of controller may be sub divided into
 Uni-directional or half wave ac controller.
 Bi-directional or full wave ac controller.
 In brief different types of ac voltage controllers are
 Single phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).
 Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).
 Three phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller).

1
  Three phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).

AC VOLTAGE CONTROL TECHNIQUES

 There are two different types of thyristor control used in practice to control the ac power
flow
 Phase control
 On-Off control
 These are the two ac output voltage control techniques.
 In On-Off control technique Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to
the ac supply (source) for a few cycles of the input ac supply and then to disconnect it
for few input cycles.
 The Thyristors thus act as a high speed contactor (or high speed ac switch).
PHASE CONTROL TECHNIQUE.
 In phase control the Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to
the input ac supply, for a part of every input cycle.
 That is the ac supply voltage is chopped using Thyristors during a part of each
input cycle.
 The thyristor switch is turned on for a part of every half cycle, so that input
supply voltage appears across the load and then turned off during the remaining
part of input half cycle to disconnect the ac supply from the load.
 By controlling the phase angle or the trigger angle ‘’ (delay angle), the output
RMS voltage across the load can be controlled.
 The trigger delay angle ‘’ is defined as the phase angle (the value of t) at
which the thyristor turns on and the load current begins to flow.
 Thyristor ac voltage controllers use ac line commutation or ac phase
commutation.
 Thyristors in ac voltage controllers are line commutated (phase commutated)
since the input supply is ac.
 When the input ac voltage reverses and becomes negative during the negative half
cycle the current flowing through the conducting thyristor decreases and falls to
zero.
 Thus the ON thyristor naturally turns off, when the device current falls to zero.

2
  Phase control Thyristors which are relatively inexpensive, converter grade
Thyristors which are slower than fast switching inverter grade Thyristors are
normally used.
 For applications up to 400Hz, if Triacs are available to meet the voltage and
current ratings of a particular application, Triacs are more commonly used.
 Due to ac line commutation or natural commutation, there is no need of extra
commutation circuitry or components and the circuits for ac voltage controllers
are very simple.
 Due to the nature of the output waveforms, the analysis, derivations of
expressions for performance parameters are not simple, especially for the phase
controlled ac voltage controllers with RL load.
 But however most of the practical loads are of the RL type and hence RL load
should be considered in the analysis and design of ac voltage controller circuits.

Fig.: Halfwave AC phase controller (Unidirectional Controller)

EQUATIONS:

 Input AC Supply Voltage across the Transformer Secondary Winding:

3
 vs Vm sin  t

Vm
VS VinRMS  
2 = RMS value of secondary supply voltage.

 Output Load Voltage:

vo vL 0 ; for  t 0 to 

vo vL Vm sin  t ; for  t  to 2 .

 Output Load Current:

vo Vm sin  t
io iL  
RL RL ; for  t  to 2 .

io iL 0 ; for  t 0 to  .

VORMS 
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE:

2
1  
 Vm sin  t.d  t 
2 2
VORMS  
2   

2
Vm 2   1  cos 2 t  
VORMS      .d  t 
2    2  

2
Vm 2  
VORMS    1  cos 2 t .d  t 
4   

Vm  2 2

VORMS    d  t   cos 2 t.d t 
2   

2 2
Vm   sin 2 t  
VORMS     t    
2     2   

2
V sin 2 t 
VORMS   m 2      
2   2  

4
 Vm sin 4 sin 2 
VORMS   2        ;sin 4 0
2   2 2 

Vm sin 2
VORMS   2    
2  2

Vm sin 2
VORMS   2    
2 2 2

Vm 1  sin 2 
VORMS    2    
2 2  2 

1  sin 2 
VORMS  ViRMS   2    
2  2 

1  sin 2 
VORMS  VS  2    
2  2 

Vm
ViRMS  VS 
Where, 2 = RMS value of input supply voltage (across the transformer
secondary winding).

Note: Output RMS voltage across the load is controlled by changing ' ' as indicated by
V
the expression for ORMS 

TO CALCULATE THE AVERAGE VALUE (DC VALUE) OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE:

2
1
VOdc   V m sin  t.d  t 
2 

2
Vm
VOdc  
2 
sin t.d t 
2
V  
VOdc   m   cos  t 
2   

Vm
VOdc     cos 2  cos  
2 ; cos 2 1

5
 Vm
Vdc   cos   1
2 ; Vm  2VS

2VS
Vdc  cos   1
Hence 2

 Vm
V
When ' ' is varied from 0 to  . dc varies from 0 to 

Problem.1

 A single phase half-wave ac voltage controller has a load resistance R 50 , input ac
supply voltage is 230V RMS at 50Hz. The input supply transformer has a turns ratio of
T
1:1. If the thyristor 1 is triggered at  60 . Calculate
0

 RMS output voltage.

 Output power.
 RMS load current and average load current.
 Input power factor.
 Average and RMS thyristor current.

GIVEN:

V p 230V , RMS primary supply voltage.

f  Input supply frequency = 50Hz.
RL 50

 600  radians.
3
VS  RMS secondary voltage.

6
Vp Np 1
  1
VS NS 1

V p VS 230V
Therefore

Np
Where, = Number of turns in the primary winding.

N S = Number of turns in the secondary winding.

TO FIND:

 RMS output voltage.

 Output power.
 RMS load current and average load current.
 Input power factor.
 Average and RMS thyristor current.
SOLUTION:

VORMS 
 RMS Value of Output (Load) Voltage

2
1
VORMS   V m
2
sin 2  t.d  t 
2 

VORMS 
We have obtained the expression for as

1 sin 2
VORMS  VS  2    
2 2

1     sin1200
VORMS  230  2   
2   3   2

1
VORMS  230  5.669 230 0.94986
2

VORMS  218.4696 V 218.47 V

I ORMS 
 RMS Load Current

7
 VORMS  218.46966
I ORMS    4.36939 Amps
RL 50

 Output Load Power O

P
PO I O2 RMS  RL 4.36939  50 954.5799 Watts
2

PO 0.9545799 KW

 Input Power Factor

P
PF  O
VS I S

VS = RMS secondary supply voltage = 230V.

I S = RMS secondary supply current = RMS load current.

 I S I ORMS  4.36939 Amps

954.5799 W
 PF  0.9498
230 4.36939  W
 Average Output (Load) Voltage
2
1  
VOdc    Vm sin  t.d  t 
2   

We have obtained the expression for the average / DC output voltage as,

Vm
VOdc    cos   1
2

2 230 325.2691193
VOdc    cos 600   1   0.5  1
2   2

325.2691193
VOdc     0.5  25.88409 Volts
2

 Average DC Load Current

VOdc   25.884094
I Odc     0.51768 Amps
RL 50

 Average & RMS Thyristor Currents

8
 iT1
Im

 2 3
 ( 2 + ) t



Fig.: Thyristor Current Waveform

Referring to the thyristor current waveform of a single phase half-wave ac voltage controller
I
circuit, we can calculate the average thyristor current T  Avg  as

1  
IT  Avg    I m sin  t.d  t 
2   

Im  
IT  Avg    sin  t.d  t 
2   

I  
IT  Avg   m   cos  t  
2  

Im
IT  Avg     cos    cos  
2 

Im
IT  Avg   1  cos  
2

V
Im  m
Where, RL = Peak thyristor current = Peak load current.

2 230
Im 
50

I m 6.505382 Amps

Vm
IT  Avg   1  cos  
2 RL

2 230
IT  Avg    1  cos 600 
2 50  

9
 2 230
IT  Avg   1  0.5
100

IT  Avg  1.5530 Amps

IT RMS 
 RMS thyristor current can be calculated by using the expression

1  2 2 
IT RMS    I m sin  t.d  t 
2   

I m2  1  cos 2 t 


IT RMS    .d  t 
2   2 

 
I m2  
IT RMS    d  t   cos 2 t.d  t 
4    

 
1   sin 2 t  
IT RMS  I m   t    
4    2  

1  sin 2  sin 2  
IT RMS  I m        
4   2 

1  sin 2 
IT RMS  I m      
4  2 

Im 1  sin 2 
IT RMS        
2 2  2 

6.50538 1     sin 120 

0

IT RMS       
2 2   3 2 


1   2  0.8660254 
IT RMS  4.6  
2   3  2 


IT RMS  4.6 0.6342 2.91746 A

IT RMS  2.91746 Amps

10
PRINCIPLE OF ON-OFF CONTROL TECHNIQUE (INTEGRALCYCLE CONTROL)
(OR)
OPERATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
WITH R LOAD.

The basic principle of on-off control technique is explained with reference to a single phase full
wave ac voltage controller circuit shown below.

 The thyristor switches and are turned on by applying appropriate gate trigger pulses
to connect the input ac supply to the load for ‘n’ number of input cycles during the time
interval .

 The thyristor switches and are turned off by blocking the gate trigger pulses for ‘m’
number of input cycles during the time interval .

 The ac controller ON time usually consists of an integral number of input cycles.

= Load Resistance

Fig.2: Single phase full wave AC voltage controller circuit

11
 Vs n m

wt

Vo
io

wt

ig 1 G a te p u ls e of T 1

wt
ig 2 G a te p u ls e of T 2

wt

Fig.3: Waveforms

Example

 Referring to the waveforms of ON-OFF control technique in the above diagram,

Two input cycles. Thyristors are turned ON during for two input cycles.

One input cycle. Thyristors are turned OFF during for one input cycle

Fig.4: Power Factor

 Thyristors are turned ON precisely at the zero voltage crossings of the input supply.

12
 The thyristor is turned on at the beginning of each positive half cycle by applying the
gate trigger pulses to as shown, during the ON time .
 The load current flows in the positive direction, which is the downward direction as
shown in the circuit diagram when conducts.

 The thyristor is turned on at the beginning of each negative half cycle, by applying
gating signal to the gate of , during .

 The load current flows in the reverse direction, which is the upward direction when
conducts.
 Thus we obtain a bi-directional load current flow (alternating load current flow) in a ac
voltage controller circuit, by triggering the thyristors alternately.
 This type of control is used in applications which have high mechanical inertia and high
thermal time constant (Industrial heating and speed control of ac motors).
 Due to zero voltage and zero current switching of Thyristors, the harmonics generated by
switching actions are reduced.
 For a sine wave input supply voltage,

RMS value of input ac supply = = RMS phase supply voltage.

 If the input ac supply is connected to load for ‘n’ number of input cycles and
disconnected for ‘m’ number of input cycles, then

Where = input cycle time (time period) and

= input supply frequency.

= controller on time = .

= controller off time = .

= Output time period = .

13
  We can show that, Output RMS voltage

Where is the RMS input supply voltage = .

TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE, FOR
ON-OFF CONTROL METHOD:

t
1 ON 2 2
Vm Sin  t.d  t 
TO  t
VORMS  
 Output RMS voltage 0

 tON
Vm 2
 Sin  t.d  t 
2
VORMS  
TO 0

1  Cos 2
Sin 2 
 Substituting for 2

 tON
Vm 2  1  Cos 2 t 
VORMS  
TO   2  d  t 
0

t  tON
Vm 2  ON 
VORMS     d  t    Cos 2 t .d  t 
2TO  0 0 

 tON  tON
Vm 2  Sin 2 t 
VORMS     t   
2TO  0
2 0 

Vm 2  sin 2 tON  sin 0 

VORMS     tON  0   
2TO  2 

Now
tON = An integral number of input cycles; Hence

tON T , 2T ,3T , 4T ,5T ,..... &  tON 2 , 4 , 6 ,8 ,10 ,......

 Where T is the input supply time period (T = input cycle time period). Thus we
note that
sin 2 tON 0

14
 Vm 2  tON Vm tON
VORMS   
2  TO 2 TO

tON t
VORMS  ViRMS  VS ON
TO TO

Vm
ViRMS   VS
 Where 2 = RMS value of input supply voltage;

tON tON nT n
   k
TO tON  tOFF nT  mT n  m 
= duty cycle (d).

n
VORMS  VS V k
m  n  S
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS:

1. RMS Output (Load) Voltage:

1
2
 n  2

VORMS    V 2
sin 2
 t .d  t 
 2 n  m  0
m


Vm n
VORMS   V k VS k
2 m  n  i RMS 

VORMS  ViRMS  k VS k

VS ViRMS 
Where = RMS value of input supply voltage

2. Duty Cycle:
t tON nT
k  ON  
TO tON  tOFF  m  n T

n
k
Where, m  n  = duty cycle (d).

3. RMS Load Current:

VORMS  VORMS 
I ORMS   
Z RL ; for a resistive load
Z RL .

15
 4. Output AC (Load) Power:
PO I O2 RMS  RL

5. Input Power Factor:

P output load power P
PF  O   O
VA input supply volt amperes VS I S

I O2 RMS  RL
PF 
ViRMS  I inRMS  I S I inRMS  
; RMS input supply current.

 The input supply current is same as the load current

I in I O I L

I inRMS  I O RMS 
 Hence, RMS supply current = RMS load current; .

I O2 RMS  RL
VORMS  ViRMS  k
PF     k
ViRMS  I inRMS  ViRMS  ViRMS 

n
PF  k 
mn

IT  Avg 
6. The Average Current of Thyristor :
Wave fo rm o f T hyristo r C urrent
iT m
n
Im

0  2 3 t


n
I m sin  t.d  t 
2 m  n  
IT  Avg  
0


nI m
sin  t.d  t 
2 m  n  
IT  Avg  
0


nI m  
IT  Avg     cos  t 
2 m  n   0

nI m
IT  Avg     cos   cos 0
2 m  n 

16
 nI m
IT  Avg      1 1
2 m  n  

n
IT  Avg    2Im 
2 m  n 

Imn k .I
IT  Avg    m
 m  n  

tON n
k duty cycle  
tON  tOFF  n  m 
Imn k .I
IT  Avg    m
 m  n  
,

V
Im  m
Where RL = maximum or peak thyristor current.

IT RMS 
7. RMS Current of Thyristor
1

 n  2

IT RMS   mI 2
sin 2
 t .d  t 
 2 n  m  0 
1

 nI m2  2

IT RMS    sin 2  t.d  t 

 2 n  m  0 
1
 nI m2

1  cos 2 t  d  t  2

IT RMS     
 2 n  m  0 2 
1
 nI m2  
 2

IT RMS    d  t    cos 2 t.d  t 

 4 n  m   0 0 
1
 nI m2  
 sin 2 t 

 2

IT RMS    t    
 4 n  m   0  2  0  

1
 nI m2   sin 2  sin 0  
2

IT RMS     0     
 4  n  m    2  

17
 1
 nI m2  2

IT RMS     0  0 
 4 n  m  
1 1
 nI m2  2
 nI m2  2

IT RMS     
 4 n  m    4 n  m  

Im n I
IT RMS    m k
2 m  n  2
Im
IT RMS   k
2

PROBLEM 1

 A single phase full wave ac voltage controller working on ON-OFF control technique
has supply voltage of 230V, RMS 50Hz, load = 50 . The controller is ON for 30 cycles
and off for 40 cycles. Calculate
1. ON & OFF time intervals.
2. RMS output voltage.
3. Input P.F.
4. Average and RMS thyristor currents.NOV/DEC-12
GIVEN:
V 230V m 40 n 30
F=50Hz, R= 50. inRMS  , .
TO FIND:
1. ON & OFF time intervals.
2. RMS output voltage.
3. Input P.F.
4. Average and RMS thyristor currents
SOLUTION:
VinRMS  230V Vm  2 230V 325.269 V, Vm 325.269V ,
,

1 1
T  0.02sec
f 50 Hz , T 20ms .

n = number of input cycles during which controller is ON; n 30 .

m number of input cycles during which controller is OFF; m 40 .

tON n T 30 20ms 600ms 0.6sec

tON n T 0.6sec = controller ON time.

18
tOFF m T 40 20ms 800ms 0.8sec

tOFF m T 0.8sec = controller OFF time.

n 30
k  0.4285
Duty cycle m  n  40  30 
RMS output voltage:

n
VORMS  Vi RMS  
m  n 

30 3
VORMS  230V  230
30  40  7

VORMS  230V 0.42857 230 0.65465

VORMS  150.570V

VORMS  VORMS  150.570V

I ORMS     3.0114 A
Z RL 50

PO I O2 RMS  RL 3.0114 2 50 453.426498W

Input Power Factor: P.F  k

n 30
PF    0.4285
m  n  70
PF 0.654653

Average Thyristor Current Rating:

I m  n  k I m
IT  Avg    
  m  n  

V 2 230 325.269
Im  m  
where RL 50 50

I m 6.505382 A = Peak (maximum) thyristor current.

19
 6.505382  3 
IT  Avg    
  7

IT  Avg  0.88745 A

RMS Current Rating of Thyristor:

Im n I 6.505382 3
IT RMS    m k 
2 m  n  2 2 7

IT RMS  2.129386 A

PROBLEM 2

A Single phase full wave AC voltage controller has an input voltage of 230V, 50Hz, and it is feeding
resistive load of 10 Ω. If firing angle of thyristor is 110degree. Find the output rms voltage, Input Power
Factor and Average current of thyristor. NOV/DEC-14

GIVEN:

V S =230 V, f = 50 HZ , α=110o, R=10Ω

TO FIND:

The output rms voltage, Input Power Factor and Average current of thyristor.

SOLUTION:

A Single phase full wave AC voltage controller

V S =230 V, f = 50 HZ , α=110o, R=10Ω

V (rms) )
1. RMS output voltage ( o

sin 2α 1 /2
V o (rms )=V S [ 1/π (π −α+ )]
2

[ ]
∘ 1/ 2
11 sin 2(110 )
=230 1 /π( π− π )+
18 2

[ ]
1 /2
1 7
230 ( π )+(−0 .3214 )
= π 18

20
=230 [ 0.3889−0.3214 ]1/2
1/2
=230 (0.0675)
V o (rms)=59.76V
RMS output voltage,

2. Input Power Factor (PF)

V o (rms ) 59. 76
I o (rms )= =
R 10

I (rms)=5.98 A
RMS Load Current, o

Po =I 2 (rms). R
o

=(5 .98 )2 ×10

Po =357 . 6 W

Since , input current is the same as the load current , the input V-A rating

VA=V s I s =V S I O =230×5 . 98=1375. 4 W

The input power factor,

[ ]
1
Po V o Sin2 α 2
PF= = = 1/π ( π −α+ )
VA V S 2
1
=[ 0. 3889−0. 3214 ] =
2 0 . 2598 ( Lagging)

3. Average current of thyristor

π
1
I A= ∫ √ 2 V s Sin ω td (ωt )
2 πR α

V s √2
I A= (cos α +1)
2 πR

21
=
√ 2 × 230 (cos110∘+1 )
2 π 10
I A=3 . 41 A

Phase Controlled Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL load.

The basic power circuit of a single-phase ac-ac voltage controller, as shown in Fig. 16.1a, is
composed of a pair of

SCRs connected back-to-back (also known as inverse-parallel or antiparallel) between the ac

supply and the load. This connection provides a bidirectional full-wave symmetrical control and
the SCR pair can be replaced by a Triac (Fig. 16.1b) for low-power applications. Alternate
arrangements are as shown in Fig. 16.1c with two diodes and two SCRs to provide a common
cathode connection for simplifying the gating circuit without needing isolation, and in Fig. 16.1d
with one SCR and four diodes to reduce the device cost but with increased device conduction
loss. An SCR and diode combination, known as a thyrode controller, as shown in Fig. 16.1e,
provides a unidirectional half-wave asymmetrical voltage control with device economy but
introduces a dc component and more harmonics and thus is not very practical to use except for a
very low power heating load. With phase control, the switches conduct the load current for a

22
chosen period of each input cycle of voltage and with on=off control the switches connect the
load either for a few cycles of input voltage and disconnect it for the next few cycles (integral
cycle control) or the switches are turned on and off several times within alternate half-cycles of
input voltage (ac chopper or PWM ac voltage controller).

Phase-Controlled Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller

For a full-wave, symmetrical phase control, the SCRs T1 and T2 in Fig. 16.1a are gated at α and
π+α, respectively, from the zero crossing of the input voltage and by varying α, the power flow
to the load is controlled through voltage control in alternate half-cycles. As long as one SCR is
carrying current, the other SCR remains reverse-biased by the voltage drop across the conducting
SCR. The principle of operation in each half-cycle is similar to that of the controlled half-wave
rectifier and one can use the same approach for analysis of the circuit.

23
Operation with R-load. Figure 16.2 shows the typical voltage and current waveforms for the
single-phase bidirectional phase-controlled ac voltage controller of Fig. 16.1a with resistive load.
The output voltage and current waveforms have half-wave symmetry and thus no dc component.
If V s =√ 2 V s sinωt

is the source voltage, then the rms output voltage with T1 triggered at a can be found from the
half-wave symmetry as

[ ] [
1

]
π 1
1 2 α sin 2 α
V 0= ∫ 2 Vs2 sin2 ωt d (ωt ) =V s 1− + 2
π α π 2π

Note that Vo can be varied from Vs to 0 by varying α from 0 to π. The rms value of load current:

24
 V0
I 0=
R

The input power factor:

[ ]
1
V0 V 0 α sin 2 α 2
= = 1− +
PA V s π 2π

The average SCR current:

π
1
I A , SCR= ∫ √ 2V s sinωt d (ωt)
2 πR α

As each SCR carries half the line current, the rms current in each SCR is
I0
I 0 ,SCR =
√2
Operation with RL Load.
Figure 16.3 shows the voltage and current waveforms for the controller in Fig. 16.1a with RL
load. Due to the inductance, the current carried by the SCR T1 may not fall to zero at wt=α
when the input voltage goes negative and may continue until wt=β, the extinction angle, as
shown. The conduction angle
Ө=β−α
of the SCR depends on the firing delay angle a and the load impedance angle .

25
Three-Phase AC to AC Voltage Controllers

Phase-Controlled Three-Phase AC Voltage Controllers

Various Configurations. Several possible circuit configurations for three-phase phase-controlled

ac regulators with staror delta-connected loads are shown in Fig. 16.11a–h. The configurations in
Fig. 16.11a and b can be realized by three single-phase ac regulators operating independently of
each other and they are easy to analyze.
In Fig. 16.11a, the SCRs are to be rated to carry line currents and withstand phase voltages,
whereas in Fig. 16.11b they should be capable of carrying phase currents and withstand the line
voltages. Also, in Fig. 16.11b the line currents are free from triplen harmonics while these are
present in the closed delta.
The power factor in Fig. 16.11b is slightly higher. The firing angle control range for both these
circuits is 0 to 1800for R-load. The circuits in Fig. 16.11c and d are three-phase three-wire
circuits and are difficult to analyze. In both these circuits, at least two SCRs—one in each phase
—must be gated simultaneously to get the controller started by establishing a current path
between the supply lines.
This necessitates two firing pulses spaced at 60 0apart per cycle for firing each SCR. The
operation modes are defined by the number of SCRs conducting in these modes. The firing
control range is 0 to 1500.
The triplen harmonics are absent in both these configurations. Another configuration is shown in
Fig. 16.11e when the controllers are delta connected and the load is connected between the
supply and the converter.

26
Here, current can flow between two lines even if one SCR is conducting, so each SCR requires
one firing pulse per cycle. The voltage and current ratings of SCRs are nearly the same as those
of the circuit in Fig. 6.11b.
It is also possible to reduce the number of devices to three SCRs in delta as shown in Fig. 16.11f
connecting one source terminal directly to one load circuit terminal. Each SCR is provided with
gate pulses in each cycle spaced 1200 apart. In both Figs. 16.11e and f each end of each phase
must be accessible.
The number of devices in Fig. 16.11f is fewer but their current ratings must be higher. As in the
case of the single-phase phase-controlled voltage regulator, the total regulator cost can be
reduced by replacing six SCRs by three SCRs and three diodes, resulting in threephase half-wave
controlled unidirectional ac regulators as shown in Fig. 16.11g and h for star- and delta-
connected loads.
The main drawback of these circuits is the large harmonic content in the output voltage,
particularly the second harmonic because of the asymmetry. However, the dc components are
absent in the line. The maximum firing angle in the half-wave controlled regulator is 210 0.

27
28
Fully Controlled Three-Phase Three-Wire AC Voltage Controller Star-
Connected Load with Isolated Neutral
The analysis of operation of the full-wave controller with isolated neutral as shown in Fig.
16.11c is, as mentioned, quite complicated in comparison to that of a single-phase controller,
particularly for an RL or motor load.
As a simple example, the operation of this controller is considered here with a simple star-
connected R-load. The six SCRs are turned on in the sequence 1-2-3-4-5-6 at 60 0 intervals and
the gate signals are sustained throughout the possible conduction angle.
The output phase voltage waveforms for 30, 75, and 120 0 for a balanced three-phase R-load are
shown in Fig. 16.12. At any interval, either three SCRs or two SCRs, or no SCRs may be on and
the instantaneous output voltages to the load are either line-to-neutral voltages (three SCRs on),
or one-half of the line-to-line voltage (two SCRs on) or zero (no SCR on). Depending on the
firing angle a, there may be three
operating modes.

Mode I (also known as Mode 2=3): 00 and 600. There are periods when three SCRs are
conducting, one in each phase for either direction and periods when just two SCRs conduct. For
example, with 300 in Fig. 16.12a, assume that at 00, SCRs T5 and T6 are conducting, and the
current through the R-load in a-phase is zero making v an 0 At 300, T1 receives a gate pulse and
starts conducting; T5 and T6 remain on and van . vAN.
The current in T5 reaches zero at 60 0, turning T5 off. With T1 and T6 staying on, van . 1=2v AB.
At 900, T2 is turned on, the three SCRs T1, T2, and T6 are then conducting and van . v AN. At
1200, T6 turns off, leaving T1 and T2 on, so v AN . 1=2vAC. Thus with the progress of firing in
sequence until 600, the number of SCRs conducting at a particular instant alternates between two
and three.

Mode II (also known as Mode 2/2): 60 0 to 900. Two SCRs, one in each phase, always conduct.
For 750 as shown in Fig. 16.12b, just prior to a 75 0, SCRs T5 and T6 were conducting and v an 0
At 750, T1 is turned on, T6 continues to conduct while T5 turns off as v CN is negative; van .
1=2vAB. When T2 is turned on at 135 0, T6 is turned off and van . 1=2v AC. The next SCR to turn
on is T3, which turns off T1 and van . 0. One SCR is always turned off when another is turned on
in this range of a and the output is either one-half line-to-line voltage or zero.

29
Mode III (also known as Mode 0/2): 900 to1500. When none or two SCRs conduct.
For 1200 (Fig. 16.12c), earlier no SCRs were on and v an 0. At 1200 SCR T1 is
given a gate signal while T6 has a gate signal already applied. As v AB is positive,
T1 and T6 are forward-biased and they begin to conduct and van . 1=2v AB. Both T1
and T6 turn off when vAB becomes negative. When a gate signal is given to T2, it
turns on and T1 turns on again. For a > 1500, there is no period when two SCRs are
conducting and the output voltage is zero at 150 0.Thus, the range of the firing angle
control is 00 to 1500. For star-connected R-load, assuming the instantaneous phase
voltages as
V AN =√ 2 V s sinωt

V BN =√ 2V s sin ⁡¿-1200 ¿

30
V CN =√ 2 V s sin ⁡¿-2400 ¿

The expressions for the rms output phase voltage V 0can be derived for the three modes as

[ ]
1
3α 3 2
0≤ α ≤ 60 0
V 0=V s 1− + sin 2 α
2π 4 π
0
60 ≤ α ≤ 90
0
V 0=V s ¿ ¿

90 ≤ α ≤ 150 V 0=V s ¿ ¿
0 0

For star-connect pure L-Load the effective control starts at α>90 0 and the expression for two
ranges of α are

[ ]
1
5 3α 3 2
90 ≤ α ≤ 120 V 0=V s − + sin ⁡(2 α )
0 0
2 π 2π

120 ≤ α ≤ 150 V 0=V s ¿ ¿

0 0

31
 CYCLOCONVERTERS
 It is defined as conversion of fixed AC power into variable AC power with
change in frequency.
 Traditionally, ac-ac conversion using semiconductor switches is done in two
different ways:
1) In two stages (ac-dc and then dc-ac) as in dc link converters or
2) In one stage (ac-ac) cycloconverters (Fig. 1).
 Cycloconverters are used in high power applications driving induction
and synchronous motors.
 They are usually phase-controlled and they traditionally use thyristors
due to their ease of phase commutation.

Fig.1 Block diagram of a cycloconverter

32
  There are other newer forms of cycloconversion such as ac-ac matrix converters
and highfrequency ac-ac (hfac-ac) converters and these use self-controlled
switches. These converters,however, are not popular yet.
CYCLOCONVERTERS:
 cycloconverter is another class of ac to ac converters. output frequency can also
be varied.
 It is possible to obtain 3 phase to 1 phase regulator. in this section we will study
some of these aspects.
TYPES OF CYCLOCONVERTER:
i) single phase cycloconverter
a) Step-up Cycloconverter
b) Step-down Cycloconverter
ii) 3 phase to 1 phaseCycloconverter
iii) 3 phase to 3 phaseCycloconverter

PRINCIPLE OF SINGLE-PHASE TO SINGLE-PHASE (1 Ф -1 Ф)

CYCLOCONVERTER WITH POWER CIRCUIT AND WAVEFORMS/ STEP-UP
CYCLOCONVERTER
 When the frequency of the output is higher than the frequency of input, then it is
called step-up cycloconverter.

 Fig. 5.8.1 shows the midpoint type step-up cycloconverter.

Midpoint type cycloconverter

 The waveforms of this converter are shown in Fig. 5.8.2. In the positive half cycle, T1
conducts from 0 to t1, hence output voltage is positive.

 At t1, T1 is forced commutated and T4 is triggered. Hence load voltage becomes

negative as shown in Fig.

33
  Then at t2, T4 is forced commutated and T1is turned-on again. Therefore output voltage
is again positive.

 At t3, T4 is turned-on and T1 is forced commutated. Hence output voltage is negative.

At п, T3 is turned on.

 Therefore output voltage is positive. At t4,T3 is forced commutated and T2 is triggered.

Hence the load voltage is negative.

 This sequence continues. Observe that output voltage waveform has the frequency of,

 This frequency is higher than supply frequency.

Waveforms of step-up cycloconverter

STEP-DOWN CYCLOCONVERTER (OR)

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF 1Ф-1Ф STEP DOWN CYCLOCONVERTER FOR A

BRIDGE TYPE CONVERTER.ASSUME BOTH DISCONTINUOUS AND
CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION CONDUCTION

 In the step-down cycloconverter, the output frequency is less than supply frequency.

 The midpoint cycloconverter of Fig. 5.8.1 can be operated as step-down cycloconverter.

Fig. 5.8.3 shows the waveforms of this converter.

 These waveforms are shown for highly inductive load with continuous output current.
Output voltage is also controlled by varying the firing angle 'α'.

 Consider that, the period of input supply is T. The period of output is 4T. Four cycles
of supply voltage make one cycle of output. The dotted line shows equivalent output
voltage waveform.

34
  Thus the supply frequency is divided by four. T1 and T3 are triggered to obtain

 Positive cycle of the output voltage. Similarly, T 2 and T4 are triggered to obtain
Negative half cycle of the output voltage.
1 Ф to 1 Ф Cycloconverters
The output and input, both are 1Фfor such converters. The cycloconvertersdiscussed in
previous two subsections are also 1Ф to 1Фcycloconverters. Fig. 5.8.4 shows the circuit diagram
of bridge type 1 Ф to 1 Ф cycloconverter.

Fig. 5.8.4 1 Ф to 1 Ф bridge type cycloconverter

 Output waveform of the above cycloconverter will be similar to that of Fig. 5.8.3
for inductive load and continuous output current.

35
  Fig.5.8.5 shows the waveform ofabove converter for resistive load.

Fig. 5.8.5 Waveforms of 1 Ф to 1 Ф cycloconverter for resistive load

 Output voltage is positive, when SCRs of P-converter are conducting. Similarly the
output voltage is negative when SCRs of N-converter are conducting.

 The firing angle of the SCRs is varied to control the output voltage. Above
waveforms are shown for step-down operation.

 Step-up operation is also possible in this converter. Four cycles of input make
one cycle of output. Hence output frequency is,

fo = 1/To = 1/4T =f/4

OPERATION OF THREE-PHASE TO SINGLE-PHASE (3Ф-1Ф) CYCLOCONVERTER

WITH NEAT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND WAVEFORMS.

There are two kinds of three-phase to single-phase (3Ф-1Ф)cycloconverters: (3Ф-1Ф) half-wave

cycloconverter (Fig. 4) and (3Ф-1Ф) bridge cycloconverter (Fig. 5).
 Like the (1Ф-1Ф) case, the (3Ф-1Ф)cycloconverter applies rectified voltage to the
load.
 Both positive and negative converters can generate voltages at either polarity, but
the positive converter can only supply positive current and the negative converter
can only supply negative current.
 Thus, the cycloconverter can operate in four quadrants: (+v, +i) and (-v, -i)
rectification modes and (+v, -i) and (-v, +i) inversion modes.
 The modulation of the output voltage and the fundamental output voltage are
shown in Fig. 6.
 Note that sinusoidally modulated over the cycle to generate a harmonically
Optimum output voltage.

36
 Fig. 4. 3 Ф -1 Ф half-wave cycloconverter

Fig. 5 3 Ф -1 Фbridge cycloconverter

Fig. 6. 3 Ф -1 Фhalf-wave cycloconverter waveforms

a) + converter output voltage

b) cosine timing waves
c) – converter output voltage

37
  The polarity of the current determines if the positive or negative converter should
be supplying power to the load.
 Conventionally, the firing angle for the positive converter is named +P, and that
of the negative converter is named -N.
 When the polarity of the current changes, the converter previously supplying the
current is disabled and the other one is enabled.
 The load always requires the fundamental voltage to be continuous. Therefore,
during the current polarity reversal, the average voltage supplied by both of the
converters should be equal.
 Otherwise, switching from one converter to the other one would cause an
undesirable voltage jump.
 To prevent this problem, the converters are forced to produce the same average
voltage at all times.
 Thus, the following condition for the firing angles should be met.

α P + α N =π

 The fundamental output voltage in Fig. 6 can be given as:

V 0 (t )=√ 2V 0 sin ω 0 t

where Vo is the rms value of the fundamental voltage

 At a time to the output fundamental voltage is

V 0 (t 0 )=√ 2V 0 sin ω 0 t 0

 The positive converter can supply this voltage if satisfies the following condition.

V 0 ( t 0 )=√ 2 V 0 sin ω0 t 0 =V db cos α P

Where
P π
V db= √2 V 0 sin ( p=3 for half wave converter∧6 for bridge converter )
π P
 From the condition (3)

v 01=V d 0 cos α P =−V d 0 sin α N

 The firing angles at any instant can be found from (6) and (7).The operation of the 3 Ф -1
Ф bridge cycloconverter is similar to the above 3 Ф -1 Ф half-wave cycloconverter.

 Note that the pulse number for this case is 6.

38
OPERATION OF THREE-PHASE TO THREE-PHASE (3 Ф -3 Ф)
CYCLOCONVERTER.
 If the outputs of 3 3Ф-1 Ф converters of the same kind are connected in wye or
delta and if the output voltages are 2π/3 radians phase shifted from each other, the
resulting converter is a threephase to three-phase (3 Ф -3 Ф) cycloconverter.
 The resulting cycloconverters are shown in Figs. 7 and 8 with wye connections. If
the three converters connected are half-wave converters, then the new converter is
called a 3 Ф -3 Ф half-wave cycloconverter.
 If instead, bridge converters are used, then the result is a 3 Ф -3 Ф bridge
cycloconverter. 3 Ф -3 Ф half-wave cycloconverter is also called a 3-pulse
cycloconverter or an 18-thyristor cycloconverter.
 On the other hand, the 3 Ф -3 Ф bridge cycloconverter is also called a 6-pulse
cycloconverter or a 36-thyristor cycloconverter.
 The operation of each phase is explained in the previous section.

Fig. 7. 3 Ф -3 Ф half-wave cycloconverter

Fig. 8. 3 Ф -3 Ф bridge cycloconverter

 The three-phase cycloconverters are mainly used in ac machine drive systems

running three phase synchronous and induction machines.
 They are more advantageous when used with a synchronous machine due to their
output power factor characteristics.
 A cycloconverter can supply lagging, leading, or unity power factor loads while
its input is always lagging.
 A synchronous machine can draw any power factor current from the converter.
This characteristic operation matches the cycloconverter to the synchronous
machine.

39
  On the other hand, induction machines can only draw lagging current, so the
cycloconverter does not have an edge compared to the other converters in this
aspect for running an induction machine.
 However, cycloconverters are used in Scherbius drives for speed control purposes
driving wound rotor induction motors.
 Cycloconverters produce harmonic rich output voltages, which will be discussed
in the following sections.
 When cycloconverters are used to run an ac machine, the leakage inductance of
the machine filters most of the higher frequency harmonics and reduces the
magnitudes of the lower order harmonics.
Blocked Mode and Circulating Current Mode:
 The operation of the cycloconverters is explained above in ideal terms. When the
load current is positive, the positive converter supplies the required voltage and
the negative converter is disabled.
 On the other hand, when the load current is negative, then the negative converter
supplies the required voltage and the positive converter is blocked.
 This operation is called the blocked mode operation, and the cycloconverters
using this approach are called blocking mode cycloconverters.
 However, if by any chance both of the converters are enabled, then the supply is
short-circuited.
 To avoid this short circuit, an intergroup reactor (IGR) can be connected between
the convertersas shown in Fig. 9.
 Instead of blocking the converters during current reversal, if they are both
enabled, then a circulating current is produced.
 This current is called the circulating current. It is unidirectional because the
thyristors allow the current to flow in only one direction.
 Some cycloconverters allow this circulating current at all times. These are called
circulating current cycloconverters.

Fig. 9 Circulating current and IGR

40
Blocking Mode Cycloconverters:
 The operation of these cycloconverters was explained briefly before. They do not
let circulating current flow, and therefore they do not need a bulky IGR.
 When the current goes to zero, both positive and negative converters are blocked.
 The converters stay off for a short delay time to assure that the load current
ceases.
 Then, depending on the polarity, one of the converters is enabled. With each zero
crossing of the current, the converter, which was disabled before the zero
crossing, is enabled.
 A toggle flip-flop, which toggles when the current goes to zero, can beused for
this purpose.
 The operation waveforms for a three-pulse blocking mode cycloconverter are
given in Fig. 10.
 The blocking mode operation has some advantages and disadvantages over the
circulating mode operation.
 During the delay time, the current stays at zero distorting the voltage and current
waveforms.
 This distortion means complex harmonics patterns compared to the circulating
mode cycloconverters.
 In addition to this, the current reversal problem brings more control complexity.
 However, no bulky IGRs are used, so the size and cost is less than that of the
circulating current case.

Fig. 10 Blocking mode operation waveforms

 Another advantage is that only one converter is in conduction at all times rather
than two.
 This means less losses and higher efficiency.

41
a) + converter output voltage
b) – converter output voltage
c) load voltage

Circulating Current Cycloconverters:

 In this case, both of the converters operate at all times producing the same
fundamental output voltage.
 The firing angles of the converters satisfy the firing angle condition (Eq. 3), thus
when one converter is in rectification mode the other one is in inversion mode and
vice versa.
 If both of the converters are producing pure sine waves, then there would not be
any circulating current
 Because the instantaneous potential difference between the outputs of the
converters would be zero.
 In reality, an IGR is connected between the outputs of two phase controlled
converters (in either rectification or inversion mode). The voltage waveform
across the IGR can be seen in Fig.11d.
 This is the difference of the instantaneous output voltages produced by the two
converters.
 Note that it is zero when both of the converters produce the same instantaneous
voltage.
 The center tap voltage of IGR is the voltage applied to the load and it is the mean

Fig.11.circulating mode operation waveforms

of the voltages applied to the ends of IGR, thus the load voltage ripple is reduced.
a) + converter output voltage
b) – converter output voltage
42
c) load voltage
d) IGR voltage
 The circulating current cycloconverter applies a smoother load voltage with less
harmonics compared to the blocking mode case.
 Moreover, the control is simple because there is no current reversal problem.
However, the bulky IGR is a big disadvantage for this converter.
 In addition to this, the number of devices conducting at any time is twice that of
the blocking mode converter.
 Due to these disadvantages, this cycloconverter is not attractive. The blocked
mode cycloconverter converter and the circulating current cycloconverter can be
combined to give a hybrid system, which has the advantages of both.
 The resulting cycloconverter looks like a circulating mode cycloconverter circuit,
but depending on the polarity of the output current only one converter is enabled
and the other one is disabled as with the blocking mode cycloconverters.
 When the load current decreases below a threshold, both of the converters are
enabled.
 Thus, the current has a smooth reversal. When the current increases above a
threshold in the other direction, the outgoing converter is disabled.
 This hybrid cycloconverter operates in the blocking mode most of the time so a
smaller IGR can be used.
 The efficiency is slightly higher than that of the circulating current cycloconverter
but much less than the blocking mode cycloconverter.
 Moreover, the distortion caused by the blocking mode operation disappears due to
the circulating current operation around zero current.
 Moreover, the control of the converter is still less complex than that of the
blocking mode cycloconverter.

MATRIX CONVERTERS FOR POWER FACTOR CONTROL:

Principle: The matrix converter uses the matrix of switches so that any of the input phase
voltage can be connected to any of the output load phase. There is exactly one switch for each of
the possible connections between supply and load.

Circuit diagram and operation

• As shown in this circuit diagram, SRR, SYRand SBr are the switches that

43
 Circuit diagram of matrix converter

connect any of the input to load phase r. Similarly the switches SRY, SYY and SByconnect any of
the input to load phase y. And the switches SRB, SYB, and SBBconnect any of the input to load
phase b.

 The input LC filter is used to eliminate harmonic currents in the input side.
 The switches 29 = 512 combinations but only 9 combinations are used.
 The switches are controlled in such a way that there is no short circuit of the input
supply. The load voltages vRvY, vB,are related to supply voltages VR, VYand VBby
following matrix equation

[ ][ ][ ]
Vr SR r SY r SBr VR
V b = SR y SY y SB y = V Y
Vy SRb SY b SB b VB

The maximum voltage transfer ratio is 0.866

Advantages:
1. Inherent bidirectional power flow control.
2. Input-output waveforms are sinusoidal.
3. No dc-link is required, hence it is compact.
4. Power factor is controlled by independent control of load current.
Disadvantages:
1. The switches are not available for high powers.
2. Implementation is complex.
3. The maximum voltage transfer ratio is limited.

44
 4. The switches required protection and commutation circuits which makes the
converter bulley.
Applications:
1. Matrix converters are used for low power 3Ф AC controllers.
2. It is used for power factor control.
MULTI-STAGE SEQUENCE CONTROL OF VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS:

Principle: Multiple bidirectional voltage controllers are employed in parallel. Each is fed from
the multiple tap transformers. Depending upon the desired output voltage, particular controllers
are triggered.

Circuit diagram and operation

45
 Multistage sequence controller

The circuit diagram of multistage sequence controller is shown in Fig. 5.6.1. The secondary
of the transformer have 'n taps. Each tap has the output voltage of VS/n.When SCR pair 1 is
triggered, the load voltage will be maximum, i.e. Vs. This is because voltages of all the taps are
added. When the output voltage variation is required between and Vsthen SCR

Pair 2 is triggered at zero firing angle. This gives the load voltage of …and the Variation

above this voltage uptoVsis obtained by controlling the firing angle of SCR pair 1. Thus other
pairs can be selected depending upon required output voltage.

Advantages

i) Because of multistage output control, the amplitude variations in output are reduced.
ii) Harmonic content is reduced.
iii) Failure of particular pair does not stop the operation completely, since other pairs keep on
Working.

POWER FACTOR CONTROL IN AC VOLTAGE REGULATION

 The power factor of a nonlinear deserves a special discussion. Fig.2 shows the
supply voltage and the non-sinusoidal load current.

46
  The fundamental load/supply current lags the supply voltage by the φ 1,
'Fundamental Power Factor' angle.

 Cosφ1 is also called the 'Displacement Factor'. However this does not account for
the total reactive power drawn by the system.

 This power factor is inspite of the actual load being resistive! The reactive power
is drawn also y the trigger-angle dependent harmonics. now

average power P
Power factor= =
apparent voltamperes VI L

VI L1 cos ф 1
¿
VI L
I L1
distortion factor=
IL

 The Average Power, P drawn by the resistive load is

2π
1
P= ∫ Vi dωt
2π 0 L
π 2
1 2V
¿ ∫
2
sin ωt dωt
π α R

[ ]
2
2V α sin 2α
¿ π− +
Rπ 2 2

The portion within square brackets in Eq is identical to the first part of the expression

within brackets in Eq., which is called the Fourier coefficient 'B1'

The rms load voltage can also be similarly obtained by integrating between α and π and the result

can be combined with

Eq to give

47
 Fig.1 Variation of various performance parameters with triggering angle

Fig. 2 Operation of a Phase Angle Controlled AC-AC converter with a resistive load

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12. Applications –welding

49