IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 60, NO.

3, MAY/JUNE 2024 4843

On Protection Schemes for AC Microgrids:

Challenges and Opportunities
Jorge Ignacio D. Cisneros-Saldana , Student Member, IEEE,
Smrutirekha Samal , Graduate Student Member, IEEE, Miroslav M. Begovic , Life Fellow, IEEE,
and Subhransu Ranjan Samantaray , Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—The integration of Distributed energy resources or serve as a backup source during emergencies, usually incor-
(DERs) into distribution networks has been increasing in recent porating small-scale generators or storage devices. The use of
years, causing concerns related to operation, control, stability, reli-
DERs in distribution networks has led to the emergence of the
ability, and protections. The traditional protection schemes based
on overcurrent (OC) relays, which are commonly used in radial concept of DG, which involves a group of small power sources
distribution networks, experience issues with fault current levels connected to the distribution system supplying electricity close
and tripping decision rules due to the wide variations in operating to the point of consumption. DG can refer to any power gener-
conditions of microgrids under Inverter based resources (IBR) ation or storage device located near the load and is sometimes
under parallel operation. In this paper, the effects of Distributive
referred to as a distributed energy system. A microgrid is a local
Generation (DG) penetration on conventional protection schemes
in microgrids are examined, and a thorough review of multiple ap- network of DGs that can operate either in grid-connected mode
proaches for addressing protection challenges in microgrids, based or independently, also known as islanded or off-grid mode, pro-
on existing literature and exhaustive studies, is presented. Potential viding an opportunity to reduce the cost, complexity, interdepen-
adaptive and intelligent protection schemes are discussed which dencies, and inefficiencies associated with generating electricity
enhances the performance of traditional protection schemes in
from a remote central station. However, the integration of more
microgrids. This paper provides an insightful approach of the chal-
lenges associated with DER integration in distribution networks DGs in the distribution network can pose significant challenges
and presents a range of solutions for protecting and enhancing to voltage and frequency management, as well as protection,
microgrids operation. This paper also delivers an exhaustive review due to the bidirectional flow of power and fluctuations in fault
of norms and standards, emphasizing the need for advanced protec- current levels. Protection issues such as unintentional islanding,
tion schemes that can handle the dynamic and intermittent nature
short circuit capacity variation, and relay miscoordination must
of DERs and the importance of integrating communication and
control system architectures into microgrids ensuring reliability be addressed with the increasing deployment of DGs [1].
and resiliency. Generating electricity near the point of use has the potential to
reduce costs, complexity, interdependencies, and inefficiencies
Index Terms—Distributed energy resource, distributed
generation, intelligent protection, inverter based resources, that come with generating power at a remote central station, and
microgrid protection, protective relay schemes. also minimizes losses in transmission lines. However, a growing
I. INTRODUCTION number of DGs connected to the distribution network can affect
the reliability, stability, and protection of the network. Managing
ISTRIBUTED Energy Resources (DERs) are commonly
D employed to generate electricity in remote power networks
voltage and frequency, as well as protection, are the key chal-
lenges in operating a microgrid. Each DG’s interface mechanism
is a critical factor affecting current protection strategies. DGs
Manuscript received 31 March 2023; revised 28 October 2023; accepted 4
January 2024. Date of publication 15 January 2024; date of current version 21 utilizing power electronics devices and inverter-based resources
May 2024. Paper 2023-PSPC-0183.R1, presented at the 2022 IEEE Texas Power (IBRs) exhibit distinct response characteristics compared to
and Energy Conference, College Station, TX, USA, Feb. 28–Mar. 01, and ap-
proved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS
those utilizing rotating machines like synchronous or induction
by the Power Systems Protection Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications generators. Many non-traditional energy sources, solar cells and
Society [DOI: 10.1109/TPEC54980.2022.9750716]. This work was supported fuel cells, use inverters or converters to integrate DC and AC,
in part by the Department of Energy under Award DE-IA0000025, and in part
by the Indo-US Science and Technology Foundation in partnership with the
while synchronous generators that are directly linked to the
Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, under Grant distribution grid use combustion engines with rotating machines,
IUSSTF/JCERDC-Smart Grids and Energy Storage/2017. (Corresponding which are outdated [2].
author: Smrutirekha Samal.)
Jorge Ignacio D. Cisneros-Saldana and Miroslav M. Begovic are with the
Traditionally, electric utilities have relied on radial feeders to
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University, distribute power to their customers, and their protection systems
College Station, TX 77801 USA (e-mail: [email protected]; begovic@ were designed with one-way power flow in mind. However,
tamu.edu).
Smrutirekha Samal and Subhransu Ranjan Samantaray are with the School
the addition of distributed generation (DG) to the distribution
of Electrical Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha network has transformed the flow of power from unidirectional
752050, India (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]). to bidirectional. This integration of DGs has caused protec-
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at
https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2024.3353721.
tive relays to face considerable variations in fault current lev-
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2024.3353721 els, which can restrict their functioning and tripping options

0093-9994 © 2024 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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 4844 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 60, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2024

TABLE I
DISTRIBUTION MODEL PARAMETERS

Fig. 1. Short circuit capacity in different modes [4].

when conventional protection methods are no longer applicable.
Consequently, several protection challenges need to be tackled,
such as inadvertent islanding, modifications in short-circuit ca-
pacity, bi-directional power flow, failure of auto re-closure, lim-
ited coverage of impedance relays, spurious tripping, saturation
of protection devices, and complications in relay coordination
[3].
This paper provides an extensive review of protection methods Fig. 2. Bidirectional Power Flow [4].
proposed in the literature for the complex scenarios that arise
from the integration of DERs in a microgrid distribution system.
The goal of this work is to draw attention to the issues associated A. Short Circuit Capacity
with protection and to suggest protection schemes that can be
effective when various types of DG and load are linked to the The fault current level in a microgrid is not constant when
microgrid. The organization of the paper is outlined as follows: switching between grid-connected and islanded modes of opera-
Section II reviews the protection concerns brought on by the tion. In islanded mode, the short circuit capacity of the network is
penetration of DG in a microgrid and how they affect the func- lower than in grid-connected mode, where only the utility supply
tionality of OC relays. Section III presents the evolution of mi- is connected [5]. Nonetheless, the threshold setting of the relay
crogrid protection schemes. Section IV covers communication for the grid-connected mode may not be suitable for the islanded
aspects as well as cybersecurity concerns. Section V proposes mode when a fault occurs in the microgrid. As shown in Fig. 1,
microgrid protection standards as well as potential testbenches during islanded mode, the fault current contribution comes only
to implement protection algorithm and section VI concludes the from the DG, while in the grid-connected mode, both the DG
work. and the utility grid contribute to the fault current. Second column
of Table II indicates the variation in fault currents for a single
line to ground (SLG) fault occurring in the middle of the line
II. PROTECTION ISSUES DUE TO DG PENETRATION IN
connecting Bus 2 and Bus 3 in both modes [4].
MICROGRID
Incorporating distributed generators (DGs) into distribution B. Bidirectional Power Flow
grids has led to novel operational challenges, especially with
Protecting microgrids is a significant challenge because of the
regard to grid protection. Traditional protection methods may be
two-way power flow. As an active network, microgrids may have
inadequate for normal operation when operating in a radial con-
distributed generators (DGs) placed close to each load, resulting
figuration due to the rapid growth of distributed energy resources
in bidirectional power flow during normal operation. Traditional
(DERs). Current protection systems consist of a combination
protective systems are mainly designed for unidirectional power
of fuses for protecting lateral feeders, reclosers to support fuse
flow and may not be sufficient under these circumstances [6].
operation on the main feeder, and relays to safeguard circuit
Fig. 2 displays the bidirectional power flow in a microgrid.
breakers at different terminals. As transmission protection con-
When there is no DG, power flows from the generation station
cerns become more relevant to distribution, new technologies
to the grid and then to the load in a radial manner. However, the
are needed to manage and protect microgrids. After investigating
integration of distributed generation (DG) causes a decrease in
potential issues, protection concerns related to DG integration
the current sensed by relay R1 at Bus 1, indicating bidirectional
in microgrids were identified, and fault currents measured at
power flow. Third column of Table II summarizes the phase
relay R1 in each subsection were displayed in tables denoted
current variation with and without DG at relay R1 for a single
by Ia , Ib , and Ic addressing a three phase (3Φ) system. To
line-to-ground (SLG) fault [4].
address DER penetration and protection issues in a microgrid,
the study cases presented in [4] were further tested and validated
C. Unnecessary Tripping/Sympathetic Tripping
using MATLAB/Simulink to obtain fault current responses, and
frequency plots. The DG studied includes a 3Φ synchronous When a fault occurs in a feeder close to another feeder with a
generator. The 3Φ transformer in MV/LV includes a neutral wire. distributed generation (DG), the DG may contribute to the fault
The loads are also 3Φ. The main details of the distribution model through its feeder, potentially causing a non-directional relay at
for validation are shown in Table I. one end of the healthy feeder to detect the fault inaccurately and

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 CISNEROS-SALDANA et al.: ON PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR AC MICROGRIDS: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 4845

TABLE II
PHASOR CURRENT MAGNITUDE MONITORED BY RELAY R1 FOR DIFFERENT TEST CASES

Fig. 3. Unnecessary tripping [4].

Fig. 5. Unintentional Islanding [4].

scenario reduces system reliability and can cause temporary

service disruptions for end-users during any fault occurrences
[6]. As shown in the figure, the load L2, which is typically
powered by the DG, experiences a loss of power after the fault
and subsequent disconnection of the DG. This issue is caused
by the unintentional DG islanding from the utility.
Fig. 4. Blinding due to DG integration [4].

F. Integration of Different Types of DGs

leading to unnecessary tripping of the feeder [6]. An example of The addition of distributed generators (DGs) to microgrids
unnecessary tripping is shown in Fig. 3, where a fault in the upper can cause an increase in the short circuit level of the network
feeder causes relay R1 in the lower feeder to operate incorrectly. buses, and the extent of this increase is dependent on factors
Fourth column of Table II summarizes the variation in single like the location, size, and type of interconnecting DG. Incor-
line-to-ground (SLG) fault currents sensed by relay R1 with and porating various forms of distributed generators (DGs), such as
without DG integration [4]. synchronous, induction, and inverter-interfaced DGs (IIDGs),
can present several protection difficulties. One notable issue
D. Blinding of Protection System with IIDGs is their restricted current capacity, which may result
Integrating a distributed generation (DG) between the feeding in inadequate relay performance. The behavior of these DGs is
substation and a fault location can cause the DG to contribute to managed by voltage and current controllers, which have different
the single line-to-ground (SLG) fault current, as shown in Fig. 4. impacts on their fault current contributions. Current-controlled
This contribution may cause relay R1 at the feeding substation schemes regulate the output current regardless of fault type,
to sense a lower current compared to when there is no DG, as while voltage-based controllers aim to maintain terminal voltage
presented in fifth column of Table II. This situation could cause within acceptable limits during faults [8]. Additionally, the type
delayed relay operation or complete failure to operate, which is of DG integration can significantly affect the fault current levels,
referred to as blinding of the protection system. The integration as different types of DG units integrated at different points within
of DGs into the grid increases the likelihood of such occurrences the microgrid can lead to varying fault current contributions.
[7]. Table III summarizes the fault current contributions of different
DG types during fault scenarios, as shown in Fig. 6 [9].
E. Unintentional Islanding
G. Relay Miscoordination
The protection system may disconnect the DG and isolate it
from the grid in the event of sudden load changes and severe The integration of DGs in microgrids affects the coordination
faults, which can be seen in Fig. 5. This unintended islanding among protective devices, such as relay-relay, fuse-fuse, and

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 4846 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 60, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2024

TABLE III
VARIATION OF FAULT CURRENT WITH TYPES OF DGS [9], [4]

Fig. 8. Auto recloser failure [4].

TABLE IV
RECLOSER FAILURE [11], [4]

Fig. 6. Integrating various types of DGs [4].

to restore the power supply in such cases. However, the presence
of DGs in the network can interfere with the fault clearing mech-
anism. If the DG protection system does not activate during the
recloser’s operation, the temporary fault may remain uncleared,
leading to its permanency. Thus, the auto reclosing mechanism’s
efficacy can be influenced by the presence of DG in the system
[11]. For instance, when a fault occurred in the system at 10
seconds with a duration of 0.5 seconds, the breaker attempted
Fig. 7. Coordination failure of relays [10], [4]. to reclose at 10.3 seconds, but the fault persisted, causing the
reclosing mechanism to fail [4] as shown in Table IV.

recloser-fuse. However, conventional coordination methods are III. EVOLUTION IN MICROGRID PROTECTION SCHEMES
only effective within a certain range of current values and cannot
ensure coordination beyond that range. The fault current in The integration of distributed generation (DG) into microgrids
microgrids with DGs varies significantly, which can significantly has resulted in several challenges. The detection of faults in the
impact coordination among protective devices. The fault current distribution network has become difficult due to high fault cur-
seen by relays R1 and R2 without DG interconnection is shown rent levels, which traditional relays are not equipped to handle.
in Fig. 7, given by Equation (1), where Vs represents the internal Moreover, the placement of DGs in proximity to loads often
voltage equivalent of the grid, and Z1 , Z2 and Zs represent the leads to changes in the network topology, and microgrids can
line impedances and the power source impedance, respectively operate in different modes such as grid-connected and islanded,
[10], which can limit the effectiveness of relay-based protection and
compromise its reliability. Consequently, new protection sys-
Vs
IR1 = IR2 = (1) tems are more complex [12].
ZS + Z1 + Z2 Protection systems in the past were designed in a simple
and cost-effective manner, with distribution systems typically
The introduction of DG modifies the fault currents sensed by including overcurrent (OC) relays, circuit breakers, reclosers,
relays R1 andR2 , as given in (2) and (3), respectively. Conse- and fuses. These systems followed a radial topology with unidi-
quently, the operating points on the time-current characteristic rectional power flow. Overcurrent relays would trip the circuit
curves of the relays are affected due to the integration of DGs, breaker if the current exceeded a certain threshold, while fuses
which can lead to relays miscoordination. would discontinue power flow by melting when the current
Vs Zs + Z1 exceeded a set value. Reclosers would automatically re-energize
IR1 = + IDG (2) a distribution circuit after a momentary fault was cleared, with
ZS + Z1 + Z2 ZS + Z1 + Z2
two response action levels: fast and slow, allowing power to be
Vs Zs + RF
IR2 = − IDG (3) restored. However, these protection techniques are no longer
ZS + Z1 + Z2 ZS + Z1 + Z2 adequate for distribution systems that can be self-sustained,
as in the case of microgrids. Fault detection and identification
I. Auto Reclosing Failure
should be done depending on the network structure and topology
Fig. 8 represents an auto recloser, which functions to restore (radial, loop, or network). Common types of relays used in other
power after a momentary interruption in the system to enhance electrical systems include distance relays, differential relays,
service continuity. Although circuit breakers open during small overcurrent relays, and directional relays, which utilize voltage
and large disruptions that are not faults, the auto recloser works and current measurements.

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 CISNEROS-SALDANA et al.: ON PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR AC MICROGRIDS: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 4847

To ensure adaptability to the evolving structure and oper- nature-inspired algorithms (NIA) are employed to create new
ating conditions of distribution systems, there is a need for algorithms and schemes. These techniques improve decision-
enhancing the existing protection schemes. This section focuses making and reduce computational complexity. Additional meth-
on potential protection solutions for AC microgrids that can ods include an ML-based system that identifies uncertain ele-
address the challenges discussed in Section II. For distribution ments in microgrids using Pearson correlation and adaptivity
systems, methods already used in transmission systems offer a by RB, fault identification using an ANN, fault location using
solution. Another effective solution for microgrid challenges is Support Vector Machines (SVM), and reinforcement learning.
the adaptive protection scheme, which modifies parameters in By utilizing these techniques, protection systems become more
protective response mechanisms based on changes in automatic intelligent and efficient. All the information presented is dis-
system requirements. There are various methods to implement cussed and exemplified in the following subparagraphs in a
adaptive protection in microgrids, such as altering the set points chronological order by type of relay.
of each relay to adjust the relay curve characteristics in re-
sponse to variations in fault current levels during design and A. Overcurrent Relay
implementation [13]. The integration of machine learning is
The relay is activated when the current magnitude surpasses
a promising method for integrating and controlling microgrids
the grid’s defined threshold setting and its operational char-
and smart grids, by combining existing protection schemes and
acteristics. There are three types of operational characteristics
incorporating an energy management system (EMS). The imple-
in overcurrent relays: definite-instantaneous-current protection,
mentation of intelligent protection schemes can be facilitated by
definite-time protection, and inverse-time protection. Three de-
advancements in information technologies and data analytics.
tection methods are commonly used for fault detection in over-
One of the main challenges with relay detection techniques
current protection: overcurrent protection, earth fault protection,
in distribution systems is the impact of high levels of distributed
and residual protection. Overcurrent protection uses inverse-
generation (DG) penetration on the commonly used overcurrent
time characteristics, while definite-time characteristics are used
(OC) relay. Since there is often no advance notice when a
in earth fault protection with the measurement of current in the
new DG is energized, it becomes difficult to determine when
neutral or earth conductor. Lin et al. [17] describe an intelligent
studies are required. An adaptive approach that considers DG
adaptive protection scheme combined with intelligent systems
penetration and various fault exposures can improve traditional
using a hybrid artificial neural network and support vector ma-
relay operation by changing relay trip settings in near-real-time.
chine (ANN-SVM). Used for a combination of overcurrent and
To enhance traditional protection, modernization upgrades such
distance protection. An adaptive setting for overcurrent relays in
as microprocessor-based relays, additional communication net-
a microgrid is proposed by Bhattarai, et al. [18], which features a
works, and software programs have been developed to enable
sophisticated communication for control and protection. Donqi,
monitoring and control. With the increasing availability of
et al. Ref. [19] discuss the implementation of Reinforcement
data measurements in distribution systems and computational
Learning as an intelligent adaptive overcurrent technique.
intelligence (CI)-based methodologies, intelligent protection
Residual protection utilizes a sensitive setting of 10% to 20%
schemes have been developed to enhance traditional relay tech-
of the nominal current from the secondary. Srivastava et al.
niques for fault detection, classification, and location determi-
Ref. [20] presents an intelligent protection, NIAs which can
nation [14]. There is great potential for wide-area protection
recalculate relay settings relatively easily and faster. Earth fault
schemes (WAPS) combining adaptive and intelligent methods
protection is designed to detect faults in the earth and uses
for relay protection, multi-agent technology and implementing
definite-time characteristics with the ground overcurrent relay.
IEC61850 protocol, with the object-oriented modeling approach
Directional overcurrent protection determines the direction of
and future-communication-oriented architecture [15]. Since for
current flow by comparing the voltage and current measurements
this protocol the manufacturer or equipment model does not mat-
of the primary circuit. El-Naily et al. [21] presents an earth
ter, information must be rapidly and consistently exchangeable.
protection technique that models optimal relay settings based
One important characteristic of smart grid operation is self-
on an optimization problem. Directional overcurrent protection
healing and adaption, bringing up higher requirements for selec-
determines the direction of current by comparing primary cir-
tivity, reliability, speed, and sensitivity of protection methods.
cuit voltage and current measurements. Adaptive directional
Overall, The integration of The Fourth Industrial Revolution, us-
overcurrent methods for microgrids with centralized control are
ing modern smart technology, large-scale machine-to-machine
described in Padamathilaka et al. [22] and Saldarriaga-Zuluaga
communication (M2M), and the Internet of Things (IoT), and
et al. [23]
the addition of Artificial Intelligence (AI) for in protections for
microgrids allowing for a high level of digitalization and au-
tomation, leading to the development of new adaptive protection B. Differential Relay
and intelligent schemes that restore, balance, and ensure supply The principle of differential relay operation is based on com-
[16]. paring parameters between two points. Traditional schemes for
These methods use a combination of PMU monitoring, differential protection rely on comparing the measured values
CI-based techniques for classifying faults in microgrids, and of magnitude and phase angle, which can be accomplished by
estimation capabilities. To improve the efficiency of protec- directly comparing instantaneous values or by using phasor
tion systems, data mining (DM), machine learning (ML), and measurements (PMUs). All three fundamental principles of

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 4848 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 60, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2024

differential protection are based on Kirchhoff’s laws, which these voltages will be in phase, causing a small current to flow
dictate that the total current entering or leaving a node must through the pilot wire loop and trigger a sensitive current relay
always be zero. Current transformer secondary currents ranging (Delta I). This method has a maximum coverage distance of
from 1A to 5A are converted through interposing current trans- 25 km and requires twisted pilot wires to minimize transverse
formers to reduce pilot wire core burden, making them usable voltage induced in the earth. Manditereza et al. [35], proposed
for distances of up to 10 km [24]. Modern microgrids can use a sensitivity-enhanced voltage-based relay protection approach
the three basic principles of differential protection, including the for microgrids based on this principle.
following: Circulating Current Principle: The pilot wire loop utilizes the
Current Differential Protection: This protection scheme relies auxiliary transformer to provide current, and the shunt branch
on a pilot wire communication channel to compare currents and utilizes the auxiliary transformer to provide the restraint. The
initiate tripping in the event of a fault within the protection CTs are connected in the opposite phase to the pilot wire cores,
zone. The summation of secondary currents will combine and similar to the differential protection technique. If an internal fault
travel through the differential path towards the location of the occurs, the opposing voltages will lead to a reduction in the pilot
fault. However, this protection scheme only works for faults wire. Nasir et al. [36] have proposed an all-optical scheme for
within the protection zone [25]. Zho et al. [26] have proposed this principle.
the use of current amplitude ratio for adaptively modifying the Measuring Principles: The principle of opposed voltage relies
restraint current in differential protection. Numerical protection on the current flowing through the pilot wire loop to trigger
using serial data transfer and digitally encoded measurements tripping, also known as the release principle. If the pilot wires are
transmitted through longitudinal differential protection is imple- interrupted, tripping cannot occur [24]. An angle-based adaptive
mented. Popov [27] uses the phases’ bias currents for dynamic relaying scheme is gaining popularity as a reliable protection
correction and brake signals of the longitudinal differential pro- measure that considers a wide range of operating conditions in
tection as an optimization adaptive approach. Nsengiyaremye et microgrids. Sharma K. et al. [37] defines a differential adaptive
al. [28] proposes a differential protection scheme using the sign model that utilizes the ratio of the sum of fault components of
of the Cosine of the angle. Cisneros et al. [29] proposes a new voltage to the sum of fault component of current across both
protection technique implementing wavelet transform for grid ends of the line. Mishra D. et al. [38] proposes a differential in-
connected and islanded microgrids. telligent method, namely the decision tree (DT)-based microgrid
Stabilized Differential Protection (Biased): To ensure accu- protection scheme, for identifying faults and classifying them.
rate results, it is crucial to consider the false current generated Vanfretti et al. Ref. [39] utilizes PMU for real-time topology
by CT transformation errors. Such errors are proportional to identification, computation of protection set points, and rule-
the current across the CT in the linear range and can lead to CT based (RB) application.
saturation for high fault currents, resulting in an increase in false
differential currents and a sudden rise in the false differential C. Distance Relay
[30]. To achieve high sensitivity and prevent miss-operation, the
The principles of distance relaying are based on and require
biased differential relay method involves increasing the pick-up
the measurement of primary circuit voltage and current values
current threshold. When a fault occurs, it can result in a high
at any given instant. The impedance of a circuit is a fixed value,
fault resistance, and a portion of the load current may still be
and if the impedance falls below a predetermined threshold,
present and should be taken into account. The load current is
a fault is assumed to have occurred, and a tripping sequence
added to the fault current flowing into the protection zone based
can be initiated. Distance relays are commonly used as a faster
on the Iop/Ires ratio, with the sign rule used as a reference for the
alternative to overcurrent relays, particularly during phase-type
current flowing into the protected area. The numerical relays use
faults and for backup protection. While overcurrent relays have
the operating current, which corresponds to Iop = |i1 + i2 | (dif-
traditionally been used for ground-type faults and backup pro-
ferential current), and the restraint current, which corresponds
tection, there is a growing trend towards using distance relays for
to Ires = |i1 - i2 |. Wu, S [31], has proposed an adaptive approach
ground faults. Lin et al. [40] present an adaptive technique for
to extended wide-area ratio restrained differential protection.
distance protection in microgrids based on PMU measurements.
Cisneros et al. [32] proposes a voltage based methodology for
obtaining stabilized current measurements.
Two Pilot Wire Cores Differential Protection: Two-pilot wire D. Directional Relay
differential protection involves the use of twisted pilot wire pairs, The direction of the fault is identified by determining the phase
typically telephone cables. This method has two variations: the displacement between the voltage and current, which helps in
tripping pilot scheme, which operates on the opposed voltage measuring the current flow direction. This technique necessitates
principle, and the blocking pilot scheme, which operates on the measurement of both the current and voltage [41]. For earth
the circulating current principle [33]. Kazmi, S [34] proposed a fault directional protection, the phase displacement of the current
piloted protection scheme for microgrids. must be determined relative to a residual voltage. This protection
Opposed Voltage Principle (Voltage Comparison): The op- mechanism is sensitive to the direction of the current flow to
posed voltage principle relies on the current flowing through a the earth and should be installed whenever the phase-to-earth
shunt resistance at each terminal to generate voltages V1 and fault current is divided among multiple earthing systems. In the
V2, which are proportional to the current. If a fault occurs, case of phase directional protection, the phase displacement of

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 CISNEROS-SALDANA et al.: ON PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR AC MICROGRIDS: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 4849

the current must be determined relative to the phase-to-phase [49]. Liu et al. [50] proposed an impedance measurement-based
voltage. This protection is installed to safeguard two parallel interlock to prevent ROCOF from false tripping during non-
connections, a loop, or a network component that is connected islanding situations. Nsengiyaremye et al. Ref. [51] proposes
to two power sources. detecting faults using the rate of change of the slope of the
phase angle (ROCOSP) over a cycle, regardless of the operating
E. Voltage Relay frequency.
Overvoltage and undervoltage relays are protective devices
that are used to monitor the voltage levels in electrical systems
and prevent damage to equipment or the system itself [42]. IV. COMMUNICATION AND CYBER SECURITY ISSUES
Overvoltage: are designed to detect when the voltage in a A. Communication for Microgrids
system exceeds a certain threshold, and then take action to pro-
To ensure safe and efficient distribution network operation,
tect the system from damage. This may involve opening circuit
communication and remote-control field equipment are essen-
breakers or stopping power supplies to prevent electrical arcing
tial. This led to the creation of SCADA systems, which stands
or overheating of equipment. The relay is set to trigger when the
for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. Generally, remote
voltage level reaches a predetermined value or exceeds it. Once
control is necessary from specific control centers, including the
the relay is activated, it can trip one or more contacts, thereby
Network Control Centre (NCC), which is the main control point.
opening a circuit breaker. Over-voltage protection circuit is used
The SCADA master station, located at the NCC, interacts with
generally to prevent damage to electronic components, area
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) located at substations and field
where it is used heavily [43]. Adevole et al. [44] explains how it
equipment like pole mounts and reclosers. The SCADA master
can be applied when the microgrid is operating in islanded mode
station communicates with the RTUs using various communi-
or connected to a weak system, requiring Voltage Transformers
cation network mediums, such as radio, pilot, supervisory wire,
(VTs),
and fiber-optic. The SCADA system is a hardware and software
Undervoltage: are designed to detect when the voltage in a
concept that provides a versatile set of functions for control and
system falls below a certain threshold, indicating a potential loss
supervisory purposes. The parameters of the SCADA system
of power or other problem. These relays may be used to activate
are defined in a database, which allows the control system to
backup power systems, switch circuits to alternative sources,
monitor new power system components. This adaptability is
or shut down equipment to prevent damage or malfunction. The
the foundation for implementing advanced functions for the
relay contacts trip the circuit breaker when the voltage decreases
development of the control system after it becomes operational.
to a certain level. Undervoltage protection is commonly used to
DCS distributed control system equipment collects fundamental
protect motors from damage during abnormal conditions and to
information regarding the power system from different substa-
prevent breaker-fed motors from re-accelerating after a restora-
tions and power plants, enabling remote data acquisition [52].
tion of bus voltage [45]. Nunez-Mata et al. Ref. [46] presents
Communication Network: Refers to the transmission equip-
how undervoltage relays could be used as backup protection in
ment necessary to send and receive data from various locations.
microgrids within a clearing time of 170ms. The parameters are
This transmission medium can include cable, telephone, or
obtained using robust optimization.
radio. Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) usually have com-
munication ports and standard communication protocols (e.g.,
F. Frequency Relay
DNP3, IEC 104 or IEC 61850) to directly communicate with
Continuous monitoring of frequency is essential to initiate SCADA systems or RTUs. A communication protocol outlines
appropriate action to safeguard the operation of an installation how data is transmitted over the transmission medium.
during abnormal or critical situations. Frequency protection is IEC 61850: defines a communication system for microgrids
considered suitable for this purpose. The most common forms which can be established through Ethernet transmission and
of frequency protection are phase angle difference and Rate of mapping of legacy protocols. This approach helps to minimize
Change of Frequency (ROCOF) [47]. Mohamed et al. [48] pro- expenses associated with integrating installations from multiple
posed a digital relay that operates for over and under frequency in vendors. Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) can be utilized
coordination with a digital proportional integral derivative (PID) to translate various grid component protocols into object data,
controller, based on a mapping technique in the discretization which can be used to control devices that operate using different
process. Under frequency protection monitors the frequency, communication protocols within the microgrid. The interna-
and when the system frequency reaches the minimum threshold, tional standard defines communication protocols for electronic
the protection scheme is activated, and the tripping time delay intelligent devices at electrical substations, including data mod-
starts. The frequency is calculated from the phase-to-phase els, exchanges, and events between power system substations.
signal. Over frequency protection monitors the frequency, and It also outlines the basic component division for a smart grid
when the system frequency reaches the maximum threshold, the by integrating all IEDs, conceptualizing the definition of a data
protection scheme is activated, and the tripping time delay starts. object and mapping protocols that best meet data and service
Rate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF): Mainly used for requirements. The naming conventions of data in IEC 61850
islanding detection because microgrids have very low inertia, are grounded in the context of power systems, which ensures
and during load changes, the frequency drift has larger values compatibility between devices of different manufacturers.

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 4850 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 60, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2024

IEEE 1815-2012 specifies the DNP3 protocol structure, func- and economy if they are not adequately addressed. Microgrid
tions, and interoperable application options. Each subset level security is becoming more vital as their reliance on technology
defines the implemented functionality in each device, providing for communication and information increases. In recent years,
guidelines for data exchange between different devices in an numerous cyber-attack-resistant network security and security
electric power system, including monitoring and control equip- surveillance systems have been proposed. Nevertheless, elec-
ment. The standard comprises information on the protocol’s tricity networks and microgrids exhibit their own peculiarities,
structure, message formats, data types, and communication ser- necessitating the application of cyber-protection techniques to
vices. It enhances interoperability and communication reliability the electrical sector. The microgrid can be protected using a
and is suitable for various power system applications, with the variety of security measures, such as industry-standard cyberse-
basic application level intended for low-cost distribution feeder curity solutions like access control, encryption, anti-malware, or
devices and the most advanced level designed for full-featured attack detection. On the other hand, the procedures suggested in
systems. the standards offer increased confidence that they are thorough,
Wired Physical Links: Legacy communication protocols such complete, and safe because numerous experts have tried them
as Modbus and DNP3 are being investigated, as they were over time. The new infrastructure has revealed a wide range
originally developed for specific physical links and are still of security risks that are constantly evolving. The intelligent
in use due to their simplicity and byte-oriented nature. They grid system has been implemented in numerous ways, and
can be implemented on various physical links such as RS-232, numerous techniques and technical advances have been made
RS-485, and Ethernet (TCP/IP). Each physical link has specific or are being made. This condition limits the interoperability of
wiring requirements for transmission, with Ethernet being able advanced software, smart meters, smart devices, and renewable
to carry any signal from multiple standard protocols when an energy sources and stops them from becoming widely accepted
appropriate converter is used [53]. Modbus is a byte-oriented standards [56].
protocol that includes a frame with function code and address Gaggero et al. [57] highlights the impact of cybersecurity
information attached to the Modbus Protocol Abstract (MPAB) threats on smartgrid protection systems. The authors provide
header. The TCP packet comprises the entire frame as the data a review of the existing protection systems for smartgrid, as
section, with an intermediate converter creating and appending well as the potential cybersecurity threats to these systems.
the TCP header. The use of converters enables legacy protocol They also discuss the challenges in securing these systems
data to be encapsulated into TCP/IP, which in turn creates a and propose a framework for protecting smartgrid protection
unified interconnection network for the microgrid with Ethernet systems from cyber-attacks. Ref. [58] provides an analysis of
physical links. This provides access to Ethernet services, such the impact of cybersecurity threats on microgrid protection
as power equipment monitoring and control through LAN and systems. The authors identify the vulnerabilities of microgrid
WAN, thus maximizing the benefits of Ethernet. [54]. protection systems and describe various types of cyber-attacks
Wireless Physical Links: In situations where microgrid com- that can be used to exploit these vulnerabilities. They also
munication systems are located in challenging environments propose a risk assessment framework for evaluating the poten-
or have many sensors, the use of wired links can make the tial impact of cyber-attacks on microgrid protection systems.
communication infrastructure design more complex. To address Gupta et al. [59] investigates the impact of cyber-attacks on
this issue, the National Institute of Standards and Technology microgrid protection systems and proposes remedial measures
(NIST) developed a Framework and Roadmap for Smart Grid to mitigate these impacts. The authors describe the potential
Interoperability Standards in 2010, which advocates for wireless consequences of cyber-attacks on microgrid protection systems,
communication networks due to their scalability [55]. Nonethe- including system failure and safety hazards. They also propose
less, wired infrastructure is still needed to some extent in wireless various measures to improve the cybersecurity of microgrid
networks, based on the availability of access points or the wire- protection systems, such as intrusion detection and prevention
less capability of the IEDs. Although a wireless physical link systems. Researchers in [60] present an analysis of the impact
simplifies the interconnection network, communication system of cybersecurity threats on microgrid protection systems and
designers need to consider factors such as quality of service, proposes measures to protect these systems from cyber-attacks.
bandwidth, and latency when deploying communication points. The authors identify the vulnerabilities of microgrid protection
Some wireless communication technologies that can be utilized systems and describe various types of cyber-attacks that can
in microgrids comprise IEEE 802.11n, Global System for Mo- exploit these vulnerabilities, Zhou et al. [61] and Liu et al. [62]
bile (GSM), 4G/3G/HSPA, LTE, LTE-A, and Evolution-Data show a type of false data injection attack (FDIA) able to forge a
Optimized (EV-DO). topology error in the system misleading state estimation. Jafari
et al. [63] shows how is possible to launch FDIA creating False
Relay Operation (FRO) attacks, grids with renewable energy
B. Cybersecurity Issues are more susceptible to such attacks. Husnoo et al. [64] Show
A microgrid’s infrastructure and processes necessitate the use a chronology and recent advances in FDIA for distribution
of sophisticated technology in order to connect its various com- systems. They also propose further research needed to detect
ponents and provide intelligence and automation for the benefit and identify cyber physical attacks. Hence, there is an emergent
of its users. Therefore, the microgrid is susceptible to a variety need to improve cybersecurity for microgrid protection systems,
of attacks due to its vulnerabilities. These vulnerabilities may securing communication protocols and hardware-based security
have a destructive effect on a country’s critical infrastructure mechanisms.
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 CISNEROS-SALDANA et al.: ON PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR AC MICROGRIDS: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 4851

The above-mentioned references provide a comprehensive selection is extensive of available test bed models, here is a
review of the impact of cybersecurity issues on AC distribution yet sufficient selection of the most popular microgrid test beds
grid and protections. Highlighting the potential consequences utilized for research:
of cyber-attacks on microgrid protection systems and propose r CERTS Microgrid Testbed [67].
measures to improve the cybersecurity of these systems to r CIGRE Microgrid Benchmark [68].
protect microgrid systems from cyber-attacks and ensure the r IEEE 4-Bus Test Feeder Cases [69], [70].
safe and reliable operation of AC microgrids. r IEEE 9 Node Test model [69], [70].
r IEEE 13 Node Test Feeder [71], [70].
V. MICROGRID STANDARDS AND TESTBENCH r IEEE 34 Node Test Feeder [72], [70].
r IEEE 123 Node Test Feeder [69], [70].
A. Microgrid Protection Standards r National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Micro-
International standards for microgrid protection provide grid Test Bed [73].
guidelines and requirements for the safe and reliable operation r Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) Microgrid
of microgrids [65]. Some of the key international standards for Test Bed [74].
microgrid protection include: r Sandia National Laboratories Microgrid Test Bed [75].
r Fraunhofer IWES Microgrid Test Bed [76].
IEEE 1547-2018: Most fundamental requirements for consistent r European LV Test Bed [77].
and secure interconnections are covered by this standard, r Texas A&M 4-Bus Microgrid Benchmark Model [78].
allowing for the compatibility of existing protection schemes
One of the widely recognized microgrids in the United States
and the creation of new safety norms. This is a comprehensive
is the Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions
update to IEEE Standard 1547-2003. It aligns interconnection
(CERTS), which functions at a low voltage level [67], [79]. Many
regulations with efforts to establish a smarter, more distributed
researchers have studied this system to test their protection al-
grid. Interim requirements permitting modifications to pre-
gorithms. The authors in [80], [81] have used CERTS microgrid
vious interconnection (2003) regulations have been imple-
system for fault detection and classification purpose. Similarly,
mented [65].
CIGRE has established benchmark systems for the integration
IEEE C37.106-2003: This guide is devised to support protec-
of DERs into the European medium voltage distribution grid. To
tion engineers in the application of relays for the protection
function as a microgrid, the benchmark system has an additional
of generating plant equipment from damage resulting from
DG attached to it. The framework is adaptable enough to support
operations at abnormal frequencies, including overexcitation.
modelling of both radial and mesh structures [82]. The network
IEC 61850: This standard provides guidelines for the commu-
model is used by numerous researchers as a test bed for various
nication between protection devices and other equipment in
proposed algorithms, for medium as well as low voltage. CIGRE
a microgrid. It is designed to ensure interoperability between
microgrid has been used for protection application in [83]. In a
different devices and systems.
similar attempt, the IEEE 34 bus radial distribution test feeder
IEC TS 62898-3-1-2019: This standard addresses the perfor-
[72] is modified to operate as microgrid by adding different
mance requirements for microgrid control systems, including
types of DGs. The authors in [84] used modified IEEE 34
reliability and functionality, which are important aspects of
bus microgrid to validate their protection schemes. Pilot sites
microgrid protection. It provides guidelines for the testing
for microgrids were developed and implemented by UI-Assist
and validation of microgrid control systems, which can help
partners such as: IIT Kanpur, WSU.
to ensure that protection functions are operating correctly and
A prototype shown in Fig. 9 has been extensively used to
that the microgrid is safe and reliable.
validate the protection algorithms. The microgrid system being
UL 1741: This standard defines the safety requirements for
presented in this study is a modified version of the CERTS
grid-connected power systems, including microgrids. It cov-
microgrid [80]. The modified CERTS microgrid can function in
ers topics such as overcurrent protection, grounding, and
islanded or grid-connected modes. When used in grid-connected
insulation.
mode, CERTS is regarded as a component of the distribution
NEC 705: This standard provides guidelines for the installation
system and is supplied by the secondary of 3-phase distribution
of microgrids and covers topics such as grounding, overcur-
transformers with ratings of 13.8/0.48 kV or from the distribu-
rent protection, and disconnects.
tion energy resources when used in islanded mode. The modified
IEEE P2030.12: This draft standard (in its final stage) includes
CERTS microgrid is depicted in Fig. 4, which includes three
designing and choosing protective devices, coordinating dif-
DGs, two wind sources (DG-1, DG-2) and one photovoltaic
ferent microgrid operating modes, such as grid-connected and
source. (DG-3). L1, L2, L3, and L4 are the four loads that are
islanded modes, and related mode transitions [66].
spread across the system. The CERTS microgrid parameters
are compiled in Table V. The three DGs are connected or
B. Microgrid Model disconnected with the grid by the switch at the Point of Common
The objective of this section is to review existing medium/low Coupling (PCC) in the grid connected or islanded mode. A
voltage microgrid testbeds, which are frequently used by re- voltage source converter interfaces the photovoltaic and wind
searchers to validate studies and protection schemes. The sources with the system.

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 4852 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 60, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2024

The adaptive protection schemes discussed in this article show

the potential for use in fault detection and isolation, resulting in
reliable and secure microgrid operation. Due to frequent changes
in the microgrid topology, relays with fixed parameters may
malfunction under certain conditions, such as heavy distribution
load, substantial DG penetration, islanded and grid-connected
modes of operation, radial or mesh topology, and so on. This
review provides an overview of relay misoperation in different
microgrid operational scenarios and suggests solutions for im-
proving protection operation with adaptivity. These solutions
could be viable options for protecting an emerging microgrid
with significant DER and DESS penetration.
The following conclusions can be drawn from this review:
r Protection schemes originally developed for transmission
systems and electrical systems can be adapted and applied
into microgrids enhancing traditional techniques.
r Adaptive and intelligent relays can provide improved pro-
tection measures in comparison to conventional protection
methods.
r New protection schemes may be decentralized or cen-
Fig. 9. Topology of modified CERTS microgrid [67]. tralized, with wide area measurement systems (WAMS)
TABLE V providing assistance via communication links to improve
SYSTEM PARAMETERS FOR MODIFIED CERTS MICROGRID reliability.
r The use of various computational intelligence (CI)-based
data-mining models for developing protection schemes is
gaining popularity; however, the complexity of these mod-
els may impede the effective implementation of protection
schemes.
r Data mining (DM), machine learning (ML), and nature-
inspired algorithm (NIA) based approaches may prove to
be effective alternatives to conventional relaying methods
and are capable of controlling circuit breakers for real-time
fault clearance.
r Internet, Cyber-Security, and Artificial Intelligence all play
a significant role in assuring the reliability of cloud-based
operation, control, and protection schemes.

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