FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPUTER

•In 1642 Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding

machine . Later, in the year 1671, Baron Wilhelm von Leibniz of
Germany invented the first calculator for multiplication. Keyboard
Machines originated in the United State around 1880 and we use
them even today.
•Charles Babbage:- An English Scientist was the first to design a
fully programmable mechanical computer. He is also known as the
father of computer.
•Dr. John Von Neumann Introduced the “stored program” in 1940.
•ABC – The world’s first electronic digital computer was conceived
in 1937 by Iowa State College physics professors, John Atanasoff. It
was built with the assistance of graduate students, Clifford Berry,
and was hence called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer.
COMPUTER – (Common Operating Machine
Purposely Used for Technological and
Educational Research). It is also known as Data
Processors.
Data Computer Information
(Raw Material) (Data Processors) (Finished Product)
•In 1842, Babbage came out with his new idea
of a completely automatic Analytical Engine for
performing functions for any mathematical
problem at a speed of 60 additions per minute.
 Characteristics Of Computer
1. Automatic – It Carries out a job normally without
human intervention.
2. Speed – It can perform several billion (109), even
trillion (1012), simple arithmetic operation per second.
3. Accuracy- It perform every Calculation with the same
accuracy.
4. Deligent – It is free from monotony, tiredness, and
lack of concentration.
5. Versatality – It can perform a wide variety of tasks
6. Power of Remembering – It can store huge
amount of information and can recall any
pieces of this information whenever required
7. No I.Q – It cannot take its own decisions and
has to be instructed what to do and in what
sequence.
8. No Feeling – It cannot make judgement
based on feelings and instincts.
 COMPUTER GENERATION
• First Generation- (1942-1955) First Generation Computer were
manufactured using ‘VACUUM TUBE’ as electronic switching
device.
• It was a fragile Glass device using filaments as a source of
electronics and could cotrol and amplifly electronic signal.
• It was too bulky in size, requiring large rooms for installation.
• Programmer wrote instructions in machine and assembly
language.
• Vacuum Tube computers could perform computations in
millisecond.
• First Generation Computer Memory used electromagnetic
relays, and users fed all date and instruction into the system
using punched cards
• Second Generation (1955 – 1965) – John Bardeen, William
Shockley invented a new electronic switching device called
‘TRANSISTOR’ at Bell Laboratory in 1947
• It is more powerful, reliable,, less expensive, smaller, and
cooler to operate than the first generation of computer.
• High Level Programming Languages (like FORTRAN, COBOL,
ALGOL, and SNOBOL). And Batch Operating system emerged
during 2nd Generation of Computer
• Memory of Second Generation computers was composed of
Magnetic Core. Magnetic core are small rings made of ferrite
that can be magnetized in either clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction.
• In 1957, researchers introduced magnetic tape as a faster and
more convenient secondary storage medium. Magnetic Disk
and Magnetic tape were the main secondary storage media
used in 2nd Generation of Computer.
 Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Core
• Third Generation of Computer (1964 – 1975)- In 1958, Jack St.
Clair Kilby and Robert Noyce invented the first Integrated Circuit.
• ICs are circuit consisting of several electronic components like
transistor, resistors, and capacitor grown on a single chip of
silicon eliminating wired interconnection between components.
• 3rd Generation Computer was based on INTEGRATED CIRCUIT’.
• ICs was also known as “Microelectronics” technology. Because it
made it possible to integrate larger number of circuit
components into very small surface silicon known as “Chip”.
• ICs was possible to integrate up to about hundred components
on a single chip. This technology was known as Medium Scale
Integration.
• FORTRAN and COBOL were the most popular high level
programming languages in those day.
• Storage Technology allowed construction of larger magnetic core
based random access memory as well as lerger capacity magnetic
disks nad tapes
2nd Generation of Computer used Batch
Operating System, Time Sharing Operating
System happened during this generation.
• 4th Generation of Computer (1975 – 1989) – Based on
VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
• It was possible to integrated over one million electronic
components on a single chip.
• This progress led to a dramatic development creation
of a Microprocessor.
• During Fourth generation, Semiconductor memories
replaced magnetic core memories resulting in large
Random Access Memories with very fast access time.
• Graphical User Interface(GUI) enable new users to
quickly learn how to use computer.
• UNIX Operating System also became popular during
fourth generation.
• C programming Language, Object-oriented software
design, and Object-oriented programming, became
popular during fourth generation of computer. C++
emerged as the most popular object oriented
language.
• High speed computer networking also developed
during fourth generation like Local Area Network (LAN),
Wide Area Network.
• Fifth Generation of Computer (1989 – till Present) –
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) based.
• VLSI became ULSI technology in 5th generation.
• Microprocessors chips having ten million electronic
components
• Processor Manufacturers started building multicore
processor chips instead of single core processor chips.
• Storage technology also advanced, PC having few
Gigabyte of main memory and 80 tp 320 GB of hard
disk capacity are common.
• During 5th Generation Optical Disks (also known as
Compact disk or CDs) emerged. It is portable mass
storage media.
• The Internet emerged with associated technologies and
application. We can communicate across the glode by use of
electronic mail (known as e-mail) facility.
• The World Wide Web became readily available to computer
users for vast information.
• During Fifith Generation JAVA pragramming Language and
parallel pragramming libraries like MPI (Message Passing
Interface) and PVM (Parallel Virtual Machine) are the most
Popular.
• JAVA is used primariy on the World Wide Web.
• Portable PCs (Called Notebook Computer) are much smaller
and handy.
• Some of the well known early computers are –
MARK I
ABC – (Atanasoff-Berry Computer)
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
EDV AC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)
UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)
IBM-701 – (International Business Machines)
IBM - 650
 BASIC ORGANIZATION OF
COMPUTER
The following five basic functions for converting
raw input data into useful information are as
follows:-
1. Inputting
2. Storing
3. Processing
4. Outputting
5. Controlling
 Storage Unit Program
Program
And And
Datac Secondary Data
Storage

Input Primary Output

Unit Storage Unit

Control
Unit
Indicate flow of
instruction and Data

Arithmetic Indicate the control

Logic Unit exercise by the
control unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• INPUT UNIT- It is the process of entering data and
instructions into computer system. Data can be entered
using a keyboard in a manner similarly to typing,
another way to entered through scanner, mouse,
microphone, Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
etc..Computer memory is design accept input in binary code
and hence, all input devices must transform input signals to
bianry codes. Units called input inter faces.
• Output Units - It is the process of producing useful
information or result for a user. A computer work with
binary code, results produced are also in binary form.
Therefore before supplying the results to outside world,
the system must convert them to human acceptable
(readable form, units called output interface.
STORAGE UNIT – Storage Unit holds
I.The data and instructions required for processing
(Received from input units)
II.Intermediate results of processing
III.Final results of processing, before the system releases
them to an output unit.
Storage Unit has two types
1. Primary Storage:- Primary Storage of a computer
system, also known as main memory. It is volatile
memory, and it loses the information in it as soon as
the computer system switches off or resets. It is made
up of semi-conductor devices. Primary Storage
normally has limited storage capacity because it is
very expensive.
2. Secondary Storage – Secondary Storage of a
computer system also known as auxiliary storage, takes
care of the limitations of primary storage.
• It supplements the limited storage capacity and
volatile characteristics of primary storage.
•This is because secondary storage is much cheaper
than primary storage and it can retain information
even when the computer system switches off or resets.
•The most commonly used secondary storage medium
is magnetic disk.
Control Unit (CU) – A computer’s control unit does not
perform any actual processing of jobs, but acts as the
central nerveous system for other components of the
computer system.
•It manage and coordinate the operation of all other
components.
•It obtains instructions from a program stored in main
memory, interpret the instructions and issues signals
other units of the system to execute them.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) – Control Unit and
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system are
together known as Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is
the brain of the computer. The entire CPU is contained
on a single tiny silicon chip, it is called a microprocessor.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – A computer performs all
calculation and comparison (decision making)
operation in the ALU.
• During processing of a job, the computer transfers data
and instructions stored in its primary storage to ALU as
and when needed.
• ALU are design to perform four basic arithmetic
operation add, subtract, multiply, and divide and logic
operations or comparison susch as less than, greater
than, equal to.
• Instruction Set – Every CPU has built –in ability to
execute a set of machine instructions called its
instruction set.
• Registers – As instructions are interpreted and
executed by a computer’s CPU, there is a movement of
information between various units of the computer. In
order to speed up the rate of information transfer, a
number of special memory units called register.
These registers are used to hold information on a
temporary basis and are part of the CPU (not main
memory)
• Each of this registers possess the ability to receive
information, hold it temporarily, and pass it on as
directed by the control unit.
Sl.No Name of Register Function

Holds address of the active memory

1 Memory Register (MAR)
location.
Holds information on its way to and
2 Memory Buffer (MBR)
from memory
Holds address of the next instruction
3 Program Control
to be execute
Accumulates results and data to be
4 Accumulator
operated upon
Holds an instruction while it is being
5 Instruction (I)
execute

6 Input/Outout (I/O) Communicate with I/O devices.

• Processor Speed:- The speed of processor is related
directly to a computer’s clock speed, which is the
number of pulses produced per second by the built-in
electronic clock. This Clock speed is measured in
Megahertz (Mhz) or Gigahertz (GHz)
The three commonly types processor architectures are:
1. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
2. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
3. EPIC (Explicity Parallel Instruction Computing)