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Sequences and Series Cheat Sheet Edexcel Pure Year 2

A sequence is a list of terms. For example, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …

Example 4: The first three terms of a geometric series are (k-6), k, (2k+5), where k is a positive constant.
A series is the sum of a list of terms. For example, 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 15 + …
The terms of a sequence are separated by a comma, while with a series they are all added together. a) Show that 𝑘 2 − 7𝑘 − 30 = 0
The defining feature of a geometric sequence is that you must multiply by a common ratio, r, to get from b) Hence find the value of k.
one term to the next. Geometric sequences are of the form c) Find the common ratio of this series and hence calculate the sum of the first 10 terms.
𝑘−6
d) Find the sum to infinity for a series with first term k and common ratio 𝑘 .
Here are some important definitions prefacing the content in this chapter: 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑟 4 , …
𝑢𝑘+1 𝑢𝑘+2 𝑘 2𝑘 + 5
a) Using the fact that = =𝑟
𝑢𝑘 𝑢𝑘+1 =
where 𝑎 is the first term in the sequence and 𝑟 is the common ratio. 𝑘−6 𝑘
▪ A sequence is increasing if each term is greater than the previous.
Cross-multiplying and simplifying: ⇒ 𝑘 2 = (2𝑘 + 5)(𝑘 − 6)
e.g. 4, 9, 14, 19, … 2 2
⇒ 𝑘 = 2𝑘 − 7𝑘 − 30
▪ A sequence is decreasing if each term is less than the previous. ⇒ 𝑘 2 − 7𝑘 − 30 = 0 as required.
e.g. 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, … • The nth term of a geometric sequence is given by: 𝒖𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏 b) Solving the quadratic: (𝑘 − 10)(𝑘 + 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑘 = 10, 𝑘 = −3
▪ A sequence is periodic if the terms repeat in a cycle; 𝑢𝑛+𝑘 = 𝑢𝑛 for some k, which is known as the Since we are told k is positive, we can conclude 𝑘 = 10.
𝑢𝑘+1 10 5 𝑎(1−𝑟 10 ) 4(1−(2.5)10 )
order of the sequence. e.g. -3, 1, -3, 1, -3, … is periodic with order 2. c) From part a, 𝑢𝑘
= 𝑟 = 10−6 = 2 𝑆10 = = = 25428.6 ⇒ 25400 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠. 𝑓.
1−𝑟 1−2.5
𝑢𝑘+1 𝑢𝑘+2 1 2 10
50
It can help in many questions to use the fact that = = 𝑟. This is especially helpful when the d) 𝑎 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 5 =
5 ∴ 𝑆∞ = =
𝑢𝑘 𝑢𝑘+1 2 2 3
1−
terms of the sequence are given in terms of an unknown constant. Part a of example 4 highlights this. 5
An arithmetic sequence is one where there is a common difference between each term. Arithmetic sequences
are of the form
A geometric series is the sum of the terms of a geometric sequence.
𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑, …
A recurrence relation is simply another way of defining a sequence. With recurrence relations, each term is given as a function of
• The sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is given by: the previous. For example, 𝑢𝑛+1 = 𝑢𝑛 + 4, 𝑢1 = 1 represents an arithmetic sequence with first term 1 and common difference
where 𝑎 is the first term and 𝑑 is the common difference.
4. In order to generate a recurrence relation, you need to know the first term.
• The nth term of an arithmetic series is given by: 𝒖𝒏 = 𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅 𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 =
𝟏−𝒓 Example 5: The sequence with recurrence relation 𝑢𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑢𝑘 + 𝑞, 𝑢1 = 5, where 𝑝 is a constant and 𝑞 = 13, is periodic with
Factorising out 𝑆𝑛 from the LHS order 2. Find the value of 𝑝.
and 𝑎 from the RHS by multiplying the top and bottom of the fraction by -1, we can also use
We know the order is 2. So if 𝑢1 = 5, then 𝑢3 = 5 𝑢2 = 𝑝𝑢1 + 13 = 5𝑝 + 13
An arithmetic series is the sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence. too. Finding 𝑢3: 𝑢3 = 𝑝𝑢2 + 13 = 𝑝(5𝑝 + 13) + 13
𝒂(𝒓𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝑝(5𝑝 + 13) + 13 = 5
𝑺𝒏 = Equating to 5:
𝒏 𝒓−𝟏 Simplifying: 5𝑝2 + 13𝑝 + 8 = 0
• The sum of the first 𝑛 terms of an arithmetic series is given by 𝑺𝒏 = [𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅] or
𝟐 Solving the quadratic by factorising: (5𝑝 + 8)(𝑝 + 1) = 0
𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = 𝟐 (𝒂 + 𝒍) You need to be able to prove this result. Here is the proof: We get 2 values, one of which is correct. 𝑝 = −1 or 𝑝 = −1.6
Substitute 𝑝 = −1.6 and 𝑝 = −1 into the Substituting 𝑝 = −1.6 into the recurrence relation gives a
recurrence relation separately to see which one sequence where each term is 5 and so does not have order 2.
where 𝑎 is the first term, 𝑑 is the common difference and 𝑙 is the last term. 𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
Example 3: Prove that the sum of the first n terms of a geometric series is 𝑆𝑛 = correctly corresponds to a periodic sequence of Using 𝑝 = −1 does give us a periodic sequence with order 2
1−𝑟 order 2. however, so 𝑝 = −1.
You need to be able to prove this result. Here is the proof:
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 [1]
𝑛
Example 1: Prove that the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series is 𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]. multiplying the sum by 𝑟 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 [2]
You need to be comfortable solving problems where series are given in sigma notation. Below is an annotated example explaining
Subtracting [2] from [1] 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 how the sigma notation is used.
We start by writing the sum out normally [1], and then in reverse [2]:
Inputting 𝑟 = 1 into this expression gives us the first
[1] 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + ⋯ + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑) + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) ⇒ 𝑆𝑛 (1 − 𝑟) = 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) Factoring out 𝑆𝑛 and 𝑎 This tells us the last value of r for our term, 𝑟 = 2 gives us the second term, and so forth.
sequence, i.e. our last term will be
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
7 − 2(20) = −33
[2] 𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑) + ⋯ + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + 𝑎 ∴ 𝑆𝑛 = Dividing by 1 − 𝑟 20
1−𝑟

Adding [1] and [2] gives us: ∑(7 − 2𝑟) = 5 + 3 + 1 − 1 + ⋯

This is the value of r where our This series in particular represents an
series starts, i.e. our first term is 𝑟=1 arithmetic series with first term 5
[1] + [2]: 2𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛(2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) 7 − 2(1) = 5. and common difference -2
Since division by zero is undefined, this formula is invalid𝑟when
= 1 𝑟 = 1.
𝑛
∴ 𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] If you are ever troubled by a series given in sigma notation, it is a good idea to write out the first few terms and analyse the series
2
that way.

The sum to infinity of a geometric sequence is the sum of the first n terms as n approaches infinity. This does not
Example 2: The fifth term of an arithmetic series is 33. The tenth term is 68. The sum of the first n exist for all geometric sequences. Let’s look at two examples: Geometric and arithmetic sequences are often used to model real-life scenarios. Consider the amount of money in a savings
terms is 2225. Show that 7𝑛2 + 3𝑛 − 4450 = 0, and hence find the value of n. account; this can be modelled by a geometric sequence where r represents the interest paid at the end of each year and a is the
2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + ⋯ amount of money in the account at the time of opening.
5𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 33 ∴ 𝑎 + 4𝑑 = 33 [1] (nth term formula)

10𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 68 ∴ 68 = 𝑎 + 9𝑑 [2] (nth term formula) Each term is twice the previous (i.e. 𝑟 = 2). The sum of such a series is not finite, since each term is bigger than You need to be able to apply your knowledge of sequences and series to questions involving real-life scenarios. It is important to
the previous. This is known as a divergent sequence. properly understand the context given to you, so take some time to read through the question more than once.
Solving [1] and [2] simultaneously, we find that 𝑑 = 7 and 𝑎 = 5.
1 1 1
𝑛
Sum of first n terms is 2225 ∴ 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] = 2225 2+1+ + + +⋯
2 4 8 Example 6: A virus is spreading such that the number of people infected increases by 4% each day. Initially 100 people were
diagnosed with the virus. How many days will it be before 1000 are infected?
𝑛 1
[10 + (𝑛 − 1)(7)] = 2225 Here, each term is half the previous (i.e. 𝑟 = 2). The sum of such a series is finite, since as n becomes large, the 𝑎 = 100 and 𝑟 = 1.04. We are really just trying to find the smallest value of n such
2
terms will tend to 0. This is known as a convergent sequence. that U 𝑛 > 1000.
𝑛(3 + 7𝑛) = 2225(2) 1. divide both side by 100
▪ A geometric sequence is convergent if and only if |𝑟| < 1.
7𝑛2 + 3𝑛 − 4450 = 0 2. take logs of both sides

The sum to infinity of a geometric sequence only exists for convergent sequences, and is given by:
3. divide both side by log(1.04) to solve for n (note that log(10) = 1)
To find the value of n, we just need to solve the quadratic. Using the quadratic formula, we find that
𝑛 = 25 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −25.4. Since the term number must be a positive integer, we can conclude that 𝑛 = 𝒂
𝑺∞ =
25. 𝟏−𝒓
4. round your answer up

This expansion is only valid when |𝑥| < 1 Now we can expand: 49
But we wish to approximate ξ2 not ට50 , so we must manipulate the 𝐿𝐻𝑆:
3 1 −1 3 (−1) 1 −1(−1−1) 1 2 3 3 3
4
ቀ1 − 2 𝑥ቁ ≈ 4 ൤1 + 1!
ቀ− 2 𝑥ቁ + 2!
ቀ− 2 𝑥ቁ ൨ = 4 + 8 𝑥 + 16 𝑥 2
▪ If we wish to expand an expression of the form (1 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑛 , then we can use the 49 ξ49 7 7
ට50 = = 5ξ2 = 10 × ξ2
above formula by replacing every 𝑥 with 𝑏𝑥. Rearranging second term into form (1 + 𝑏𝑥) : 𝑛 ξ2𝑥25

7 0.98995
So × ξ2 ≈ 0.98995 ∴ ξ2 ≈ = 1.41421 to 5 d.p
Example 1: Find the expansion of ξ1 − 2𝑥 up to and including the term in 𝑥 2 , and state of values 2 5 −1
5 −1 2 5 −1 10 7
10
for 𝑥 for which the expansion is valid. − = −2(3 + 5𝑥)−1 = −2 ൤3 ൬1 + 𝑥൰൨ = −2(3)−1 ቈ൬1 + 𝑥൰ ቉ = − ൬1 + 𝑥൰
3 + 5𝑥 3 3 3 3
b) Recall that the formula for percentage error is:
1
 ξ1 − 2𝑥 = (1 − 2𝑥)2 Rewriting so the power is visible Now we can expand:
𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒−𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡
5 5 2 % error = × 100
2 5 −1 2 (−1) ቀ 𝑥ቁ (−1)(−1 − 1) ቀ 𝑥ቁ 2 10 50 2 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡
1 1 1 − ൬1 + 𝑥൰ = − ൦1 + 3 + 3
1 (−2𝑥) 2 ቀ2 − 1ቁ (−2𝑥)2 1 ൪=− + 𝑥− 𝑥
 (1 − 2𝑥)2 ≈ 1 + 2 + Using 𝑛 = , 𝑥 → −2𝑥
2
3 3 3 1! 2! 3 9 27 The “estimate” will be our answer to part a and the “exact” will simply be ξ2.
1! 2!

1 𝑥2 Simplifying We have both expansions, so adding them together gives us 𝑔(𝑥): 1.41421 − ξ2
 (1 − 2𝑥)2 ≈ 1 − 𝑥 − ∴ % error = × 100 = −0.00025% → 0.00025%
2 ξ2
3 3 3 2 10 50 1 107 719
1 𝑥2 𝑔(𝑥) ≈ ቀ4 + 8 𝑥 + 16 𝑥 2 ቁ + ቀ− 3 + 𝑥 − 27 𝑥 2 ቁ = 12 + 𝑥 − 432 𝑥 2 .
 (1 − 2𝑥)To
2 ≈ 1−
find the𝑥 range
− of values for which the expansion is valid, we take the "𝑥" term and 9 72

let |𝑥| < 1. Our2“𝑥” term here is −2𝑥.

ToSo,
findwethe
let:range of values for which
|−2𝑥|the
< 1expansion is valid, we take the "𝑥" term Analysing binomial expansions Using partial fractions
and let |𝑥| < 1. Our “𝑥” term here is −2𝑥. So far, we have only looked at how to find binomial expansions. Later parts of exam questions will often You can use partial fractions to simplify more difficult fractions, before using the binomial expansion. Recall that we
1 require you to use your expansion. We will go through three examples displaying the typical style of these can split a fraction via partial fractions if there is more than one linear factor in the denominator.
And rearrange for |𝑥|: |2𝑥| < 1 ∴ |𝑥| <
2 questions, and how you can solve them.
6+7𝑥+5𝑥 2
Example 4: State the values of 𝑥 for which the expansion of (5 + 4𝑥)−2 is valid. Example 7: Expand in ascending powers of 𝑥 as far as the term 𝑥 2 .
(1+𝑥)(1−𝑥)(2+𝑥)
▪ If we wish to expand (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑛
where n is not a positive integer, we first need to
manipulate our expression into the form (1 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑛 and then use the above form of From example 2, we saw that Using the partial fractions method met in Chapter 1, we can find that:
the binomial expansion.
𝑎 1 4 −2 1 8 48 2 256 3 6 + 7𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 2 3 4
▪ The expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑛 , where 𝑛 is negative or a fraction, is valid for |𝑥| < | |. (5 + 4𝑥)−2 = ൬1 + 𝑥൰ ≈ ൤ − 𝑥+ 𝑥 − 𝑥 ൨ ≡ + −
𝑏 25 5 25 125 625 3125 (1 + 𝑥)(1 − 𝑥)(2 + 𝑥) 1 + 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥

(The working out has been skipped here so revisit Chapter 1 of Pure Year 2 if you are unsure why the above line is true)
Example 2: Find the series expansion of (5 + 4𝑥)−2 in ascending powers of 𝑥, up to Recall that the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑛 , where 𝑛 is negative or a fraction, is valid for |𝑥| < |𝑏 |.
𝑎
and including the term in 𝑥 3 . We now need to expand each of the above terms separately and add them all together, as we did
in example 3.
5
4 −2
4 −2 1 4 −2 So the range of validity is |𝑥| < .
4
 (5 + 4𝑥)−2 = ൤5 ൬1 + 𝑥൰൨ = ሾ5ሿ−2 ൬1 + 𝑥൰ = ൬1 + 𝑥൰ [1]
2
= 2(1 + 𝑥)−1 = 2 ቂ1 +
(−1)
(𝑥) +
(−1)(−1−1)
(𝑥)2 ቃ = 2 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2
5 5 25 5 1+𝑥 1! 2!
manipulating into the
form (1 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑛 3 (−1) (−1)(−1−1)
4 4 4 [2] 1−𝑥
= 3(1 − 𝑥)−1 = 3 ቂ1 + 1!
(−𝑥) +
2!
(−𝑥)2 ቃ = 3 + 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 2
3 2
4 −2 (−2)(5 𝑥) −2(−2 − 1)(5 𝑥)2 −2(−3)(−4)(5 𝑥)3 Example 5: Given that 𝑔(𝑥) = − , find the values of 𝑥 for which the expansion is valid.
൬1 + 𝑥൰ ≈1+ + + 4−2𝑥 3+5𝑥
5 1! 2! 3! 5 3 4 𝑥 −1 𝑥 −1 𝑥 −1
 | 𝑥| < 1 𝑠𝑜 |𝑥| < [3] − 2+𝑥 = −4(2 + 𝑥)−1 = −4 ቂ2 ቀ1 + 2 ቁቃ = −4(2)−1 ቀ1 + 2 ቁ = −2 ቀ1 + 2 ቁ
Using
3 the expansion from
5 example 3 and the same method from example 4,
4 −2 8 48 2 256 3 4
൬1 + 𝑥൰ ≈ 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 using 𝑛 = −2, 𝑥 → 5 𝑥 4 hold! This is when |𝑥| < 3 . 𝑥 −1 (−1) 𝑥 (−1)(−1−1) 𝑥 2 𝑥2
5 5 25 125 Note that3we want where both the inequalities  −2 ቀ1 + 2 ቁ ≈ −2 ൤1 + ቀ2 ቁ + ቀ2 ቁ ൨ = −2 + 𝑥 −
= 3(4 − 2𝑥)−1  |𝑥| < | | ∴ |𝑥| < 2 5 1! 2! 2
4 − 2𝑥 −2
−2
1 8 48 2 256 3
∴ (5 + 4𝑥) ≈ ൤1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 ൨ Now adding each expansion together:
25 5 25 125 and
3
2 3 3 |𝑥| <
1 8 48 2 256 3 − = −2(3 + 5𝑥)−1  |𝑥| < | | 𝑠𝑜 |𝑥| < 5
6 + 7𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 𝑥2
≈൤ − 𝑥+ 𝑥 − 𝑥 ൨ 3 + 5𝑥 5 5 |𝑥| < 2
∴ ≈ ሾ1ሿ + ሾ2ሿ + ሾ3ሿ = (2 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 ) + (3 + 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 ) + ቆ−2 + 𝑥 − ቇ
25 125 625 3125 (1 + 𝑥)(1 − 𝑥)(2 + 𝑥) 2

Note that we want where both the inequalities hold! This is when |𝑥| < 5 .
3 9
= 3 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2
2

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Roots of polynomials Cheat Sheet Edexcel Core Pure 1
−1+𝑖
This chapter is concerned with identifying the relationship between the roots of quadratic, cubic and quartic polynomials. Example 1: The roots of a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are 𝛼 = 2
and Example 2: The equation 𝑚𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4𝑚 = 0 has roots of the form 𝑘 and 2𝑘. Find the
−1−𝑖 values of 𝑚 and 𝑘.
𝛽= . Find integer values for 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.
2
Roots of a quadratic equation
𝒃 −1 + 𝑖 −1 − 𝑖 𝑏 𝒃 4
A quadratic equation could have 2 real roots, or 2 complex roots. Using 𝜶 + 𝜷 = −
𝒂 𝛼+𝛽 = + = −1 = − Using 𝜶 + 𝜷 = − :
𝒂 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝑘 + 2𝑘 = 3𝑘 = −
2 2 𝑎 𝑚
Simplifying: ∴𝑎=𝑏 Simplifying: 4
▪ If 𝜶 and 𝜷 are roots of the equation 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎, then: 𝒄 −1 + 𝑖 −1 − 𝑖 1 𝑐
∴𝑚=−
3𝑘
Using 𝜶𝜷 =
𝒃 𝒂 𝛼𝛽 = ൬ ൰൬ ൰= = 𝒄
4𝑚
 𝜶 + 𝜷 = −𝒂 2 2 2 𝑎 Using 𝜶𝜷 = 𝒂:
𝛼𝛽 = (𝑘)(2𝑘) = 2𝑘 2 = =4
𝒄 1 𝑚
Simplifying:
 𝜶𝜷 = 𝒂 ∴ 𝑎=𝑐
2 Simplifying and solving for 𝑘: ∴ 𝑘2 = 2
Rewriting the quadratic with 𝑏 = 𝑎 1 So 𝑘 = ±ξ2
1 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0
and 𝑐 = 𝑎: 2 We have two sets of solutions because 𝑘 4 2ξ2
2 1 4 𝐼𝑓 𝑘 = ξ2, 𝑚 = − =−
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 0 has two possible values. Use 𝑚 = − to 3ξ2 3
Roots of a cubic equation Dividing through by 𝑎:
2 3𝑘
find the corresponding value of 𝑚 in each 42ξ2
A cubic equation could have 3 real roots or 1 real root and 2 complex roots. Multiplying by 2 to ensure that the 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 case. 𝐼𝑓 𝑘 = −ξ2, 𝑚 =
3ξ2
=
3
constant is an integer: 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = 1
▪ If 𝜶, 𝜷 and 𝜸 are roots of the equation 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 = 𝟎, then:
𝒃
 𝜶+𝜷+𝜸 = −𝒂 Example 3: 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are roots of the cubic equation 7𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6 = 0. Find Example 4: The roots of the equation 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑦 and 𝛿.
𝒄
 𝜶𝜷 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜸𝜶 = 𝒂 the values of:
1 1 1
(a) Write down the values of ∑ 𝛼 , ∑ 𝛼𝛽 , ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 and ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿.
(a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 (b) 𝛼𝛽𝛾 (c) 𝛼 3 𝛽3 𝛾 3 (d) 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 (b) Hence find the values of:
𝒅
 𝜶𝜷𝜸 = − 𝒂 1 1
(i) + + +
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾
1 1
𝛿
(ii) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛾 2 + 𝛿 2 (iii) (𝛼 + 1)(𝛽 + 1)(𝛾 + 1)(𝛿 + 1)
Using 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = − 𝑎 :
𝑏 −4 4
𝛼+𝛽+𝛾=− = 𝑏
7 7 Using ∑ 𝛼 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 + 𝛿 = − 𝑎: 𝛼+𝛽+𝛾+𝛿=0
Using 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − 𝑎 :
𝑑 6
Roots of a quartic equation 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − 𝑐
7 Using ∑ 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛼𝛿 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛽𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿
A quartic equation could have 4 real roots, 4 complex roots or 2 real and 2 complex roots. 𝑐 3 2
Using 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 : 6 = =2
𝛼 3 𝛽3 𝛾 3 = (𝛼𝛽𝛾)3 = ൬− ൰ 1
7
▪ If 𝜶. 𝜷, 𝜸 and 𝜹 are roots of the equation 𝒂𝒙𝟒 + 𝒃𝒙𝟑 + 𝒄𝒙𝟐 + 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒆 = 𝟎, then: 216 Using ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − 𝑎
𝑑
෍ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = 𝛼𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛽𝛿 + 𝛼𝛾𝛿 + 𝛽𝛾𝛿
𝒃 =−
 𝜶+𝜷+𝜸+𝜹 = −𝒂 343 -1
Using the reciprocal result for cubics: 1 1 1 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 =− =1
𝒄 + + = 1
 𝜶𝜷 + 𝜶𝜸 + 𝜶𝜹 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜷𝜹 + 𝜸𝜹 = 𝒂 You can use the following abbreviations 𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 𝛼𝛽𝛾 𝑒 3
to simplify things: 𝑐 Using 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 = 𝑎 ෍ 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 = 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 = =3
𝒅 Using 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 = 𝑎 : 1 1
 𝜶𝜷𝜸 + 𝜶𝜷𝜹 + 𝜶𝜸𝜹 + 𝜷𝜸𝜹 = − 𝒂 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 = − 1 1 1 1 𝛼𝛽𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿𝛼 + 𝛿𝛼𝛽 1 1 1 1 ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 1
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 7 + + + =
𝒆 ∑ 𝛼 = − , ∑ 𝛼𝛽 = , ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − Substituting back into the reciprocal 1 + + + = =
 𝜶𝜷𝜸𝜹 = 𝒂 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 1 1 1 −7 1
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 𝛿 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 𝛿 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 3
result: ∴ + + = =
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 −6 6
7 Using 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛾 2 + 𝛿 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛾 2 + 𝛿 2
2
𝛾 + 𝛿)2 − 2(𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛼𝛿 + 𝛽𝛾 +
= (෍ 𝛼) − 2 (෍ 𝛼𝛽)
Expressions relating to the roots of a polynomial 𝛽𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿)
= (0)2 − 2(2) = -4
You can use the following rules to quickly find the values of some expressions concerning the roots of a polynomial:

Linear transformations of roots

▪ Reciprocals:
𝟏 𝟏 𝜶+𝜷
Given a polynomial (up to the fourth degree), you need to be able to find the equation of a second polynomial whose roots are a linear transformation of
Quadratic:  𝜶 + 𝜷 = 𝜶𝜷 the roots of the first.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝜶𝜷+𝜷𝜸+𝜸𝜶 You may decide not to remember these results since they are quite easy to prove; in
Cubic:  +𝜷+𝜸 = each case you simply need to combine the fractions to achieve the 𝑅𝐻𝑆. ▪ If a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 has roots 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 and 𝛿 then the polynomial with roots 𝑔𝛼 + ℎ, 𝑔𝛽 + ℎ, 𝑔𝛾 + ℎ and 𝑔𝛿 + ℎ,
𝜶 𝜶𝜷𝜸
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝜶𝜷𝜸+𝜷𝜸𝜹+𝜸𝜹𝜶+𝜹𝜶𝜷 𝑤−ℎ
Quartic:  +𝜷+𝜸+𝜹 = where 𝑔 and ℎ are real constants, is given by 𝑓 ( 𝑔
).
𝜶 𝜶𝜷𝜸𝜹

▪ Products of powers: The same logic follows if the polynomial is cubic or quadratic.
Quadratic:  𝜶𝒏 × 𝜷𝒏 = (𝜶𝜷)𝒏
Example 5: The quartic equation 2𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 has roots 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 and 𝛿. Find equations with integer coefficients that have roots:
Cubic:  𝜶𝒏 × 𝜷𝒏 × 𝜸𝒏 = (𝜶𝜷𝜸)𝒏 (i) (2𝛼), (2𝛽), (2𝛾) and (2𝛿). (ii) (𝛼 − 1), (𝛽 − 1), (𝛾 − 1) and (𝛿 − 1).
Quartic:  𝜶𝒏 × 𝜷𝒏 × 𝜸𝒏 × 𝜹𝒏 = (𝜶𝜷𝜸𝜹)𝒏
In general, you can remember (i) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥4 + 4𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 then the new 𝑤 𝑤 4 𝑤 3 𝑤 2 𝑤
2 𝑓( ) = 2( ) + 4( ) − 5( ) + 2( ) − 1 = 0
that ∑ 𝛼 2 = (∑ 𝛼) − 2(∑ 𝛼𝛽) equation will be given by 𝑓 ( 2 ).
𝑤 2 2 2 2 2
▪ Rules for sums of squares:
Simplifying: 1 4 1 3 5 2
Quadratic:  𝜶𝟐 + 𝜷𝟐 = (𝜶 + 𝜷)𝟐 − 𝟐𝜶𝜷 ⇒ 𝑤 + 𝑤 − 𝑤 +𝑤−1=0
8 2 4
Cubic:  𝜶𝟐 + 𝜷𝟐 + 𝜸𝟐 = (𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸)𝟐 − 𝟐(𝜶𝜷 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜸𝜶) Multiplying by 8 to ensure all coefficients are integers: ⇒ 𝑤 4 + 4𝑤 3 − 10𝑤 2 + 8𝑤 − 8 = 0
Quartic:  𝜶𝟐 + 𝜷𝟐 + 𝜸𝟐 + 𝜹𝟐 = (𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸 + 𝜹)𝟐 − 𝟐(𝜶𝜷 + 𝜶𝜸 + 𝜶𝜹 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜷𝜹 + 𝜸𝜹)
(ii) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥4 + 4𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 then the new 𝑓(𝑤 + 1) = 2(𝑤 + 1)4 + 4(𝑤 + 1)3 − 5(𝑤 + 1)2 + 2(𝑤 + 1) − 1 = 0
▪ Rules for sums of cubes: equation will be given by 𝑓(𝑤 + 1).
You won’t need to know the
Expanding brackets then simplifying: ⇒ 2(𝑤 4 + 4𝑤 3 + 6𝑤 2 + 4𝑤 + 1) + 4(𝑤 3 + 3𝑤 2 + 3𝑤 + 1) − 5(𝑤 2 + 2𝑤 + 1) + 2𝑤 + 2 − 1 = 0
Quadratic:  𝜶𝟑 + 𝜷𝟑 = (𝜶 + 𝜷)𝟑 − 𝟑𝜶𝜷(𝜶 + 𝜷) result for a quartic polynomial.
⇒ 2𝑤 4 + 12𝑤 3 + 19𝑤 2 + 12𝑤 + 2 = 0
Cubic:  𝜶𝟑 + 𝜷𝟑 + 𝜸𝟑 = (𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸)𝟑 − 𝟑(𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸)(𝜶𝜷 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜸𝜶) + 𝟑𝜶𝜷𝜸

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Radians Cheat Sheet Edexcel Pure Year 2
Radians are simply another way to measure angles. In many areas of mathematics and physics, using radians as opposed to Exam-style question
degrees turns out to be much more convenient. For example, the arc length formula which we will cover soon is greatly We will now go through an exam-style question where you can be expected to use what you have learnt so far.
simplified by using radians. Solving trigonometric equations
You also need to be able to solve trigonometric equations using radians. The method is exactly the same as with Example 5: The diagram shows the cross section 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 of a glass prism. 𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐶 = 4 𝑐𝑚 and both are at right
degrees, but you need to give your answers in radians. angles to 𝐷𝐶. 𝐴𝐵 is the arc of a circle, centre O and radius 6 cm. Given that ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 2𝜃 radians, and
Using Radians that the perimeter of the cross section is 2(7 + 𝜋) cm,
To convert between radians and degrees, you can use the fact that:
▪ If the interval is given in radians, then you should leave your answers in radians.
180° 𝜋
▪ 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = Let’s go through an example. a) Show that (2𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 1) = 3 .


It helps to remember the following angles in radians: Example 2: Solve 8𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥 = 7 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2. b) Verify that 𝜃 = 6 ,
𝜋

𝜋 𝜋 The interval is given in radians, so we must make sure we work in radians. Don’t forget to switch to
▪ 30° = ▪ 90° = c) Find the area of the cross-section.
6 2 the radians mode on your calculator.
 d) Show that when 𝑥 is small,
▪ 45° = ▪ 180° = 𝜋 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥 =
7
S A
4 8
𝜋(2(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)−𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥−1) 1
▪ 60° =
 ▪ 360° = 2𝜋 7
the expression
12𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥−12
≈ 𝜃.
2
3 2𝑥 = arctan (8) = 0.719
0.719
You can be asked to sketch trigonometric functions giving your angles in radians, so you should be very efficient at Using CAST or a graphical method, our solutions are:
converting between radians and degrees. 0.719
2𝑥 = 0.719,  + 0.719
You also need to learn the exact value of certain trigonometric ratios given in radians: ⇒ 2𝑥 = 0.719, 3.86

∴ 𝑥 = 0.36, 1.93 are our final solutions.

T C a) Perimeter = 4 + 4 + 𝐷𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵
𝜋 1 𝜋 √3 𝜋 √3 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑟𝜃 = 6 × 2𝜃 = 12𝜃
▪ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) = ▪ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) = ▪ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) =
6 2 6 2 6 3
Using trigonometry, we can see that 𝐷𝐶 = 2(6𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝜋 √3 𝜋 1 𝜋 As you can see, the procedure is still the same. You just need to be comfortable with using radians. ∴ Perimeter = 12𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 8 + 12𝜃 = 2(7 + 𝜋)
▪ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) = ▪ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) = ▪ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) = √3
3 2 3 2 3

𝜋
Rearranging: 12𝜃 + 12𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 6 = 2𝜋
𝜋 √2
▪ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) =
𝜋 √2
▪ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) = ▪ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) = 1 Small angle approximations 𝜋
Dividing by 6 gives: 2𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 1 = 3 as required.
4 2 4 2 4
When 𝜃 is close to zero and measured in radians, we can use the following approximations:

▪ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
Arc length 𝜃2 𝜋
▪ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ≈ 1 − b) We just need to plug in 𝜃 = 6 to the 𝐿𝐻𝑆 and check it is equal to the RHS.
To find the arc length 𝑙 of a sector of a circle, we can use the formula 2
▪ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
⇒ 2 ( 6 ) + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 6 − 1 = 3 + 1 − 1 = 3 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 so 𝜃 = 6 .
𝜋

▪ 𝑙 = 𝑟𝜃
where 𝑟 is the radius of the circle and 𝜃 is the angle c) A𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 – 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝐵
contained in the sector, given in radians. To see why these are good approximations, we can graph each of the functions against their approximations.

Areas
To find the area of a sector, shown in blue, we can use the formula

1
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝜋
▪ 𝐴 = 2 𝑟2𝜃 Area of rectangle ABCD = 4 × 12𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 6 ) = 24
𝑥2 𝑦=𝑥 𝑦=𝑥
𝑦 =1− 1 1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 √3
2 Area of segment AB = (𝑟)2 (2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃) = (6)2 ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) = 18 ( − ) = 6𝜋 − 9√3
2 2 3 3 3 2
To find the area of a segment, shown in yellow, we can use the formula
We can see that around 𝑥 = 0, the graphs are almost identical. This explains why these approximations are
1 suitable for 𝑥 close to zero. There is no set range for which these approximations are to be used. ⇒ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 24 − (6𝜋 − 9√3) = 24 + 9√3 − 6𝜋
▪ 𝐴 = 2 𝑟 2 (𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
4𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃−2+5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 Example 3: When 𝜃 is close to zero, show that can be rewritten as 9𝜃 + 2.
recall that the area of a triangle is 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 e) Starting with the numerator:
2

You need to be able to apply the above formulae to problems. Inputting our approximations:
𝑥2
π(2(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 1) ≈ 𝜋 [2 (1 − (1 − 2
)) − (𝑥)2 + 𝑥 − 1]
(3𝜃)2
Example 1: In the diagram below, AB is the diameter of a circle centre O of radius r cm and ∠𝐵𝑂𝐶 = 𝜃 ⇒ 4𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃 − 2 + 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 4 (1 − ) − 2 + 5𝜃 = 2 + 5𝜃 − 18𝜃 2
2
radians. Given that the area of △ 𝐶𝑂𝐵 is equal to that of the shaded segment, show that
𝑥2
𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = . ⇒ 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 ≈ 1 − 2𝜃 ⇒ 𝜋 [2 (( 2 )) − (𝑥)2 + 𝑥 − 1] = 𝜋[𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1] = 𝜋(𝑥 − 1)

1
Area 𝐶𝑂𝐵 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (area of a triangle, 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑟) 4𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝜃−2+5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2+5𝜃−18𝜃2 (1−2𝜃)(2+9𝜃)
Now considering the denominator:
2 ∴ 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
≈ 1−2𝜃
= 1−2𝜃
= 2 + 9𝜃 as required.
1
Shaded segment = 𝑟 2 ((𝜋 − 𝜃) − sin (𝜋 − 𝜃)) Once you substitute your approximations, it becomes a matter of simplifying your expression to achieve the 12𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 − 12 ≈ 12𝑥 − 12 = 12(𝑥 − 1)
2
desired result.
1 1 𝜋(2(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)−𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥−1) 𝜋(𝑥−1) 𝜋
Equating: 2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2 𝑟 2 ((𝜋 − 𝜃) − sin(𝜋 − 𝜃)) ∴ = =
Example 4: When 𝜃 is close to zero, find the approximate value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃. 4 4 12𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥−12 12(𝑥−1) 12

Notice that sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) = sin(𝜃), 𝜋

1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝜃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) difference of two squares But in part b, we verified 𝜃 = 6 .
dividing through by 2 𝑟 2 and rearranging: 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜋 − 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= (1)(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) using 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1
∴ 𝜃 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜋 as required ⇒ [1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃] = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 − 2𝜃 2 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋(2(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)−𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥−1) 1
= × hence. ≈ 𝜃 as required.
12 2 6 12𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥−12 2

Since division by zero is undefined, we have that these functions are undefined when the denominators
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 1 You could be asked to prove these
are equal to zero. + =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 identities, so make sure you are able to
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
reproduce the proofs on the left.
Note that 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = , simply by replacing 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 with 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 . This will sometimes be a more useful 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
form to use.
Simplifying expressions and proving identities
Careful: It is not true that: 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)−1, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)−1 , 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 = (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)−1
You can use the definitions and identities we have covered so far to simplify and prove expressions involving the reciprocal Reflecting 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 using the domain 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 gives us its inverse function, 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥:
The negative power has a different meaning when used with trigonometric functions. trig functions.

Graphing the reciprocal functions There is no trick or standard procedure to be used for these questions. Your ability to manipulate trigonometric expressions 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
You need to be able to sketch the reciprocal trigonometric functions as well as any transformations, using reciprocal functions and identities is being tested, so the most useful thing you can do is properly familiarise yourself
using radians and degrees. Below are the graphs of the reciprocal functions with these functions and the above identities. As with most of mathematics, the most useful tool here is practice. Domain: −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
Range: 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋 or 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 180°
When proving identities, you must start from one side and work your way towards the other side. You can start from any
𝑦 = sec 𝑥 Dotted curve represents 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 side, so pick whichever seems like an easier starting point.
𝜋
Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (90°)
2 Example 1: Prove that 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
Range: 𝑦 ≤ −1 , 𝑦 ≥ 1
Starting from the LHS, we have: 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥
using the 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥 and 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 identities: (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥) + (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥) = 2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Rewriting 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 as 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 and 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 as 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 :
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
= 2+ +
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
combining everything into one fraction: 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥
4
= +2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 Reflecting 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 using the domain: − 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ gives us its inverse function,
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥:
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
using 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = 1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)2 1 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
= =
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 Dotted curve represents 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜋 (180°) splitting the fraction up into a product, giving 1 1 Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Range: 𝑦 ≤ −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ≥ 1 = ∙ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 𝜋 𝜋
Range: − 2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 or −90° ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 90°
us the RHS 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥

Solving equations
Previously, in Pure Year 1, you learnt how to solve trigonometric equations involving 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥. Now we will look
at solving equations that also involve the reciprocal functions. The only difference here is that you need to use the identities
Type equation here. and definitions we have covered in this chapter in order to simplify the equation, before you can solve it. Remember that since these functions are inverses, we have that 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) = 𝑥. Of course, this works
for a𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 and 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛x too, not just 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.

Example 2: Solve the equation 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 = ξ2 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360° Just like with the reciprocal functions, you may be asked to sketch a transformation of any of the inverse functions, or even
to solve an equation involving an inverse function.
1
rewriting 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 as 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 : 1
= ξ2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 Example 4: a) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 2) − 2
taking the reciprocal of both sides: 1 b) Find the value of 𝑥, to 2 decimal places, for which 3𝑔(𝑥 + 1) + 𝜋 = 0
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 =
ξ2
Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜋 (180°) We can solve this via CAST or a graphical 𝑥 = 45°, 315°. Starting from the LHS, we have:
Range: 𝑦 ∈ ℝ method giving:

Example 3: Solve 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°.

using 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

using the 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥 and 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 identities: 3𝑔(𝑥 + 1) + 𝜋 = 3[𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 1 + 2) − 2] + 𝜋

rearranging 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 − 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Rewriting 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 as and 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 as : ⇒ 3𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 3) + 𝜋 − 6 = 0
Solving the quadratic: By the quadratic formula, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 =
3+ξ5
, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 =
3−ξ5
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 6−𝜋
2 2 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 3) = 3
We have two equations to solve. Using CAST or 𝑥 = 20.9°, 69.1°, 201°, 249° to 3 s.f. combining everything into one fraction: 6−𝜋
⇒ 𝑥 + 3 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
a graphical method, our solutions are: 3
6−𝜋
using 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) − 3 = −2.18
3

▪ sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) ≡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 ▪ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) ≡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 ▪ 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 can be expressed as 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 ± 𝛼) When the coefficient of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 is positive, use 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 ± 𝛼) There is no set procedure to follow in your manipulation. Your knowledge of the identities is being tested, so you need to
and when the coefficient of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 is positive, use
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 ∓ 𝛼). Of course, when both coefficients are
make sure you are very familiar with the content in this chapter and the previous. As with most of Mathematics, the most
▪ 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 can be expressed as 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 ∓ 𝛼) positive then you can use either form. useful preparation tool here is practice.
▪ cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 ▪ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵) ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑅 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 < 𝛼 < 2 . Example 8:
3 1 1
Show that 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑥 = 8 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥
▪ tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) ≡ ▪ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) ≡
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
The procedure for achieving the above simplifications can be broken down into three steps: Starting with the 𝐿𝐻𝑆: 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥)
Using the double-angle cosine identity to express 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1
You need to know how to use the above formulae to find exact values of trigonometric functions for various Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 = ൬ ൰
[1] Expand the form using the addition formulae, and equate it to 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ± 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 in terms of 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥: 2
angles.
Substituting this result back into the 𝐿𝐻𝑆: 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1
[2] Compare the coefficients of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 on both sides of the equation, to get two equations in terms of 𝑅 and 𝛼. ⇒ 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = ൬ ൰൬ ൰
2 2
Example 1: Show, using the formula for sin(𝐴 + 𝐵), that sin(75°) = √6+√2
4
[3] Solve these simultaneously to find 𝑅 and 𝛼. Expanding: 1
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 22𝑥 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1)
We can rewrite sin(75°) as sin(45° + 30°). We choose 45 and 30 because we know the 4
exact values of sin(45°) , cos(45°) , sin(30°) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos(30°), so when we put them into the
Using the double-angle cosine identity again to Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 22𝑥 = (
𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥+1
)
addition formula, we will have all terms given as exact values. Example 5: Express 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 in the form 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 𝛼), where 𝑅 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 < 𝛼 <
𝜋
2
2 express 𝑐𝑜𝑠 22𝑥 in terms of 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥.
sin(75°) ≡ sin(45 + 30) Proving the double-angle sine formula: 1𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑥 + 𝛼) ≡ 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 Substituting this result back into the 𝐿𝐻𝑆: 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 + 1
൤ + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1൨
Equating coefficients: 1 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 (1) (equating 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 coefficients) 4 2
sin(45 + 30) ≡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑐𝑜𝑠30 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠45𝑠𝑖𝑛30
−2 = −𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 (2) (equating 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 coefficients) Simplifying to achieve the 𝑅𝐻𝑆: 1 1 1 1
Solving simultaneously.: 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 −2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + +
√2 √3 √2 1 √6 √2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = = = −2 8 2 8 4
= ቆ ቇቆ ቇ + ቆ ቇ൬ ൰ = + We divide equation [2] by [1]. 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 1
2 2 2 2 4 4 ∴ 𝛼 = arctan(−2) = 1.11 1 1 3
Finding 𝑅: (1)2 + (2)2 ⇒ 𝑅 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝛼 + 𝑅 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 = (1)2 + (−2)2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
8 2 8
√6 + √2 Square equations [1] and [2] then add ⇒ 𝑅 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼) = 5
=
4 them together. We also use the ⇒ 𝑅 2 = 5 ∴ 𝑅 = √5
identity 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 ≡ 1 A shortcut for finding R is to
Putting everything together: use+𝑅1.11)
So 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = √5cos(2𝑥 = √𝑎 2 + 𝑏2
Modelling with trigonometric functions
In the exam you will likely be given problems where trigonometric functions are used to model real-life situations, often
A shortcut for finding R is to involving the forms 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 ± 𝛼) and 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥 ± 𝛼 ). To succeed in these questions, you must properly understand the
▪ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝐴) ≡ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 scenario given to you. Read through the text more than once to make sure you understand what is going on. The maths itself
use 𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
is the same as before; you just need to be able to apply it in the context of the question.
▪ cos(2𝐴) ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝐴 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴 − 1
This form is often useful because it makes solving equations and finding minimum/maximum values much easier.
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
▪ tan(2𝐴) ≡ You can be asked to Example 9: A town wishes to build a large Ferris wheel to be used as a tourist attraction. The height above the
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴 reproduce these proofs! Example 6: Given that 𝑔(𝑥) = 18 ground, H metres, of a passenger on the Ferris wheel is modelled by the equation
,
50 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
2 2
𝐻 = 25 + 20 sin (5 𝑡) − 65cos (5 𝑡),
Example 2: Using the addition formulae, prove each of the above double-angle formulae. calculate: (i) the maximum value of 𝑔(𝑥).
(ii) The smallest positive value of x at which this minimum occurs.18 where H is the height of the passenger above the ground and t is the number of minutes after the ride has
Proving the double-angle sine formula: 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝐴) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐴) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 started. The angles are given in radians.
= 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 Proving the double-angle sine formula: 50 + √5cos(2𝑥 + 1.11)18
𝑔(𝑥) =
Proving the double-angle cosine formula: cos(2𝐴) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐴) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 50 + √5cos(2𝑥 + 1.11) 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 a) By rewriting H in the form 𝐴 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 (5 𝑡 + 𝛼) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴, 𝑅, 𝛼 are positive constants, find the maximum
The maximum value of 𝑔(𝑥) occurs when the denominator is at a 18 18
∴ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = height of the Ferris wheel above the ground.
Using 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴 ≡ 1 to prove the By replacing 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴 with 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴: minimum. We can deduce that the denominator is a minimum 50 + √5(−1) 50 − √5
other cosine double angle formulae: ⇒ cos(2𝐴) = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 when cos(2𝑥 + 1.11) is at a minimum. i.e. when
Also, by replacing 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 with 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴: b) Find the time taken for one complete revolution.
cos(2𝑥 + 1.11) = −1, since −1 ≤ cos(2𝑥 + 1.11) ≤ 1.
18 18
⇒ cos(2𝐴) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴 − 1 From (i), we established
= that the maximum
= value of 𝑔(𝑥) occurs 𝜋 = 2𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 1.11 Use the method from example 4 to simplify the two 2 2 2
Proving the double-angle tangent 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 50 +
when cos(2𝑥 + 1.11) = −1. √5(−1) 50 −
Therefore, we√5 need to solve for the 65 cos ൬ 𝑡൰ − 20 sin ൬ 𝑡൰ ≡ 5√185 cos ൬ 𝑡 + 0.298൰
tan(2𝐴) = tan(𝐴 + 𝐴) = trigonometric terms into one term. Note that since 5 5 5
formula: 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 smallest positive value of 𝑥 such that this is true. Since cos(𝑥) has 𝜋 − 1.11 2 2
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 ∴ 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 1.02 we need to use the 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 (5 𝑡 + 𝛼) form, our cosine ∴ 𝐻 = 25 − 5√185 cos ൬ 𝑡 + 0.298൰
= its first positive minimum at 𝑥 = 𝜋, our minimum will be found by 2 5
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴 solving the equation 2𝑥 + 1.11 = 𝜋. Alternatively, we can use coefficient must be positive. So consider
2 2 2
CAST or a graphical method to solve cos(2𝑥 + 1.11) = −1. 65 cos (5 𝑡) − 20 sin (5 𝑡) rather than 20 sin (5 𝑡) −
2
65 cos (5 𝑡)
By looking at our equation, we can deduce that H is 2
𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs when cos ( 𝑡 + 0.298) = −1.
You can see that there are three different versions for the cosine double angle formula. It is important you are 5
familiar with all three as one may be more useful than the others in certain questions.
Solving equations 2
maximum when cos (5 𝑡 + 0.298) is minimum. ∴ 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 25 + 5√185 = max height above ground
To solve more complicated trigonometric expressions, you will first need to simplify the equation using the formulae and This question is essentially asking us to calculate the 2𝜋
The time taken for one complete revolution is 2 = 5𝜋.
methods we have covered so far. Here is an example showing how we do this in practice: period of our function H. 5

4 2 2 4
Example 3: Simplify as much as possible the expression: 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 To do so, we just need to look at our cosine function:
Example 7: Solve 3 sin(𝑥 − 45°) − sin(𝑥 + 45°) = 0 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°
since 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡) has a period of 2𝜋, we can conclude that
4 2 2 4
Spotting the factorisation: 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = Using the addition formulae 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠45 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛45 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠45 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛45 = 0
2𝜋
H has a period of 2 = 5𝜋.
(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)2 5
Simplifying 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠45 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛45 = 0 The reason we can say this is because the cosine
2
Using 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥: 2 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 22𝑥
2
term in 𝐻 is cos (5 𝑡 + 0.298). This tells us that
Using exact values for 𝑐𝑜𝑠45°, 𝑠𝑖𝑛45° √2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 2√2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 0
compared to cos(𝑡), all the 𝑡 values are multiplied by
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 2 , so our time period is also multiplied by 2 giving us
Dividing through by √2 5 5
Example 4: Simplify as much as possible the expression: √1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 5𝜋.
Dividing through by 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 and finding the principal 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 2 ∴ 𝑥 = arctan(2) = 63.4°
Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) − 1 solution:
2
Substituting this result into the given 𝑥 𝑥 Using CAST or a graphical method, we can find all The solutions in the given interval are:
expression: 𝑥 = ට1 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2) − 1 = ට2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2)
⇒ √1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 the solutions: 𝑥 = 63.4°, 243.4°.
= √2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
2

In the 4𝑎𝑏! term the total index is 1 + 3 = 4. 𝑟 (!("+()!

7 7 7
𝑛−1 = 30 + B E 3/ (−2𝑥) + B E 3- (−2𝑥)% + B E 3& (−2𝑥)! + ⋯
Pascal’s triangle is formed by adding adjacent pairs of the numbers to find the numbers on the The rth entry in the nth row of Pascal’s triangle is given by ."+$ 𝐶(+$ = B E 1 2 3
next row. 𝑟−1
= 2187 − 10206𝑥 + 20412𝑥 % − 22680𝑥 ! + ⋯
Example 3: Calculate ⟹ (2 + 𝑥)( 2187 − 10206𝑥 + 20412𝑥 % − 22680𝑥 ! + ⋯ )
Here are the first 7 rows of Pascal’s triangle:
a. 5! b. .- 𝐶% c. the 6th entry in the 10th row of Pascal’s triangle
1 Now expand the brackets (2 + 𝑥)(3 − 2𝑥)0
a. 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 "
Use the . 𝐶( and ! functions on your
1 + 1 b. - -!
. 𝐶% = %!!! =
$%#
= 10 calculator to answer this question. 𝑥 ! term = 2 × (−22680𝑥 ! ) + 𝑥 × 20412𝑥 %
$%
The third row of Pascal’s triangle
1 + 2 + 1 c. .. 𝐶- = 126 You can calculate .- 𝐶% by using the = −24948𝑥 !
gives the coefficients in the There are 2 ways of making the 𝑥 ! term:
." 𝐶( function on your calculator. The coefficient of 𝑥 ! in the binomial
1 + 3 + 3 + 1 expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)% (constant term × 𝑥 ! term) and (𝑥 term
𝑛! 5!
." 𝐶( = = expansion of (2 + 𝑥)(3 − 2𝑥)0 is −24948. × 𝑥 % term)
The rth entry in the nth row is ."+$ 𝐶(+$ 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 2! (5 − 2)!
1 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 1

1 + 5 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 Binomial Estimation
The binomial expansion If the value of 𝑥 is less than 1, then 𝑥 " gets smaller as 𝑛 gets larger. If 𝑥 is small you can
𝑛
The binomial expansion is a rule that allows you to expand brackets. You can use B E to work out sometimes ignore large powers of 𝑥 to approximate a function or estimate a value.
1 + 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1 𝑟
the coefficients in the binomial expansion. For example,
The (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒕𝒉 row of Pascal’s triangle gives he coefficients in the expansion of (𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒏 . in the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)- = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏), to find the 𝑏! term you Example 9:
5 a. Find the first four terms of the binomial expansion, in ascending powers of 𝑥, of
can choose multiples of b from 3 different brackets. You can do this in B E ways so the 𝑏! term is
Example 1: 3 1 $#
5 B1 − &E .
Use Pascal’s triangle to find the expansions of: B E 𝑎% 𝑏 ! .
3
a. (𝑥 + 2𝑦)! b. (2𝑥 − 5)& 1 $# 10 1 10 1 % 10 1 !
! Index = 3 so look at the 4th row of Pascal’s The binomial expansion is: B1 − &E = 1$# + B E 1. B− &E + B E 12 B− &E + B E 10 B− &E + ⋯
a. (𝑥 + 2𝑦) 1 2 3
triangle to find the coefficients. 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
The coefficients are 1, 3, 3, 1 so: (𝑎 + 𝑏)" = 𝑎" + B E 𝑎"+$ 𝑏 + B E 𝑎"+% 𝑏% + ⋯ + B E 𝑎"+( 𝑏( + ⋯ + 𝑏"
1 2 𝑟 =1 − 2.5𝑥 + 2.8125𝑥 % − 1.875𝑥 ! + ⋯
(𝑥 + 2𝑦)! = 1𝑥 ! + 3𝑥 % (2𝑦) + 3𝑥(2𝑦)% + 1(2𝑦)!
= 𝑥 ! + 6𝑥 % 𝑦 + 12𝑥𝑦 % + 8𝑦 ! 𝑛 "!
where B E =." 𝐶( = (!("+()! b. Use your expansion to estimate the value of 0.975$# , giving your answer to 4
𝑟
This is the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)! with 𝑎 = 𝑥 and 𝑏 = 2𝑦. decimal places.
Use brackets to ensure you don’t make a mistake. Example 4 : Use the binomial theorem to find the expansion of (3 − 2𝑥)- . 1
We want B1 − &E = 0.975
𝑥 Calculate value of x
b. (2𝑥 − 5)& 5 5 5 5 = 0.025
Index = 4 so look at the 5th row of Pascal’s triangle. (3 + 2𝑥)- = 3- + B E 3&(−2𝑥) + B E 3! (−2𝑥)% + B E 3% (−2𝑥)! + B E 3$ (−2𝑥)& + (−2𝑥)- 4
1 2 3 4 𝑥 = 0.1
The coefficients are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1 so:
1 $#
(2𝑥 − 5)& = 1(2𝑥)& + 4(2𝑥)! (−5) + 6(2𝑥)% (−5)% + 4(2𝑥)(−5)! + 1(−5)& = 243 − 810𝑥 + 1080𝑥 % − 720𝑥 ! + 240𝑥 & − 32𝑥 - Substitute 𝑥 = 0.1 into the expansion for B1 − E from part a:
&
= 16𝑥 & − 160𝑥 ! + 600𝑥 % − 1000𝑥 + 625 0.975$# ≈ 1 − 0.25 + 0.028125 − 0.001875
There will be 6 terms. Each term has a total index of 5. Use (𝑎 + 𝑏)" = 0.77625
This is the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)" with 𝑎 = 2𝑥 and 𝑏 = −5 with 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −2𝑥 and 𝑛 = 5 0.975$# ≈ 0.7763 to 4 d.p Using a calculator, 0.975$# = 0.77632962.
so, approximation is correct.

𝑐 ! = 𝑎! + 𝑏! − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶
𝐴𝐵! = 6.5! + 8.4! − 2 × 6.5 × 8.4 × cos 20° = 10.1955 𝑦 = 5.02 𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝐵 = √10.1955 … = 3.19𝑐𝑚
Two solutions for sine:
Transforming trigonometric graphs:
The sine rule sometimes produces two possible solutions for a missing angle as
Example 2: Find the size of the smallest angle in a triangle whose side have length In chapter 4, you have learned transformations i.e. translation and reflection. In this section
sin 𝜃 = sin(180° − 𝜃)
3cm, 5cm and 6cm you will have to apply the knowledge of transformations in trigonometric functions and
Start by drawing the triangle and label it say Areas of triangles: sketch the new curve.
ABC. The smallest angle is opposite is to the In this topic you will learn to calculate area of any triangle given 2 sides and the
smallest side so angle B is the required angle between them Example 5
angle. Use the cosine rule for missing angle Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = tan(𝜃 − 45°)
and substitute values of a, b and c. The graph of 𝑦 = tan(𝜃 − 45°) is the graph of tan 𝜃 translated by 45° to the right.
1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶 Remember 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝜽) ⟹ 𝜽 shifted to LEFT and 𝒇(𝒙 − 𝜽) ⟹ 𝜽 shifted to the RIGHT
2
The graphs will shift by 45° to the right
So if tan 𝜃 meets the 𝜃- axis at(0°, 0°) then tan(𝜃 − 45°)
Example 4: Calculate the area of triangle. meets the 𝜃 - axis at (0° + 45°, 0°) = (45°, 0°)
𝑎 = 6𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 3𝑐𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 5𝑐𝑚 The angle between two sides AB and BC is angle B Hence,
𝑏! = 𝑎! + 𝑐 ! − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵 AB is opposite to angle C so AB = c and AC is opposite to angle B so AC = b The graph meets the 𝜃 axis at (45°, 0), (225°, 0)
𝑎! + 𝑐 ! − 𝑏! 6! + 5! − 3! 𝐵 And to find, where the graph meets the 𝑦-axis do the
'
cos 𝐵 = = = 0.866 … … Area= ! 𝑎𝑐 sin 𝐵 following
2𝑎𝑐 2×6×5 80°
6.4 𝑐𝑚 6.4 𝑐𝑚 1 You know that 𝜃 = 0° on 𝑦-axis,
%' 𝐴 = × 6.4 × 6.4 × sin 80° So 𝑦 = tan(𝜃 − 45°) = tan( 0 − 45°) = tan(−45°) = −1
𝐵 = cos 0.8666. . 2
𝐵 = 29.9° 𝐴 = 20.16.. Hence the graph meets the 𝑦- axis at (0, −1) and has
Hence, the smallest angle is 29.9°
𝐴 𝐶 𝐴 = 20.2 𝑐𝑚! asymptotes at 𝜃 = 135°and 𝜃 = 315°

sin 𝜃 = 𝑦- coordinate of 𝑃
! tan(180° − 𝜃) = − tan 𝜃 Simple Trignometric equations.
𝑥 tan 𝜃 = " =gradient of 𝑂𝑃 tan(180° + 𝜃) = + tan 𝜃 180°+𝜃 360° − 𝜃 In this section you will learn to solve simple trignometric equations of the form sin 𝜃 = 𝑘,
You always start measuring 𝜃 from positive x- tan(360° − 𝜃) = − tan 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 𝑘 (where −1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 1) and tan 𝜃 = 𝑝 (where 𝑝 ∈ ℝ)
axis −1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 1 as sin and cos has maximum = 1 and minimum = −1
cos(180° − 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃 𝑝 ∈ ℝ as tan has no maximum or minimum value
Positive angles Anti-clock wise cos(180° + 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃
Negative angles Clockwise cos(360° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃
Example2: Example 5: Solve the equation 2 cos 𝜃 = −√2 for 𝜃, in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°
Express the following in terms of trigonometric ratios of acute angles. First rearrange the equation in the form cos 𝜃 = 𝑘
%√!
With the help of unit circle you can find values and signs of sine, cosine and tangent. a. sin 240° b. cos(−50°) So cos 𝜃 = ! = −0.7071 The values you get on calculator taking inverse of trigonometric functions
a. b. θ = cos%$ (−0.7071) = 45° are called principal values. But principal values will not always be a solution
to the equation.
The 𝑥-𝑦 plane is divided into quadrants:
As cos 𝜃 = −0.7071 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 45° ⇒ cos is negative so you need to look θ
in the 2nd and 4th quadrant
45 45° is the acute angle (i.e angle made with the horizontal axis) but we are
Angles may lie outside the range ° looking for the angle made from the positive x- axis anti-clockwise.
45°
Second First 0-360°, but they always lie in one So, there are two solutions
quadrant quadrant of the four quadrants. 180° − 45° = 135° and 180° + 45° = 225°
Hence, θ= 135° or θ= 225°
For e.g. 520° is equivalent to
Third Fourth 520° − 360° = 160° which lies in Harder trigonometric equations:
quadrant quadrant second quadrant You will have to solve equations of the form
The angle 240° is obtuse and measured from The angle −50° is the angle measured from
sin 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑘, cos 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑝
the +𝑣𝑒 𝑥 -axis anti-clockwise. the positive 𝑥- axis clockwise. sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) = 𝑘, cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) = 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan(𝜃 + 𝛼) = 𝑝
So the acute angle is 60° 50° is the acute angle. It is same as solving simple equations, but will have some extra steps
sin is – 𝑣𝑒 in the third quadrant cos is +𝑣𝑒 in the fourth quadrant
Example 1: So sin 240° = − sin 60° So cos(−50°) = cos 50° Example 6: Solve the equation sin(𝑥 + 60°) = 0.3 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°
Find the signs of sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃 and tan 𝜃 in the second quadrant. Example 3: Let 𝑋 = 𝑥 + 60° ⇒ sin 𝑋 = 0.3
Draw a circle with centre 0 and radius 1, with 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) in the second quadrant. Given that 𝜃 is an acute angle, express tan(𝜃 − 540°)in terms of tan 𝜃 The interval for 𝑋 will be 0 + 60° ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 360° + 60° ⇒ 60° ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 420°
To express tan(𝜃 − 540°) in terms of tan 𝜃, we need to find in which quadrant the angle 𝑋 = sin%$ 0.3 = 17.45°, principal value
You know that 𝑥 is −𝑣𝑒 and 𝑦 is +ve in the 𝜃 − 540° lies. Sin is positive which mean 17.45° should be in the 1st and 2nd quadrant.
second quadrant You know that 540° is equivalent to 540° − 360° = 180°
One of the solution will be 180° − 17.45° = 162.54°
sin 𝜃 = +𝑣𝑒 , cos 𝜃 = −ve ⇒ −540° is equivalent to −180° ⇒ 180° clockwise and 𝜃 = anti-clockwise
Now the other solution could be 17.45° but 60° ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 420°, so it cannot be 17.45°.
+𝑣𝑒 So first you will go 180° clockwise and then 𝜃 anti-clockwise which will be in the third quadrant.
tan 𝜃 = = −𝑣𝑒 tan is +ve in the third quadrant So start from +𝑣𝑒 𝑥-axis and measure one full circle i.e. 360° and add 17.5°
−𝑣𝑒 Hence, tan(𝜃 − 540°) = tan 𝜃 ⇒ 360° + 17.45° = 377.45° So 𝑋 = 162.54 … °, 377.45 … °
So, only sin 𝜃 is +𝑣𝑒 in the second quadrant Subtract 60° from each value: Hence, 𝑥 = 102.5° 𝑜𝑟 317.5°
Exact values of trigonometric ratios. Equations and Identities:
You can find exact values of sin, cos and tan of 30°, 45° and 60°. Please refer the table below for the exact You will have to solve quadratics equations in sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝜃
With the help of the following diagram, you can determine the signs of each of the
values.
trigonometric ratios 𝟑𝟎° 𝟒𝟓° 𝟔𝟎° Example 7: Solve for 𝜃, in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°, the equation 2 cos! 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − 1 = 0
Only 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 is positive sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃 and tan 𝜃 are 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 1 1 √3 Start by factorising the equation as you do for quadratic equation
for angle 𝜃 in the all positive for angle 𝜃 in 2 √2 2 2 cos! 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − 1 = 0 Compare with 2𝑥 ! − 𝑥 − 1 = (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 √3 1 1
second quadrant. the first quadrant. So (2 cos 𝜃 + 1)(cos 𝜃 − 1) = 0
2 √2 2 $
cos 𝜃 = − ! 𝑜𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 1 Set each factor equal to 0 thereby finding two sets of solutions
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 1 √3
=
3 1 √3 1
√3 cos 𝜃 = − ⇒ 𝜃 = 60°
2
Only 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 is positive Cosine is negative implies solution is in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants
Only 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 is positive Trignometric Identities: 60° 60°
for angle 𝜃 in the In the 2nd quadrant 𝜃 = 180 − 60 = 120°. So, one solution is 120°
for angle 𝜃 in the third Equation of unit circle is 𝑥 ! + 𝑦 ! = 1 In the 3rd quadrant 𝜃 = 180 + 60 = 240°. 60° 60°
quadrant fourth quadrant. As we know cos 𝜃 = 𝑥 and sin 𝜃 = 𝑦 ⇒ cos! 𝜃 + sin! 𝜃 = 1 So, the other solution in the 3rd quadrant will be 240°
For all values of 𝜃,sin! 𝜃 + cos! 𝜃 ≡ 1 cos 𝜃 = 1 𝑠𝑜 𝜃 = 0 𝑜𝑟 360°
#$% & So the solutions are
For all values of 𝜃, such that cos 𝜃 ≠ 0, tan 𝜃 ≡
'(# &
𝜃 = 0°, 120°, 240°, 360°
You can use the above identities to simplify trignometric expressions and complete proofs

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Differentiation Cheat Sheet Edexcel
EdexcelPure
PureYear
Year22
Previously in Pure Year 1, you only learnt how to differentiate simple expressions, such as 2𝑥 2 . In this chapter, we will learn Implicit differentiation
more rules and methods that will enable us to differentiate much more complicated functions. Equations of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) are known as explicit equations. We have seen how to differentiate functions of this form many times. However,
Here are two examples showing the chain rule in action: not all equations are in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and some cannot even be rearranged into this form. These are known as implicit equations. To
Differentiating 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐱 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐱 differentiate equations of this type, we can use implicit differentiation.
𝑑 𝑑
You need to be know the following two results, and be able to prove 𝑑𝑥 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥] = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 from first 2 −4𝑥+2
Example 3: Differentiate (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)5 Example 4: Differentiate 𝑒 𝑥 Implicit differentiation is just another case of the chain rule, and can be summarised as:
principles.

𝑑
This is of the form [1], where This is of the form [2], where ▪
𝑑
[𝑓(𝑦)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
▪ [sin 𝑘𝑥] = 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 and 𝑛 = 5. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑦 This means that if we are differentiating a function of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥, we simply differentiate the function with respect to 𝑦 and multiply the
▪ [cos 𝑘𝑥] = −𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4
𝑑𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑦
result by 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥
Example 1: Prove, from first principles, that the derivative of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 is 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. You may assume that as ℎ → 0, 𝑑𝑦
= 5[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥]4 × (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) ∴ = 𝑓 ′ [𝑔(𝑥)] × 𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑑𝑥 Example 7: Find 𝑑𝑥 , given that 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑦 = 0.
→ 1 and → 0.
ℎ ℎ
4
= 5[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥] (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ [𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2] × (2𝑥 − 4) 𝑑 𝑑
Whenever you want to prove a result from first principles, we must use the following definition of the derivative: We differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥: [2𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑦] = [0]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
= 𝑒𝑥 −4𝑥+2
× (2𝑥 − 4) = (2𝑥 − 4)𝑒 𝑥 −4𝑥+2
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim [ ] [2𝑥 2 ] = 4𝑥 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 ln 3 × + 4𝑦 + 4𝑥 =0
ℎ→0 ℎ Using the addition formula, 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The product rule 𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Letting 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and using the above definition: [3 ] = 3𝑦 ln 3 × 𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
When we want to differentiate an expression that is a product of two functions, we can use the product rule. The product rule is: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 [3 ln 3 + 4𝑥] = −4𝑥 − 4𝑦 factorising out
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 A more convenient way to write this is
𝑑𝑦 Using the product rule:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim [ ] = lim [ ] = lim [ ] 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 ′ 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −4𝑥 − 4𝑦
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ▪ If 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣, then =𝑢 +𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣𝑢′ 𝑑𝑥
[4𝑥𝑦] = 4𝑦 + 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = 4𝑥 𝑢’ = 4 = making
𝑑𝑦
the subject
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 3𝑦 ln 3 + 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑦 𝑣’ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ − 1) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ − 1) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(sinh) where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are both functions of 𝑥 where 𝑢′ and 𝑣′ are derivatives of 𝑢 and 𝑣 with respect 𝑑𝑥
= lim [ ] = lim [ + ] to 𝑥.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ Using second derivatives
The quotient rule You need to be able to use the second derivative to figure out whether a curve is concave or convex on a given interval.
= lim[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(1)] = lim[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 When we want to differentiate an expression that is the quotient of two functions, we can use the quotient rule. The quotient rule is:
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 Factorising out 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 in the numerator, and then ▪ The function 𝑓(𝑥) is concave on a given interval if and only if 𝑓′′(𝑥) ≤ 0 for every value of 𝑥 in that interval.
splitting up the fraction
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 A more convenient way to write this is
𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑥−𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑣𝑢 ′ −𝑢𝑣 ′
= = ▪ The function 𝑓(𝑥) is convex on a given interval if and only if 𝑓′′(𝑥) ≥ 0 for every value of 𝑥 in that interval.
Using the assumptions given to us in the question ▪ If 𝑦 = 𝑢/𝑣, then 𝑑𝑥 𝑣2 𝑑𝑥 𝑣2
where 𝑢′ and 𝑣′ are derivatives of 𝑢 and 𝑣 with respect Here are two examples showing what concave and convex functions look like.
The proof for the derivative of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 is very similar. We would start by instead letting 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥. where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are both functions of 𝑥
to 𝑥. Convex Concave

𝑥
Differentiating exponentials and logarithms Note that the product rule could always be used in place of the quotient rule. For example, to differentiate
(2𝑥+1)2
,
You should also remember the following results: 2
we could use the quotient rule with 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 = (2𝑥 + 1) , but if we rewrite the expression as 𝑥(2𝑥 + 1) −2
then we can also use the
𝑑
product rule with 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑣 = (2𝑥 + 1)−2 .
▪ [𝑒 𝑘𝑥 ] = 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
▪ [𝑎𝑘𝑥 ] = 𝑎𝑘𝑥 (𝑘 ln 𝑎) Differentiating trigonometric functions
𝑑𝑥
You need to learn and be able to prove the following results:
You also need to know the definition of a point of inflection and be able to determine if a given point is a point of inflection.
𝑑 1
▪ [ln 𝑥] = 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
▪ [tan 𝑘𝑥] = 𝑘𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑘𝑥 • A point of inflection is a point where 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) changes sign. To determine a point of inflection, you must show that 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0 at that
𝑑𝑥
point and that 𝑓′′(𝑥) has opposing signs on either side of the point.
𝑑
You need to know how to prove the second result. ▪ 𝑑𝑥
[cosec 𝑘𝑥] = −𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑘𝑥 cot 𝑘𝑥

Example 2: Show that the derivative of 𝑎 𝑥 is 𝑎 𝑥 (ln 𝑎). ▪

𝑑
[cot 𝑘𝑥] = −𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑘𝑥 Rates of change
𝑑𝑥 An equation involving a derivative is known as a differential equation. You need to be able to form differential equations using information given in
We start by letting 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 . Now using the following property of exponentials: 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑑 a question. You also need to be able to apply the chain rule to problems involving rates of change, where there are more than two variables
▪ [sec 𝑘𝑥] = 𝑘𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑘𝑥 tan 𝑘𝑥 involved.
𝑑𝑥
𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 ln (𝑎 ) = 𝑒 𝑥(𝑙𝑛𝑎)
To prove any of the above, you can rewrite the functions in terms of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 and differentiate using the chain rule and Here are some general tips to remember when dealing with rate of change problems:
𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = (ln 𝑎) × 𝑒 𝑥(𝑙𝑛𝑎) Using the result:
𝑑
[𝑒 𝑘𝑥 ] = 𝑘𝑒 𝑘𝑥 with 𝑘 = ln 𝑎 product/quotient rules.
𝑑𝑥
• The units given in the question are helpful in interpreting the information given. In the below example, we are told “The rate at which
Example 5: Prove that the derivative of k𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 is −𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑘𝑥 cot 𝑘𝑥. fluid flows in m3min-1 is proportional to…”. The units m3 and min-1 represent volume and time which indicates this sentence is telling
But since we said in the first line that 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥(𝑙𝑛𝑎) , we have that 𝑑𝑉
1 us about
𝑑𝑡
.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑘𝑥 = sin 𝑘𝑥 = (sin 𝑘𝑥)−1
= (ln 𝑎) × 𝑦 = = (ln 𝑎) × 𝑎 𝑥 as required. • When a quantity is decreasing with time, remember that your expression for the rate of change should be negative.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥
By the chain rule [1], we have that = −1(sin 𝑘𝑥)−2 × (𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑘𝑥
Example 8: Fluid flows out of a cylindrical tank with constant cross section. At time 𝑡 minutes, 𝑡 > 0, the volume of fluid remaining in the tank is
The chain rule cos 𝑘𝑥 1 𝑉 𝑚3. The rate at which fluid flows in m3min-1 is proportional to the square root of V.
= −𝑘 × = −𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑘𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑘𝑥 as required.
The chain rule is a powerful method used to differentiate composite functions (i.e. expressions where one function is contained sin 𝑘𝑥 sin 𝑘𝑥 𝑑ℎ
2
in another function). An example of such a function would be 𝑒 𝑥 −3𝑥+1 , where the function 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 is contained inside the
Show that the depth, ℎ metres, of fluid in the tank satisfies the differential equation
𝑑𝑡
= −𝑘√ℎ, where 𝑘 is a positive constant.
function 𝑒 𝑥 . This rule allows us to differentiate seemingly complex expressions with ease and plays a pivotal role in this chapter.
The method for proving the other results is very similar. 𝑑𝑉
We are told the rate of fluid flow is proportional to the square root of V, so
𝑑𝑡
𝛼 √𝑉. We can write this as:
The chain rule is: 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡
= −𝑐 √𝑉 = − 𝑐√𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ since the tank is cylindrical and c is some constant. We have a negative sign because the volume in the
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 Parametric differentiation tank is decreasing with time, as fluid is flowing out of the tank.
▪ = × , where 𝑦 is a function of 𝑢 and 𝑢 is another function of 𝑥. To find the gradient of a function given in parametric form, you can use the following case of the chain rule:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉
We can write this in function notation, which tends to be easier to use in application: 𝑑𝑦
We currently have
𝑑𝑡
, but we want
𝑑𝑡
. This is where we need to use the chain rule to figure out how we can get from
𝑑𝑡
to
𝑑𝑡
.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
▪ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉
▪
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 , then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 × 𝑓′(𝑥) [1] 𝑑𝑥 By the chain rule, = × 𝑑𝑉 . This tells us we need to find 𝑑𝑉, then multiply by 𝑑𝑡 . Now recall again that the volume of the tank
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
is given by 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ. Differentiating this equation with respect to h:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
▪ If 𝑦 = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] then = 𝑓 ′ [𝑔(𝑥)] × 𝑔′(𝑥) [2] Example 6: Given that 𝑥 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝑦 = 4𝑡, find at 𝑡 = 𝜋.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ 1
⇒ = 𝜋𝑟 2 , so = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 4 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝜋𝑟2
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 and =4⟹ = 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ 1 𝑐√ℎ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
When differentiating functions that are not of the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the following case of the chain rule is useful: = × = 𝑐√𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ × 2 = .
𝑑𝑦 4 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉 𝜋𝑟 √𝜋𝑟 2
at 𝑡 = 𝜋, = = = −2
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑥 2 cos 𝜋 −2
▪ = 𝑑𝑥 But since 𝜋, 𝑟 and 𝑐 are all constants, we can let √𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑘. ∴
𝑐 𝑑ℎ
= 𝑘√ℎ for some constant 𝑘, as required.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦

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Integration Cheat Sheet Edexcel Pure Year 2
Integration is the inverse of differentiation. We can think of integration as a mathematical tool that allows us to
Integration via substitution is a powerful technique that can be used to solve more complex integrals, which might not be solvable
find areas enclosed between curves and the coordinate axes. In fact, the uses of integration extend far beyond
using methods we have looked at so far.
finding areas and can also be found in other fields of study, including Physics, Statistics and even Economics. Some complicated expressions can be integrated very easily if they are of one of the forms below: The idea is that we can pick a new variable, often called “𝑢”, which replaces the existing variable we had in an attempt to simplify
the integral. This is best illustrated by an example:
𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ𝑛+1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 401 𝑥
Very useful results [1] ∫ 𝑓 ′ ሺ𝑥ሻ[𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ]𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑛+1
+ 𝑐. e.g. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛400 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
401
+𝑐
20 8𝑥
3
Example 3: Find ∫6 𝑑𝑥 using the substitution 𝑢2 = 4𝑥 + 1.
∫
ሺ𝑥 3+4ሻ2

∫f(𝑥) d𝑥
1
f(𝑥) f(𝑥) d𝑥 2 3
∫ 𝑥 √𝑥 + 4 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∙ √4𝑥+1
f(𝑥) 3
[1] Differentiate 𝑢 2 = 4𝑥 + 1 to find dx in terms of du: You will need to use 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑢
2 2𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∴ 𝑑𝑢
= 2 so we can say 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
implicit differentiation here. You could instead make u the subject by taking the 2

𝑥 𝑛+1 1 square root of both sides of the equation before differentiating, but the
n
𝑥 tan k𝑥
𝑘
ln|sec k𝑥| 𝑓′ ሺ𝑥ሻ 2𝑥 differentiation becomes messy and less convenient.
𝑛+1 [2] ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ| + 𝑐 e.g. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥 2 + 42| + 𝑐
𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ 𝑥 2 +42 [2] We now need to substitute out all of the x terms. Using 𝑢 2 = 4𝑥 + 1 , we can 2𝑢 2 − 2 𝑢
1 𝑢 ∫ ∙ 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑢 2 − 1 𝑑𝑢
cot k𝑥 ln|sin k𝑥| see that 8𝑥 = 2𝑢 2 − 2. We also replace 𝑑𝑥 with 𝑑𝑢: √𝑢 2 2
𝑘 1 2
1 ax+b 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 1 1
eax+b e ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ቂ− 𝑙𝑛|2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1|ቃ + 𝑐 [3] We now need to find our new limits. Again, we can use our substitution 𝑢 2 = At 𝑥 = 6, 𝑢 = √4ሺ6ሻ + 1 = √25 = 5
a 1 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥+1 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥+1 2 4
cosec k𝑥 − ln|cosec k𝑥 + cot k𝑥| 4𝑥 + 1 to do this: At 𝑥 = 20, 𝑢 = √4ሺ20ሻ + 1 = √81 = 9
𝑘
9
1 1 [4] Finally, our “𝑥” integral has been completely transformed into a “𝑢” integral so 9
𝑢3 110 592
ln|a𝑥+b| 1 we can proceed to evaluate: ∫ 𝑢 2 − 1 𝑑𝑢 = [ − 𝑢] = [234] − [ ]=
a𝑥+b a sec k𝑥 ln|sec k𝑥 + tan k𝑥| 5 3 5
3 3
𝑘
Remember that you must adjust for any variation in constants. In example 2 of rule 1, we had to multiply our
1
𝑛+1 1 answer by since the differential of ሺ𝑥 3 + 4ሻ5 is 3𝑥 2 , not 𝑥 2 . Here are some helpful pointers regarding the substitution method:
1 ሺax+bሻ sec k𝑥2
tan k𝑥 3
(a𝑥+b)n 𝑘 While it is true you do not necessarily need to know the above rules, it is still very worthwhile for you to take the
a n+1 ▪ In the exam, you will often be told which substitution to use. If not, then a good rule of thumb is to “try whatever is
1 time to learn to apply them because they can greatly simplify otherwise difficult integrals.
sec k𝑥 tan k𝑥 sec k𝑥 inside brackets or square root”. For example, if you are given ∫ 𝑥√3𝑥 + 4 𝑑𝑥, a good choice of substitution would be
1 𝑘
sin k𝑥 − cos k𝑥 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 4. Be aware that this “rule” may not always work, but it is helpful to try if you are unsure what to substitute.
k
1 ▪ You might occasionally find it difficult to spot a substitution that would work in hindsight. In this case, it is best to
cosec2 k𝑥 − cot k𝑥
1 𝑘 You could also be asked to integrate an expression involving a fraction with more than one linear factor in the simply try a couple and see whether they are helpful or not.
sin k𝑥 These can be derived from
cos k𝑥
k the differentiation section
11𝑥 2 +14𝑥+5 ▪ If you decide to use a substitution when evaluating an indefinite integral, don’t forget to give your final answer in terms
1 denominator. Take for example, the expression . This cannot be integrated directly so we need
in the formula booklet cosec k𝑥 cot k𝑥 − cosec k𝑥 ሺ𝑥+1ሻ2 ሺ2𝑥+1ሻ of the variable you started with!
𝑘
to simplify it, which is where partial fractions come in handy. Using partial fractions, we can rewrite this as
4 2 3
− ሺ𝑥+1ሻ2 + .
𝑥+1 ሺ2𝑥+1ሻ
When we want to integrate an expression that is a product of two functions, we can use integration by parts. Think back to the
product rule for differentiation; the idea is the same. The formula is as follows:
Now, each of the above terms can be integrated directly using one of the standard results on the left. Carrying
“by parts” formula: You will also be given out the integration: b b
these in the formula b
booklet.
11𝑥 2 +14𝑥+5 4 2 3 or, if we are using limits:
∫ ሺ𝑥+1ሻ2 ሺ2𝑥+1ሻ
𝑑𝑥 =∫ − ሺ𝑥+1ሻ2 + 𝑑𝑥 a
a
𝑥+1 ሺ2𝑥+1ሻ a
Trapezium rule:
2 3 𝑑𝑣
= 4 ln|𝑥 + 1| + + ln|2𝑥 + 1| +c When using this method, we need to pick one of our functions to be 𝑑𝑥 and the other to be u. This choice is crucial and should
𝑥+1 2
be made based on the “LATE” rule: Easier to integrate
Such questions are often worth upwards of 6 marks and are heavily reliant on your ability to use partial fractions
well. The integration is mostly straight forward and does not require much extra work outside of applying the L A T E
standard results, but it is the partial fractions procedure that can be a little tedious.

Logarithms Algebra Trig. Exponentials

Just like in Pure Year 1, you will need to use integration to find areas. You should remember:
e.g ln 2𝑥 . 2𝑥 2 + 4 6𝑠𝑖𝑛ሺ4𝑥ሻ 𝑒 3𝑥

𝑏 In some cases, you might not be able to integrate a function algebraically. We can instead use a numerical Whichever function in your expression is easier to integrate should be selected as
𝑑𝑣
. Once you have made this choice, you can
▪ ∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 represents the area bounded between the curve method called the trapezium rule to find an estimate for the area under the curve. 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ, the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏. proceed to using the formula. Here are some key points to keep in mind when integrating by parts:

𝑏 𝑑𝑥 The concept is simple: we divide the area required into vertical ‘strips’ which each form trapezia, find the ▪ With some questions you may need to apply the ‘by parts’ formula more than once to get to the final answer. An
▪ When a function is given parametrically, the area under the curve is given by ∫𝑎 ቂ𝑦 ቃ 𝑑𝑡. Remember that 𝑎
𝑑𝑡 approximate area of each strip (using the area of a trapezium formula) and finally add them all up giving us the example of this would be if you were asked to evaluate ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .
and 𝑏 are limits given in terms of 𝑡, and the integration is done with respect to 𝑡. total area. The more strips we use with the trapezium rule, the more accurate our estimate is. The formula for 𝑑𝑣
𝑏
𝑏 ▪ When evaluating ∫ ln𝑥 𝑑𝑥 in particular, you need to use ‘by parts”. To do so, let = 1.
the trapezium rule is: 𝑑𝑥
▪ lim ∑ 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ𝛿𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ 𝑑𝑥
You need to be able to recognise that 𝛿𝑥→0 End x-value
Starting x-value
𝑎 Y-value at starting point
𝑥=𝑎

Number of strips used

Any equation involving derivatives is known as a differential equation. The order of a differential equation is the order of the
You might come across an expression involving trigonometric functions that you can’t integrate straight away using one of Y-value at end point highest derivative in the equation. You need to be able to solve differential equations of first order, using a method known as
You could also be asked to determine whether your estimate is an overestimate or an underestimate. To do so, Separation of Variables:
the results above. For example, ∫sin3 𝑥 d𝑥 can’t be found directly.
you must look at the graph of the curve in the region you are estimating and determine whether it is concave or 𝑑𝑦 1
convex. When = 𝑓ሺ𝑥 ሻ𝑔ሺ𝑦ሻ, we can write ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ 𝑑𝑥
To tackle problems of this sort, you need to manipulate the expression into a form you can integrate. This is why it is crucial 𝑑𝑥 𝑔ሺ𝑦ሻ
you are familiar with all of the identities you encountered in chapters 6 and 7. Below is an example showcasing we do this
Keep in mind that once we carry out the above integration, there will be an unknown constant of integration left over. This is
in practice. Convex, Concave,
why the solution that we attain is known as a general solution. Sometimes, you will be given a boundary condition, which tells
Overestimate Underestimate
you a point that your solution passes through. This allows you to find a particular solution. Remember: the solution to a
Example 1: Evaluate ∫ sin 𝑥 d𝑥
2 differential equation is a function!
2
∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ሺ1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥ሻ𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. using 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 x = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 x The process is always the same when it comes to solving differential equations and can be summarised as:
Another common question is to find the percentage error of your estimate. To find this, you can use the formula
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1 for percentage error: 𝑑𝑦
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1, 𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 =
2
[1] Rearrange the equation you are given into the form = 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ𝑔ሺ𝑦ሻ.
𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒−𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑥
% error = × 100 [2] Evaluate ∫
1
𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓ሺ𝑥ሻ 𝑑𝑥, using your knowledge of integration.
1 1 1 1 1 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡
using the double angle formulae 𝑔ሺ𝑦ሻ
∴ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑥] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 + 𝑥
2 2 2 4 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 − 1 [3] Add the constant of integration and rearrange your general solution into the required form (this is given to you in
Here, “exact” represents the exact value of the integral, which you would need to find algebraically. the question).
2 1 1
𝑠𝑜 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐 [4] If you need to find the particular solution, substitute the given boundary condition into your general solution and
4 2
find your unknown constant.

.
any given point tangent at that given point given point &( vice versa). You can refer to the table below,

Now to find the derivative of 𝑦 at point(2,5), you need to substitute 𝑥 = 2 in the derivative function Any point on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓 !(𝑥) = 0 is called a stationary point. For a small positive value ℎ:
𝑑𝑦 Type of stationary point 𝒇! (𝒙 − 𝒉) 𝒇′(𝒙) 𝒇′(𝒙 + 𝒉)
Finding derivative: = 𝑓 ! (2) = 4(2) − 1 = 8 − 1 = 7
𝑑𝑥 Local maximum +ve (Positive) 0 -ve (Negative)
In this section you will learn how to find derivative of a function (i.e. exact gradient of a curve or Hence, the gradient of the curve with equation 𝑦 = 2𝑥 % − 𝑥 − 1 at the point (2,5) is 7. Local minimum -ve (Negative) 0 +ve (Positive)
function at a given point)
-ve (Negative) 0 -ve (Negative)
Consider the following figure for a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) Gradient, tangents and normal Point of Inflection
+ve (Positive) 0 +ve (Positive)
In this section, you will learn to find equation of tangent and normal to a curve at a given point.
As point 𝐵 moves closer to point 𝐴, the gradient of chord 𝐴𝐵 gets closer What is normal? You can also use second order derivative, 𝑓′′(𝑥), to determine the nature of Stationary points
to the gradient of tangent to the curve at 𝐴. Normal to a curve at point 𝐴 is a straight line passing through 𝐴 and
The coordinate of 𝐴 is (𝑥$ , 𝑓(𝑥$)) and 𝐵 is (𝑥$ + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑥$ + ℎ)). So, the perpendicular to the tangent line at point 𝐴.
-(($ 0")*-(($ )
If a function 𝑓(𝑥) has a stationary point when x = 𝑎 (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 ! (𝑎) = 0 ) then if:
gradient of AB is . As ℎ gets smaller, gradient of 𝐴𝐵 gets closer to For a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the gradient of the tangent at point 𝐴 with
"
gradient of curve at 𝐴. 𝑥 coordinate 𝑎 is 𝑓 ! (𝑎) 𝒇′′(𝒂) > 𝟎 ⟹ Local minimum 𝒇!! (𝒂) = 𝟎⟶Could be local minimum, local maximum or point of
Hence, 𝒇′′(𝒂) < 𝟎 ⟹ Local maximum inflection. You will have to use the above table to determine its
The equation of tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
The gradient function or the derivative of a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is given by nature.
𝒇(𝒙0𝒉)*𝒇(𝒙) at the point with coordinates (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is given by You have come across in chapter 5 that the equation of
𝒇! (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 lim. means the limit as ℎ tends to 0. straight line with gradient m that passes through the point
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉 "→$
(𝑥+,𝑥% ) is given by Example 6: For 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 0 − 3𝑥 % + 3𝑥, (1,1) is a stationary point.
This rule is called differentiating from the first principle 𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) Determine the nature of the stationary point.
𝑦 − 𝑦+ = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥%)
You can use 𝑓′′(𝑥) to find the nature of As 𝑓 !! (0), you need to consider points on either side of 𝑥 = 1,
Example 1: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 % a. Show that 𝑓 $ (𝑥) = lim (2𝑥 + ℎ) b. Hence deduce that 𝑓 $ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 So, since the gradient of tangent at point A is 𝑓 ! (𝑎), (1,1) i.e. you need to check sign or shape of gradient on either side of 1
&→( +
a. Use the definition of derivative the gradient of Normal at point A will be − "(.) To find 𝑓 !! (𝑥), we need to find the 𝑥 0.9 1 1.1
- The gradient of perpendicular lines are negative derivative twice
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ! (𝑥) 0.03 0 0.03
𝑓 ! (𝑥) = lim reciprocal of each other
+ Hence, 𝑓 ! (𝑥) = 3𝑥 % − 6𝑥 + 3 Shape /+ve ----- /+ve
"→$ ℎ b. The equation of normal to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at i.e. 𝑚+ = − , where 𝑚+ and 𝑚% are gradients !! (𝑥)
8! ⇒𝑓 = 6𝑥 − 6
+
%
So 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 implies 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ) , % 𝑓 ! (𝑥) = 2𝑥 point 𝐴 ≡ (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) with gradient − " (.) is given by of perpendicular lines Substituting 𝑥 = 1 Since the gradient on both sides of (1,1) is positive, (1,1) is
-
Substitute 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) and 𝑓(𝑥) into the above definition of From part a, we know that 1 we get, 𝑓 !! (1) = 6(1) − 6 = 0 point of inflection
derivative 𝑓 ! (𝑥) = lim(2𝑥 + ℎ) 𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = − ! (𝑥 − 𝑎)
Expand the bracket "→$ 𝑓 (𝑎)
(𝑥 + ℎ)% − 𝑥 % Apply the limits Here are some examples for you to understand how to find equation of tangent and normal. Example 7: a. Find the coordinates of the stationary point on 𝑦 = 𝑥 1 − 32𝑥
𝑓 ! (𝑥) = lim (𝑥 + ℎ)% = (𝑥 + ℎ)(𝑥 + ℎ) b. Determine the nature of stationary point using second order derivative
"→$ ℎ = 𝑥 % + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ% As h→0, 2𝑥 + ℎ → 2𝑥
h→0 means as h tends to 0 or h approaches a. Find the derivate of 𝑦 and equate to 0. b. To find the nature of stationary point,
Example 4: Find the equation of tangent and normal to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 % − 7𝑥 + 10 at the point (2,0) '(
𝑥 % + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ% − 𝑥 % Factorise the numerator to 0, 2𝑥 + ℎ approaches 2𝑥 = 4𝑥 0 − 32 find whether 𝑓′′(𝑥) > 0, 𝑓′′(𝑥) < 0 or
𝑓 ! (𝑥)
= lim First find the derivative of 𝑦, in order to find the gradient. Once you get the gradient function, substitute the 𝑥 ')
!!
ℎ Let = 0 and solve the equation to find the value of 𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥) = 0
↓ '(
"→$ Hence, coordinate i.e. 2 into the function ')
𝑓 ! (𝑥) = lim(2𝑥 + ℎ) = 2𝑥 &'
So, = 2𝑥 − 7 4𝑥 0 − 32 = 0 ⟹ 4𝑥 0 = 32
2𝑥ℎ + ℎ% ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ) "→$ '!(
𝑓 ! (𝑥)
= lim ⟹ 𝑓 ! (𝑥)
= lim &(
Hence, 𝑥 = 2 = 4 × 3 × 𝑥 0*% − 0 = 12𝑥 %
"→$ ℎ "→$ ℎ 𝑑𝑦 ') !
⇒ = 𝑓 ! (2) = 2(2) − 7 = 4 − 7 = −3 Substituting the value of 𝑥 in to the original equation '!(
𝑑𝑥 When 𝑥 = 2, = 12(2)% = 48
! (𝑥) we get 𝑦 coordinate ') !
𝑓 = lim(2𝑥 + ℎ) &'
Since 𝑓 !! (2)
= 48 > 0, point (2, −48) is a local
"→$ Substitute the gradient = −3, 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 into the equation of tangent So for 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 21 − 32 × 2 = −48
&(
minimum
The equation of tangent is 𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) Hence (2, −48) is a stationary point.
Differentiating 𝒙𝒏 ⇒ 𝑦 − 0 = −3(𝑥 − 2) ⇒ 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 6
In this chapter you will only learn how to differentiate functions of the form 𝑥 & , where 𝑛 is any number. Hence equation of tangent to the curve 𝑦 at (2,0) is 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 6 Modelling with differentiation:
Use the following results to differentiate functions. In this section you will learn how to use derivatives to model real life situations involving rates of change.
'(
Equation of normal: represents the rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥. The term 𝑑𝑦 is small change in 𝑦 and term 𝑑𝑥 is small
')
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 & then
'(
= 𝑓 !(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 &*+ where 𝑛 is any real number Now as discussed earlier, 1 (𝑥 − 2) change in 𝑥.
') + + + ⇒𝑦−0= (𝑥 − 2) ⇒ 𝑦 =
the gradient of normal is − =− = 3 3 You know that speed is the change in distance over change in time. So if 𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡) is the function that
-" (.) */ / Hence the equation of normal to the curve 𝑦 at (2,0) '2
'(
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 & then = 𝑓 ! (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 &*+ where 𝑛 is any real number and 𝑎 is a constant So the equation of normal at point (2,0) will be, ((*%)
represents distance of object from a fixed point at time t, then = 𝑓′(𝑡) represents speed of the object at
') '3
1 is 𝑦 = time t.
/
𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = − ! (𝑥 − 𝑎)
Here is an example for you to understand how to apply the results 𝑓 (𝑎)
Example 2: Find the derivative, 𝑓 ! (𝑥) when 𝑓(𝑥) equals: Example 8: Given that the volume, 𝑉 cm3, of an expanding sphere is related to its radius, 𝑟 cm, by the formula
1
a. 𝑥 , b. 10𝑥 *+ Increasing and decreasing function: 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 0 , find the rate of change of volume with respect to radius at the instant when the radius is 5 cm.
0
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , b. 𝑓(𝑥) =10𝑥 *+ As you know derivative represents rate of change, so in order to find rate of change of volume with respect
In this section you will be able to find out whether a function is increasing or decreasing.
You are supposed to find derivative Use the result for 𝑎𝑥 & '4
The function 𝑓(𝑥) in the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], for all values of 𝑥 where 𝑎 < 𝑏 is to radius 𝑟 = 5, you will have to find
of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , , use the result for 𝑥 & 𝑓 ! (𝑥) = 10 × (−1) × 𝑥 *+*+ = −10 𝑥 *% '4 1
'5

So 𝑓 ! (𝑥) = 6𝑥 ,*+ = 6𝑥 - +
𝑓 ! (𝑥) = −10 × ! = − !
+$
As 𝑥 *% =
+ Increasing if Decreasing if Hence, = × 𝜋 × 3 × 𝑟 0*+ = 4𝜋𝑟 % remember 𝜋 is a constant, so it will be multiplied with 4
'5 0
) ) )!
𝒇′(𝒙) ≥ 𝟎 𝑓′(𝑥) ≤ 0 When 𝑟 = 5,
'4
= 4𝜋 × (5)% = 314 remember 𝜋 value is 3.14
'5
'4 67#
So, the rate of change is 314 cm3 per cm. Interpret the answer with units P → R
'5 67

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Integration Cheat Sheet Edexcel Pure Year 1
Integration is the reverse of differentiation. We can use integration to find areas bounded We start by sketching the curve:
Here is an example showing how we use these properties in practice:
between a curve and the coordinate axes.
2
Example 2: Evaluate ∫ 2𝑥 + − " ) + 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Notation
The ∫ symbol is used to represent integration. Since integration is the reverse of differentiation,
we have that We can split up the integral as follows:

The 𝑑𝑥 means that we are integrating with

⇒ 2∫ 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + (−4)∫ 𝑥 1% 𝑑𝑥 + 4∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
respect to 𝑥
!" We see that the curve is strictly positive for −3 < 𝑥 < 0 and strictly negative for
§ If !#
= 𝑓(𝑥) then 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥 1$ 𝑥% 0 < 𝑥 < 1. We must find the area of these regions separately and add the results
⇒ 28 9+ 𝑐 − 48 9 +𝑑 +48 9 +𝑒
4 −1 2 together:
The integral sign
The expression we want to integrate goes 0 $
between the integral sign and the 𝑑𝑥. This is
𝑥2 4 Area required = ∫1+ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
⇒ + + 2𝑥 % + 𝑘
known as the integrand. 2 𝑥
"' %" ( +" )
Indefinite integrals ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 + + 2𝑥 % − 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = @ 2 + − A
Each of the integrals yields an integration constant (𝑐, 𝑑 and 𝑒), so we can denote their total as one + %
!
In this chapter, you will only learn how to integrate functions of the form 𝑥 , where 𝑛 is a constant, 𝑘.
constant and 𝑛 ≠ −1. To integrate functions of this form, you can use the following result: 0 3$ %(%5) +(7) 28
so ∫1+ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = (0) − B 2 − +
− %
C= 2

" !"#
§ ∫ 𝑥 ! 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐 Finding the constant of integration $ $ % + 5
!#$ and ∫0 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = B2 + + − %C − (0) = − $%
You can find the constant of integration if you are given a point the curve passes through or the value of the
function at a given point.
The " + 𝑐" is known as the constant of integration. To see why we need to add this constant to 28 5 5$
so the required area is + =
our result, consider the following three functions: Example 3: The curve 𝐶 with equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) passes through the point (4,5). Given that 𝑓 & (𝑥)
=
' ! (%'
, find the
2 $% 9
√'
equation of 𝐶. If we tried to calculate the area using just one definite integral, the negative and positive area
- 𝑦 = 𝑥% + 2
- 𝑦 = 𝑥% would partly cancel out giving us an incorrect answer.
𝑥" ! +
- 𝑦 = 𝑥% − 9 𝑓 & (𝑥) = − 4𝑥 $.# = 𝑥 " − 4𝑥 "
𝑥 $.#
More complicated areas
If we differentiate the above functions, the result is the same:
&'
= 2𝑥 because the constant
# ! You may need to combine triangles, trapeziums and direct integrals to calculate more complicated
𝑥" 4𝑥 " 2 # 8 !
&" ∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = − +𝑐 ⇒𝑦 = 𝑥" − 𝑥" + 𝑐 areas. A common type of problem is one where you must find the area bounded between a curve
term disappears upon differentiating. But since integration is the reverse of differentiation, we 5 3 5 3
2 2 and a line.
should be able to integrate 2𝑥 and get back to whichever of those functions we started with. To
allow for this, we must add the unknown constant of integration, 𝑐, to our end result. But we are told that at 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 5. Substituting these values: Example 5: The diagram shows part of the curve with equation 𝑦 = 3√𝑥 − √𝑥 + + 4 and the line
$
The above process is known as indefinite integration. 2 # 8 ! with equation 𝑦 = 4 − % 𝑥. Given that the line and the curve cross at the point 𝐴(4, 2), find the
5= (4)" − (4)" + 𝑐
5 3 area of the finite region bounded by the curve and the line.
Definite integrals 64 64 203 2 # 8 ! 203
A definite integral is one where the integral is bounded between two limits. The main difference 5= − +𝑐 ⟹ 𝑐= ∴ 𝑦= 𝑥" − 𝑥" +
5 3 15 5 3 15
between a definite integral and an indefinite integral is that a definite integral will yield a
numerical value, while an indefinite integral will yield a function. To calculate a definite integral: Finding Areas
You need to be able to use definite integration to find the area bounded between a curve and the 𝑥-
axis.
*
§ ∫) 𝑓 ( (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑓(𝑥)]*) = 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
§ The area between a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑏 and the 𝑥-axis is given by
To find the required area, we can subtract the area of the trapezium made by the line
+ We write the result in square brackets, with the * and the axes from the area under the curve:
Example 1: Evaluate ∫% 𝑥 % 𝑑𝑥. limits outside 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 7 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

3
)
[1] [2]
3 3
+
𝑥3 3 2 8 19
7 𝑥 % 𝑑𝑥 = 8 9 = : ;−: ; = 9− = Required area =
% 3 2
3 3 3 3 −
The limits of the integral are 2 and 3, written on the We substitute our limits into the result, and Areas under the 𝒙-axis
top and bottom of the integral sign. simplify, When integrating over an interval where the curve is below the 𝑥-axis, the resultant area will be "
Integrating the curve. Note that √𝑥 ! = 𝑥 !
negative. As a result, you need to take extra care when finding areas under curves which are not
Integrating polynomials strictly positive. %
You can use the following two properties of integrals to integrate expressions where %
!
3𝑥 " 𝑥 "
#
! 2 # 96
there are multiple terms of the form 𝑎𝑥 & [1] = ( 3√𝑥 − ,𝑥 ! + 4 𝑑𝑥 = / − + 4𝑥2 = 32 34"4 − (4)" + 4(4)4 − (0) =
§ When integrating over an interval where the curve is both above and below the 𝑥-axis, you $
3 5 5 5
should split the integral up into separate regions where the function is strictly positive or 2 2 $
𝑥𝑛+1 negative in each.
§ ∫ 𝑘𝑥 & 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘∫ 𝑥 & 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 2 3 + 𝑐 for any constant 𝑘. (𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ (4 + 2)(4)
𝑛+1 [2] = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 = = = 12 Substituting the limits
2 2
Example 4: Find the area bounded between the curve with equation
§ ∫ 𝑥 & + 𝑥 ' 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 & 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 ' 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) and the 𝑥-axis over the interval −3 < 𝑥 < 1 . 96 36
∴ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = − 12 =
5 5

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Exponentials and Logarithms Cheat Sheet Edexcel Pure Year 1
Exponential functions Example 2: c. 2log " 3 + 3log " 2
Functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 ! , where 𝑎 is a constant, are called exponential functions. You should The density of a pesticide in a given section of field, P mg/m2 , can be modelled by the equation 2log " 3 = log " (3% ) = log " 9
become familiar with these functions and the shapes of their graphs. 𝑃 = 160𝑒 #'.'')* 3log " 2 = log " (20 ) = log " 8
For instance, table below shows an example of values for 𝑦 = 2! . log " 9 + log " 8 = log " 72
where t is the time in days since the pesticide was first applied.
a. Use this model to estimate the density of pesticide after 15 days. 1
𝑥 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 d. log&' 3 − 4log&' F G
1 1 1 After 15 days, 𝑡 = 15. 2
𝑦 1 2 4 8
8 4 2 𝑃 = 160𝑒 #'.'')×&" 1 1 $ 1
4log&' F G = log&' F G = log&' F G
𝑃 = 146.2 mg/m2 2 2 16
1 1
The graph of 𝑦 = 2! is a smooth curve that looks like this: b. Interpret the meaning of the value 160 in this model. log&' 3 − log&' F G = log&' F3 ÷ G = log&' 48
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑃 = 160𝑒 , = 160, so 160 mg/m2 is the initial density of pesticide in the 16 16
𝑦
field. Solving equations using logarithms
-.
c. Show that -* = 𝑘𝑃, where 𝑘 is a constant, and state the value of 𝑘. You can use logarithms and your calculator to solve equations of the form 𝑎 ! = 𝑏. You
can also solve more complicated equations by ‘taking logs’ of both sides.
𝑃 = 160𝑒 #'.'')* -1
-. If 𝑦 = 𝑒 2! then = 𝑘𝑒 2! • Whenever 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥), log / 𝑓(𝑥) = log / 𝑔(𝑥)
= −0.96𝑒 #'.'')* , so 𝑘 = −0.96 -!
-*
𝑥 d. Interpret the significance of the sign of your answer to part c. Example 5: Solve the following equations, giving your answers to 3 decimal places.
As 𝑘 is negative, the density of the pesticide is decreasing (there is exponential decay) a. 3! = 20
So 𝑥 = log 0 20 = 2.727 Use the log button on your calculator
𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙 e. Sketch the graph of P against t.
!
𝑃
Exponential functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 have a special property. The graphs of their gradient b. 5$!#& = 61
functions are a similar shape to the graphs of the function themselves. When the value of a is So 4𝑥 − 1 = log " 61
approximately equal to 2.71878, the gradient function is exactly the same as the original function. 160 4𝑥 = log " 61 + 1
The exact value of this is represented by the letter e.
4,5# )&6&
𝑥= = 0.889
For all real values of 𝒙: $
• If 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 then 𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 𝑡
𝒅𝒚
0 Working with natural logarithms
• If 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙 then 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙
• The graph of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 is a reflection of the graph 𝑦 = 𝑒 ! in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
!
Logarithms The graph of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 passes through (1,0) and does not cross the y-axis.
A similar result holds for functions such as 𝑒 "! , 𝑒 #! and 𝑒 "! . The inverses of exponential functions are called logarithms. The y-axis is an asymptote of the graph 𝑦 = ln 𝑥. This means that ln 𝑥 is only defined for
• log / 𝑛 = 𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑎 ! = 𝑛 (𝑎 ≠ 1) positive values of x.
For all real values of 𝒙 and for any constant 𝒌:
Logarithms are the inverses of exponential functions. This rule can be used to solve
• If 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒌𝒙 then 𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝒌𝒆𝒌𝒙 Example 3: Write each statement as a logarithm.
𝒅𝒚 ! equations involving powers and logarithms.
• If 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒌𝒙 then 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒌𝒆𝒌𝒙 a. 3! = 9 b. 2" = 128 c. 64" = 8
• 𝑒 78 ! = ln(𝑒 ! ) = 𝑥
• ln 𝑥 = log 9 𝑥
a. 3! = 9, so log 0 9 = 2
Example 1: Differentiate with respect to 𝑥. b. 2" = 128, so log % 128 = 7
! & Example 6: Solve these equations, giving your answers in exact form.
!
c. 64" = 8, so log )$ 8 = Logarithms can take fractional or negative values a. 𝑒 ! = 5
a. 𝑒 $! b. 𝑒 #"! c. 3𝑒 %! %
When 𝑒 ! = 5
ln(𝑒 ! ) = ln 5 You can write the natural logarithm on both sides
a. 𝑦 = 𝑒 $! Laws of logarithms
Use the rule for differentiating 𝑒 2! with 𝑘 = 4 𝑥 = ln 5
𝑑𝑦 Expressions involving more than one logarithm can be rearranged or simplified.
= 4𝑒 $!
𝑑𝑥 The laws of logarithms: b. ln 𝑥 = 3
• log / 𝑥 + log / 𝑦 = log / 𝑥𝑦 (the multiplication law) When ln 𝑥 = 3
! !
b. 𝑦 = 𝑒 #"! • log / 𝑥 − log / 𝑦 = log / 1 (the division law) 𝑒 78 ! = 𝑒 0
𝑑𝑦 1 & • log / (𝑥 2 ) = 𝑘log / 𝑥 (the power law) 𝑥 = 𝑒0
= − 𝑒 #%!
𝑑𝑥 2
You should also recognise the following special cases: Logarithms and non-linear data
%! To differentiate 𝑎𝑒 2! , multiply the whole & Logarithms can also be used to manage and explore non-linear trends in data.
c. 𝑦 = 3𝑒 • log / = log / (𝑥 #& ) = −log / 𝑥 (the power law when 𝑘 = −1 )
!
𝑑𝑦 function by 𝑘. The derivate is 𝑘𝑎𝑒 2! .
= 2 × 3𝑒 %! = 6𝑒 %! • log / 𝑎 = 1 (𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1) If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 : then the graph of log 𝑦 against log 𝑥 will be a straight line with gradient 𝑛 and
𝑑𝑥 • log / 1 = 0 (𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1) vertical intercept log 𝑎.
log 𝑦
Exponential modelling Example 4: Write as a single logarithm.
𝑒 ! can be used to model situations such as population growth, where the rate of increase is a. log 0 6 + log 0 7
proportional to the size of the population at any given moment. Similarly, 𝑒 #! can be used to model = log 0 (6 × 7)
radioactive decay, where the rate of decrease is proportional to the number of atoms remaining. = 42 log 𝑎

b. log % 15 − log % 3
= log % (15 ÷ 3) 0
= log % 5 log 𝑥

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Math Summary

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Math Summary

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Sequences and Series Cheat Sheet Edexcel Pure Year 2

A sequence is a list of terms. For example, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …

Adding [1] and [2] gives us: ∑(7 − 2𝑟) = 5 + 3 + 1 − 1 + ⋯

let |𝑥| < 1. Our2“𝑥” term here is −2𝑥.

Linear transformations of roots

∴ 𝑥 = 0.36, 1.93 are our final solutions.

Notice that sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) = sin(𝜃), 𝜋

Example 3: Solve 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360°.

using 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

using the 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑥 and 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 identities: 3𝑔(𝑥 + 1) + 𝜋 = 3[𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + 1 + 2) − 2] + 𝜋

In the 4𝑎𝑏! term the total index is 1 + 3 = 4. 𝑟 (!("+()!

Example 2: Show that the derivative of 𝑎 𝑥 is 𝑎 𝑥 (ln 𝑎). ▪

Logarithms Algebra Trig. Exponentials

Number of strips used

The 𝑑𝑥 means that we are integrating with

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