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Quantum Computing
by Practice
Python Programming in the Cloud
with Qiskit and IBM-Q
Second Edition

Vladimir Silva
Quantum Computing by Practice: Python Programming in the Cloud with Qiskit and
IBM-Q, Second Edition
Vladimir Silva
CARY, NC, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9990-6 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9991-3


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9991-3

Copyright © 2024 by Vladimir Silva


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Table of Contents
About the Author��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xiii

About the Technical Reviewer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv


Introduction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii

Chapter 1: Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality������������������������������������� 1


Enter Max Planck, the Father of Quantum Mechanics������������������������������������������������������������������ 2
Planck Hits the Jackpot, Einstein Collects a Nobel Prize�������������������������������������������������������������� 4
The Nature of Light Before Planck������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4
After Planck, Physics Will Never Be the Same������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
Quantum Mechanics Comes in Many Flavors������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9
Copenhagen Interpretation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 9
Many Worlds Interpretation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
Supplementary Interpretations���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
From Quantum Mechanics to Quantum Fields: Evolution or Revolution������������������������������������� 28
We Are All Made of Quantum Fields, but We Don’t Understand Them����������������������������������� 31
The Recipe to Build a Universe���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
The Fantastic Four Forces of Nature: Enter the Higgs Field�������������������������������������������������� 33
Standard Model and the Super-Equation of Physics������������������������������������������������������������� 35
Chasing the Unexplained������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
Dark Energy Will Determine the Ultimate Fate of the Universe��������������������������������������������� 39
Beyond the Standard Model�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Richard Feynman, Demigod of Physics, Father of the Quantum


Computer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
Mysteries of QFT: The Plague on Infinities���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
Electron Scattering According to QED����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
Perturbation Theory: If You Can’t Do Something Perfectly, Maybe Near Enough Is Good
Enough���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Tackling Those Pesky Infinities with Renormalization����������������������������������������������������������� 53
Renormalization: Electrons Do Not Have Infinite Mass���������������������������������������������������������� 55
QFT’s Holy Trinity: Perturbation Theory, Renormalization, and Feynman Diagrams�������������� 56
Feynman Diagrams: Formulas in Disguise���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Feynman Approach to Quantum Mechanics: The Path Integral��������������������������������������������� 57
Unraveling the Impossible: Feynman Diagrams to the Rescue��������������������������������������������� 58
A Few Simple Diagram Rules Are All That Is Needed������������������������������������������������������������ 60
The Strangeness of Virtual Particles�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
The Power of Feynman Diagrams to Simplify QFT-­QED Calculations������������������������������������ 65
Antimatter As Time Reverse Matter and the Mirror Universe������������������������������������������������������ 67
The Foundations of Quantum Theory Rest on Symmetries��������������������������������������������������� 68
Broken Symmetries Threaten to Break All of Physics Along with Them�������������������������������� 74
Particles in a Rewinding Universe����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80
CPT Is Safe: The 70-Year Rollercoaster Ride for the Symmetries of Nature�������������������������� 81
Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82

Chapter 3: Behold, the Qubit Revolution����������������������������������������������������������������� 87


Your Friendly Neighborhood Quantum Computer������������������������������������������������������������������������ 87
Two-Photon Quantum Interference���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93
Mathematics Behind Photonic Interference�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95
Output States of the Control-Z Gate�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 97
Lowering Error Rates������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99
Superconducting Loops vs. Linear Optics��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Superconducting Loops������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Breaking Out of the Lab: IBM-Q Qubit Design���������������������������������������������������������������������� 102
Pros and Cons of Superconductor Loops���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109

vi
Table of Contents

The Many Flavors of the Qubit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110


Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116

Chapter 4: Enter IBM Quantum: A One-of-a-Kind Platform for


Quantum Computing in the Cloud������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119
Getting Your Feet Wet with IBM Quantum��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Quantum composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Quantum Gates�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Quantum Backends Available for Use���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
Entanglement: Bell and GHZ States������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 128
Two Qubit Entanglement with Bell States��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 128
Three Qubit Entanglement with GHZ States Tests��������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Super Determinism: A Way Out of the Spookiness. Was Einstein Right All Along?�������������� 136
Remote Access via the REST API���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
Authentication��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140
List Available Backends������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 141
Get Backend Parameters����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
Get the Status of a Processor’s Queue�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 146
List Jobs in the Execution Queue���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
Get Account Information������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 149
List User’s Experiments������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150
Run a Job on Hardware������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 152
Get the API Version�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 154
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155

Chapter 5: Mathematical Foundation: Time to Dust Up That Linear Algebra�������� 159


Qubit 101: Vector, Matrices, and Complex Numbers����������������������������������������������������������������� 160
Transpose of a Matrix MT����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Conjugate Transpose or Adjoint Mϯ�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Complex Numbers: The Mathematical Magic Hats�������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Euler’s Identity: A Wonderful Masterpiece�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 164
Tensor Product of a Matrix ⊗��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 165

vii
Table of Contents

Postulates of Quantum Mechanics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167


Postulate 1: State and Vector Space������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 167
Postulate 2: Observables and Operators����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167
Postulate 3: Measurement��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Postulate 4: Collapse of the Wave Function������������������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Postulate 5: Unitary Transformations����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 169
Linear Algebra and Quantum Mechanics Cheat Sheet�������������������������������������������������������������� 169
Algebraic Representation of the Qubit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Dirac’s Ket Notation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Superposition Is a Fancy Word�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174
Kets Are Column Vectors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174
Orient Yourself in the Bloch Sphere������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 174
Changing the State of a Qubit with Quantum Gates������������������������������������������������������������������ 176
NOT Gate (Pauli X)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Truly Quantum: Super Positions with the Hadamard Gate��������������������������������������������������� 178
Measurement of a Quantum State Is Trickier Than You Think��������������������������������������������� 179
Generalized Single Qubit Gates������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180
Unitary Matrices Are Good for Quantum Gates�������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Other Single Qubit Gates����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182
Qubit Entanglement with the Controlled-NOT Gate������������������������������������������������������������� 182
Universal Quantum Computation Delivers Shortcuts over Classical Computation�������������������� 184
Gate Identity Cheat Sheet��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 184
Quantum Gate vs Boolean Gate Cheat Sheet���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187

Chapter 6: Qiskit, Awesome SDK for Quantum Programming in Python�������������� 189


Installing Qiskit������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189
Setting Up in Windows�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 190
Setting Up in Linux CentOS�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
Credentials Configuration���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 195

viii
Table of Contents

Your First Quantum Program����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 196


Quantum Lab: A Hidden Jewel Within the Cloud Console���������������������������������������������������� 199
SDK Internals: Circuit Compilation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201
Running in a Real Quantum Device������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 206
Result Visualization Types��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213
Noise Models and Fake Providers��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 222
Extended Qiskit Exercises��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223

Chapter 7: Start Your Engines: From Quantum Random Numbers to


Teleportation and Super Dense Coding����������������������������������������������������������������� 229
Quantum Random Number Generation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 229
Random Bit Generation Using the Hadamard Gate�������������������������������������������������������������� 230
Putting Randomness Results to the Test����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 235
Super Dense Coding������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 237
Circuit for composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 239
Running in Python��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 240
Looking at the Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 242
Quantum Teleportation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 244
Circuit for composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 246
Running in Python��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 247
Looking at the Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 252
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 254

Chapter 8: Game Theory: With Quantum Mechanics, Odds Are Always


in Your Favor�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 259
Counterfeit Coin Puzzle������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260
Counterfeit Coin, the Quantum Way������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262
Step 1: Query the Quantum Beam Balance������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262
Step 2: Construct the Quantum Balance������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 265
Step 3: Identify the False Coin��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 266
Generalization for Any Number of False Coins�������������������������������������������������������������������� 270

ix
Table of Contents

Mermin-Peres Magic Square���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 271


Mermin-Peres Magic Square Exercise�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 272
Quantum Winning Strategy�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 273
Shared Entangled State������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 273
Unitary Transformations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 275
Measure in the Computational Basis����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 281
Answers for the Mermin-Peres Magic Square Exercise������������������������������������������������������ 286

Chapter 9: Quantum Advantage with Deutsch-Jozsa, Bernstein-Vazirani, and


Simon’s Algorithms���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 289
Phase Kickback������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 291
Kickback with Arbitrary Phases������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 293
Deutsch-Jozsa�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 294
Bernstein-Vazirani (BV)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 299
Simon’s Algorithm��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 302
Rules for Simon Oracle Construction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 307
Dissecting Simon’s Oracle��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 307
Extended Practice Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 310

Chapter 10: Advanced Algorithms: Unstructured Search and Integer


Factorization with Grover and Shor���������������������������������������������������������������������� 313
Quantum Unstructured Search�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 314
Phase Inversion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 315
Inversion About the Mean���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 316
Practical Implementation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 318
Generalized Circuit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 321
Integer Factorization with Shor’s Algorithm������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 324
Challenging Asymmetric Cryptography with Quantum Factorization���������������������������������� 325
Period Finding��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 326
Shor’s Algorithm by ProjectQ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 330

x
Table of Contents

Chapter 11: Quantum in the Real World: Advanced Chemistry and


Protein Folding����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 339
The Significance of Eigenvalues����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 339
Eigenvalues in a Quantum Computer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 342
Why Use a Quantum Computer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 343
Molecule Ground States������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 344
The Lattice��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 344
The Heisenberg Spin ½ Hamiltonian����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 346
The VQE������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 350
The Results�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 352
Protein Folding�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 355
The Protein Folding Problem����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 356
Protein Folding Using a Quantum Computer����������������������������������������������������������������������� 357
Exciting Times Lie Ahead���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 364

Appendix: Exercise Answers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 367

Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 399

xi
About the Author
Vladimir Silva was born in Quito, Ecuador. He received a System’s Analyst degree from
the Polytechnic Institute of the Army in 1994. In the same year, he came to the United
States as an exchange student pursuing an M.S. degree in Computer Science at Middle
Tennessee State University. After graduation, he joined IBM as a software engineer. His
interests include Quantum Computing, Neural Nets, and Artificial Intelligence. He also
holds numerous IT certifications including OCP, MCSD, and MCP. He has written many
technical books in the fields of distributed computing and security. His previous books
include Grid Computing for Developers (Charles River Media), Practical Eclipse Rich
Client Platform Projects (Apress), Pro Android Games (Apress), and Advanced Android 4
Games (Apress).

xiii
About the Technical Reviewer
Jason Whitehorn is an experienced entrepreneur and soft-
ware developer and has helped many companies automate
and enhance their business solutions through data synchro-
nization, SaaS architecture, and machine learning. Jason
obtained his Bachelor of Science in Computer Science from
Arkansas State University, but he traces his passion for de-
velopment back many years before then, having first taught
himself to program BASIC on his family’s computer while
still in middle school.
When he’s not mentoring and helping his team at work, writing, or pursuing one of
his many side-projects, Jason enjoys spending time with his wife and four children and
living in the Tulsa, Oklahoma, region. More information about Jason can be found on his
website: https://jason.whitehorn.us.

xv
Introduction
The Quantum Computing Revolution
I wrote this book to be the ultimate guide for programming a quantum computer in the
cloud. IBM has made their quantum rig (known as the IBM Quantum) available not
only for research but for individuals, in general, interested in this exciting new field of
computing.
Quantum computing is gaining traction and now is the time to learn to program
these machines. In years to come, the first commercial quantum computers should be
available, and they promise significant computational speedups compared to classical
computers. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the field of cryptography where the
quantum integer factorization algorithm can outperform the best classical solution by
orders of magnitude, so much so that a practical implementation of this algorithm will
render current asymmetric encryption useless.
All in all, this book is a journey of understanding. You may find some of the concepts
explained throughout the chapters difficult to grasp; however, you are not alone. The
great physicist Richard Feynman once said: “If somebody tells you he understands
quantum mechanics, it means he doesn’t understand quantum mechanics.” Even the
titans of this bizarre theory have struggled to comprehend what it all means.
I have tried to explore quantum computation to the best of my abilities by using real-
world algorithms, circuits, code, and graphical results. Some of the algorithms included
in this manuscript defy logic and seem more like voodoo magic than a computational
description of a physical system. This is the main reason I decided to tackle this subject.
Even though I find the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics bizarre, I’ve
always been fascinated by them. Thus, when IBM came up with its one-of-a-kind
quantum computing platform for the cloud and opened it up for the rest of us, I jumped
to the opportunity of learning and creating this manuscript.
Ultimately, this is my take on the subject, and I hope you find as much enjoyment
in reading it as I did writing it. My humble advice: Learn to program quantum
computers; soon they will be ever present in the data center, doing everything from
search and simulations to medicine and artificial intelligence. Here is an overview of the
manuscript’s contents.
xvii
Introduction

Chapter 1: Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks


of Reality
It all began in the 1930s with Max Planck’s reluctant genius. He came up with a new
interpretation for the energy distribution of the light spectrum. He started it all by
unwillingly postulating that the energy of the photon was not described by a continuous
function, as believed by classical physicists, but by tiny chunks, which he called quanta.
He was about to start the greatest revolution in science in this century: quantum
mechanics. This chapter is an appetizer to the main course and explores the clash
of two titans of physics: Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. Quantum mechanics was a
revolutionary theory in the 1930s, and most of the scientific establishment was reluctant
to accept it, including the colossus of the century: Albert Einstein. Fresh from winning
the Nobel Prize, Einstein never accepted the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.
This caused a rift with its biggest champion: Niels Bohr. The two greats debated it out
for decades and never resolved their differences. Ultimately, quantum mechanics
has withstood 70 years of theoretical and experimental challenges, to emerge always
triumphant. Read this chapter and explore the theory, experiments, and results, all
under the cover of the incredible story of these two extraordinary individuals.

Chapter 2: Richard Feynman, Demigod of Physics,


Father of the Quantum Computer
In the 1980s, the great physicist Richard Feynman proposed a quantum computer. That
is a computer that can take advantage of the principles of quantum mechanics to solve
problems faster. The race is on to construct such a machine. This chapter explores, in
general terms, the basic architecture of a quantum computer: qubits – the basic blocks
of quantum computation. They may not seem like much but they have almost magical
properties: Superposition, believe it or not, a qubit can be in two states at the same time:
0 and 1. This is a concept hard to grasp at the macroscale where we live. Nevertheless,
at the atomic scale, all bets are off. This fact has been proven experimentally for over
70 years. Thus, superposition allows a quantum computer to outmuscle a classical
computer by performing large amounts of computation with relatively small numbers
of qubits. Another mind-bender is qubit entanglement: entangled qubits transfer states,
when observed, faster than the speed of light across time or space! Wrap your head

xviii
Introduction

around that. All in all, this chapter explores all the physical components of a quantum
computer: quantum gates, types of qubits such as superconducting loops, ion traps,
topological braids, and more. Furthermore, the current efforts of all major technology
players in the subject are described, as well as other types of quantum computation such
as quantum annealing.

Chapter 3: Behold, the Qubit Revolution


In this chapter, we look at the basic architecture of the qubit as designed by the
pioneering IT companies in the field. You will also learn that although qubits are mostly
experimental and difficult to build, it doesn’t mean that one can’t be constructed with
some optical tools and some ingenuity. Even if a little crude and primitive, a quantum
gate can be built using refraction crystals, photon emitters, and a simple budget. This
chapter also explores superconducting loops as the de facto method for building qubits
along with other popular designs and their relationship to each other.

Chapter 4: Enter IBM Quantum: A One-of-a-Kind


Platform for Quantum Computing in the Cloud
In this chapter, you will get your feet wet with the IBM Q Experience. This is the first
quantum computing platform in the cloud that provides real or simulated quantum
devices for the rest of us. Traditionally, a real quantum device will be available only for
research purposes. Not anymore, thanks to the folks at IBM who have been building this
stuff for decades and graciously decided to open it up for public use.
Learn how to create a quantum circuit using the visual composer or write it down
using the excellent Python SDK for the programmer within you. Then execute your
circuit in the real thing, explore the results, and take the first step in your new career as a
quantum programmer. IBM may have created the first quantum computing platform in
the cloud, but its competitors are close behind. Expect to see new cloud platforms soon
from other IT giants. Now is the time to learn.

xix
Introduction

Chapter 5: Mathematical Foundation: Time to Dust


Up That Linear Algebra
Matrices, complex numbers, and tensor products are the holy trinity of quantum
computing. The bizarre properties of quantum mechanics are entirely described by
matrices. It is the rich interpretation of matrices and complex numbers that allows for a
bigger landscape resulting in an advantage over traditional scaler-based mathematics.
Quantum mechanics sounds and looks weird but at the end is just fancy linear algebra.

Chapter 6: Qiskit, Awesome SDK for Quantum


Programming in Python
Qiskit stands for Quantum Information Software Kit. It is a Python SDK to write quantum
programs in the cloud or a local simulator. In this chapter, you will learn how to set up
the Python SDK on your PC. Next, you will learn how quantum gates are described using
linear algebra to gain a deeper understanding of what goes on behind the scenes. This
is the appetizer to your first quantum program, a very simple thing to familiarize you
with the syntax of the Python SDK. Finally, you will run it in a real quantum device. Of
course, quantum programs can also be created visually in the composer. Gain a deeper
understanding of quantum gates, the basic building blocks of a quantum program. All
this and more is covered in this chapter.

Chapter 7: Start Your Engines: From Quantum


Random Numbers to Teleportation and Super
Dense Coding
This chapter is a journey through three remarkable information-processing capabilities
of quantum systems. Quantum random number generation explores the nature of
quantum mechanics as a source of true randomness. You will learn how this can be
achieved using very simple logic gates and the Python SDK. Next, this chapter explores
two related information processing protocols: super dense coding and quantum
teleportation. They have exuberant names and almost magical properties. Discover
their secrets, write circuits for the composer, execute remotely using Python, and finally
interpret and verify their results.

xx
Introduction

Chapter 8: Game Theory: With Quantum Mechanics,


Odds Are Always in Your Favor
Here is a weird one: this chapter explores two game puzzles that show the remarkable
power of quantum algorithms over their classical counterparts – the counterfeit coin
puzzle and the Mermin-Peres Magic Square. In the counterfeit coin puzzle, a quantum
algorithm is used to reach a quartic speed up over the classical solution for finding a fake
coin using a balance scale a limited number of times. The Mermin-Peres Magic Square
is an example of quantum pseudo-telepathy or the ability of players to almost read each
other’s minds, achieving outcomes only possible if they communicate during the game.

Chapter 9: Quantum Advantage with Deutsch-Jozsa,


Bernstein-Vazirani, and Simon’s Algorithms
This chapter looks at three algorithms of little practical use but important, because they
were the first to show that quantum computers can solve problems significantly faster
than classical ones: Deutsch-Jozsa, Bernstein-Vazirani, and Simon’s algorithms. They
achieve significant performance boost via massive parallelism by using the Hadamard
gate to put the input in superposition. They also illustrate critical concepts such as
oracles or black boxes that perform some transformation on the input, and phase
kickback, a powerful technique used to alter the phase of inputs so they can cancel
each other.

Chapter 10: Advanced Algorithms: Unstructured


Search and Integer Factorization with Grover
and Shor
This chapter showcases two algorithms that have generated excitement about the
possibilities of practical quantum computation: Grover’s Search, an unstructured
quantum search algorithm capable of finding inputs at an average of the square root of
N steps. This is much faster than the best classical solution at N/2 steps. It may not seem
that much, but when talking about very large databases, this algorithm can crush it in
the data center. Expect all web searches to be performed by Grover’s in the future. Shor’s

xxi
Introduction

Integer Factorization: the notorious quantum factorization that experts say could bring
current asymmetric cryptography to its knees. This is the best example of the power
of quantum computation by providing exponential speedups over the best classical
solution.

Chapter 11: Quantum in the Real World: Advanced


Chemistry and Protein Folding
Quantum is already working hard to make a difference in the fields of Chemistry and
Medicine. This chapter showcases two amazing real-life experiments that illustrate
its power: ground states are important in molecular chemistry, with most elements
modeled using lattices where vertices represent interacting atoms. In this chapter, you
will learn how to minimize the energy Hamiltonian of a molecule to reach its ground
state using lattices. Next, proteins are the fundamental building blocks that power all
life. Reliably predicting protein structures is extremely complicated and can change
our understanding of nature. In this experiment, you will learn about protein amino
acids, peptides, chains, nomenclature, and more; and best of all, you will learn how its
structure can be predicted using a quantum computer.

xxii
CHAPTER 1

Quantum Fields:
The Building Blocks
of Reality
The beginning of the 20th century, more specifically 1930s Europe, witnessed the
dawn of arguably one of the greatest theories in human history: quantum mechanics.
After almost a century of change, this wonder of imagination has morphed and taken
many directions. One of these is quantum field theory (QFT) which is the subject of this
chapter. If you enjoy physics and wish to understand why things are the way they are,
then you must get your feet wet with QFT. It has been called the most successful theory
in history, riding high since the 1950s and giving rise to the standard model of particle
physics. This is the modern view of how nature works at the smallest scale, being proven
right time and again by countless experiments and instruments like the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC). All in all, the story of how QFT came to be, and the Masters of Physics
behind it, is a tale of wonder, furious rivalry but ultimate collaboration.
Our story begins in 1900 when Lord Kelvin stood in front of the British Science Royal
Society and enunciated: “There is nothing else to be discovered in physics” – a powerful
statement at the time but clearly wrong in hindsight. Perhaps, we should thank the lord
for such a bold proclamation because it is statements like that that drive others to prove
them wrong. This was put to the test 30 years later in Germany.
Around the 1930s, the great German physicist Max Plank (1858–1947) was working
on the black-body radiation problem, more specifically in the ultraviolet catastrophe.
To understand this problem, let’s backtrack to the physics of how materials glow in
multiple colors at different temperatures. In 1900 British physicist Lord Rayleigh derived
an approximation to predict that process. To accomplish his task, Rayleigh used the
so-called black body, a simple object that would absorb and emit light but not reflect it.

1
© Vladimir Silva 2024
V. Silva, Quantum Computing by Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9991-3_1
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Note that the term black doesn’t mean its color is black but that it simply absorbs and
emits light but does not reflect it, so when observed, you’ll see its glow or radiation.
Rayleigh’s work is known as the Rayleigh-Jeans law for spectral radiation of a black body
as a function of its wavelength λ (lambda) and its temperature in Kelvin degrees (K) (see
Equation 1.1):

2cK BT
B T   (1.1)
4 

where

• c = speed of light (299792458 m/s)

• KB, the Boltzmann constant = 1.38064852 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1

• λ = wavelength

• T = temperature in Kelvin degrees

Enter Max Planck, the Father of Quantum Mechanics


The Rayleigh-Jeans law works great for higher wavelengths (in the infrared spectrum
outside of visible light) but gives infinite values in the visible spectrum. Figure 1-1 shows
a graph of the Rayleigh-Jeans spectral radiance for wavelengths of visible and infrared for
a black body at 5000 degrees Kelvin. This is what is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe:
the infinite values of radiation of light in the visible spectrum as predicted by classical
physics. This is simply not possible; if this was true, then we’ll all get cooked up by simply
getting close to a candle light! Max Planck realized this and found a solution in the 1930s
earning him a Nobel Prize and a place in history.

2
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-1. Graph of the Rayleigh-Jeans law vs. Planck’s solution for the
ultraviolet catastrophe

Planck altered Rayleigh’s original derivation by changing the formula to match


experimental results as shown in Equation 1.2.

2cK BT
B T   (1.1)
4 

2hc 2 1
B   ,T   hc
(1.2)
5
e  K BT
 1

where h is Planck’s constant = 6.62 × 10-34 m2kg/s.


He made an incredible assumption for the time: energy can be emitted or absorbed
c
in discrete chunks which he called quanta: E  hv  h where v is the frequency. Note

c
that frequency equals the speed of light divided by the wavelength v  . This may

seem trivial nowadays, but in the 1930s was ground-breaking; not even Planck fully
understood what he had unleashed. He gave birth to a brand new theory: quantum
mechanics.

3
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

 lanck Hits the Jackpot, Einstein Collects


P
a Nobel Prize
So at the time, Planck didn’t realize how huge his postulate of energy quanta was, as he
admitted that his solution for the ultraviolet catastrophe was simply a workaround for
the maths of the Rayleigh-Jeans law to make it fit well-known experimental results. To
grasp the power of this postulate, one must look at the view of the nature of light pre-post
Planck’s era.

The Nature of Light Before Planck


Since the 19th century, it was well accepted that light behaved like a wave. Scottish
physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1979) provided a description of the fundamental
properties of such waves (see Figure 1-2).

Figure 1-2. The nature of light in the 19th century

• A fundamental property of a light wave is its wavelength or


lambda (λ).

• Look at the right side of Figure 1-2: At very short wavelengths, we


have lots of waves; the reverse is also true at higher wavelengths. This
is the frequency (v), a second fundamental property of light waves.

It seems logical to assume that at high frequencies (short wavelengths), the energy of
the wave is higher (as there is more stuff flowing in) and that at lower frequencies (higher
wavelengths) the energy decreases. Therefore the energy (E) is directly proportional to

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

its frequency (v) and inversely proportional to its wavelength (λ). This knowledge gave
rise to the standard spectrum of light in the 19th century:

• On the left side of the spectrum (at the shortest wavelengths between
1 picometer and 0.01 nanometers [nm]), sit the gamma rays: very
dangerous, the usual result of a supernova explosion, they are the
most energetic. A gamma-ray burst from a supernova can destroy
everything in its path: all life on Earth, for example, even the solar
system. You don’t want to be in the crosshairs of a gamma-ray burst!

• Next, at a wavelength of 0.01–10nm, sit the well-known x-rays: very


helpful for looking inside of things: organic or inorganic, but still
dangerous enough to cause cancer over persistent exposure.

• At a wavelength of 10–400 nm, we have ultraviolet light (UV): this


is the radiation from the sun that gives life to our Earth but can be
harmful in high doses. Lucky for us, the ozone layer on Earth keeps
the levels in balance to make life possible.

• At a tiny sort after the UV range sits the visible light spectrum that
allows us to enjoy everything we see in this beautiful universe.

• Next, infrared at wavelengths up to 1050 nanometers. It is used


in industrial, scientific, military, law enforcement, and medical
applications. In such devices as night vision goggles, heat sensors,
and others.

• Finally, radio waves above the infrared range. These are used by most
human technology to send all kinds of information such as audio,
video, TV, radio, cell phones, you name it.

After Planck, Physics Will Never Be the Same


In the 1930s Planck turned the classical understanding of the nature of light upside
down. Even though his postulate of energy quanta was dubbed lunacy by most physicists
and remained unnoticed for years, it will take another giant of the century, Albert
Einstein, to seize on this discovery and come up with a brand new interpretation of light.
Thus, the photon was born.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

This is not well known to most people, but Einstein didn’t win a Nobel Prize for
his masterpiece on The Theory of Relativity, but for his work on the quantum nature
of light and the photoelectric effect. Using Planck’s idea, Einstein imagined light as
discrete waves (particles) which he called photons. He used this to solve a paradox in the
photoelectric effect unknown at the time (see Figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3. A fresh idea on the photoelectric effect earned Einstein the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1921

As its name indicates, the photoelectric effect seeks to describe the behavior
of electrons over a metal surface when light is thrown in the mix. To this end, the
experiment in Figure 1-3 was devised:

• Start with two metal plates. Let’s call them the emitter and the
collector. Both are attached via a cable to a battery. The negative
end of the battery is connected to the emitter, and the positive to the
collector.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• As we all know, electrons have a negative charge; thus, they flow


to the emitter while the positive charge gathers in the collector.
Remember also that opposite charges attract.

• The idea is to measure the kinetic energy of the electrons when they
flow from the emitter to the collector when a light source is thrown
into the emitter. To achieve this accurately, a vacuum is set among
the two.

• If light flows as a wave as classical physics demands, then when


the light hits the electrons, they will become energized and escape
the surface of the emitter toward the collector. Furthermore, as the
intensity (the amount) of light is increased, more electrons will get
energized and escape in larger quantities. This increase in charge can
be measured by the gauge as shown.

However, this is not what happens. Two things were observed in reality:

1. The increase in charge (the kinetic energy of the electrons) does


not depend on the intensity of the light but on its frequency.

2. Even stranger, not all frequencies energize the electrons to


escape the emitter. If we were to draw the kinetic energy (KE)
as a function of the frequency (f ) (see the lower right side
of Figure 1-3), then there is a point in the curve (threshold
frequency) after which the electrons escape. Values below
this threshold and the electrons remain unchanged. This is a
puzzle indeed!

Einstein proposed a solution to this puzzle: by postulating that energy behaves as


a particle, he solved the paradox of item 2 of the list. Imagine that you are at the county
fair looking to win a prize by knocking down pins with a ball. If you throw marbles at the
pins, they won’t budge; however, throw a baseball, and the pins will be knocked down
earning you that desired prize. This is what Einstein thought occurred in this situation.
Low frequency photons don’t have enough energy to power up the electrons to escape
the emitter. Increase the frequency of the light; it increases the energy of the electrons
so they escape generating a current that can be measured. From this, a mathematical
model can be derived (see Figure 1-4).

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-4. Equation for the photoelectric effect

Figure 1-4 shows a graph of the kinetic energy of the electron (EK) as a function
of the light frequency (f ). At low frequencies, no electrons escape until the threshold
frequency is reached. Now, extend the line as shown by the dotted track in the figure,
and we have a straight line graph (note that the point at which the dotted track intersects
the Y axis is named by the Greek letter φ (Phi)). This is the energy needed to liberate the
electron. Thus, this line graph can be described by the algebraic equation Y = mx + c
where m is the gradient and c is the Y-intercept.
Now instead of Y, substitute the kinetic energy, with the gradient m being Planck’s
constant (h), the frequency (f) instead of x, and c being the energy needed to liberate or –φ.
Therefore, our line graph equality becomes Ek = hf − φ.
This is the equation for the photoelectric effect: the energy leftover after the electron
is liberated equals the energy given by the photon minus the energy needed to liberate it.

Tip Incidentally, the first scientist to think of light as a particle was Isaac Newton.
He thought light traveled in small packets which he called co-puzzles. He also
thought these packets had mass; something that is incorrect. Unfortunately, this
idea never took off and lay dormant until it was revived by the Planck-Einstein
revolution of the 1930s.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Quantum Mechanics Comes in Many Flavors


There is little doubt that the 1930s were the golden age of physics in the 20th century.
Nobel prizes were awarded like candy, and it seemed that nothing could stop humanity
in its quest to unravel the secrets of nature. Since then, quantum mechanics has stood
tall for almost a century of endless theoretical and experimental challenges. All in all, it
has seen a good deal of change over the years. These are the so-called interpretations of
quantum mechanics, and they come in really bizarre flavors.

Copenhagen Interpretation
This is the earliest consensus about the meaning of quantum mechanics, and was born
out of the golden age of physics with contributions from Max Planck, Niels Bohr, Werner
Heisenberg, and others in Copenhagen during the 1920s.

The Revolution Begins with Planck, Bohr, and Schrödinger


Max Planck’s postulate of energy quanta started the revolution with contributions
by Einstein on the duality and/or quantum nature of light. That is, the idea that light
behaves as both a wave and a particle.
Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885–1962) funded the Institute of Theoretical Physics
in Copenhagen in the 1920s to work on the brand-new field of atomic research. At the
time, the atom was thought to look like a tiny solar system with a nucleus at the center
made of protons, neutrons, and electrons orbiting around. This was known as the
Rutherford model, but it had a terrible problem: electric charge! If the negatively charged
electrons orbit around the positively charged nucleus, then as opposite charges attract,
the electrons will eventually collapse into the nucleus destroying all matter in existence.
Bohr foresaw this situation and used Planck’s idea of energy quanta to theorize that
electrons jump from one orbit to another by gaining or losing energy; something that
he called a quantum jump. This idea later became known as the Bohr atom, but it had
a weird characteristic: electrons didn’t simply travel from one orbit to another. They
instantaneously disappear from one orbit and reappear in another. This did not sit well
with another colossus of physics: Erwin Schrödinger.
Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) is the father of the famous wave
function ѱ (Cyrillic - Psi). Schrödinger was looking to describe the energy of a physical
system; he came up with what is now considered the most powerful tool in physics in the
last century (see Figure 1-5).
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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-5. Schrödinger wave function ѱ is the cornerstone of quantum mechanics

Schrödinger detested Bohr’s interpretation of the atom famously stating that “If I am
to accept the quantum jump, then I am sorry I ever got into the field of atomic research.”
As a matter of fact, his wave function was an attempt to defeat Planck-Bohr-Einstein. He
wanted to throw away the nascent theory of energy quanta and return to the continuous
classical model of wave physics, even pushing the idea that all reality can be described
entirely by waves. So why is ѱ used nowadays everywhere in quantum mechanics?
Thank this to our next physicist: Max Born.
German-Jewish physicist Max Born (1882–1970) took Schrödinger’s wave function
in an entirely new direction. Born proposed a probabilistic interpretation of ѱ, that
is, the state of a particle exists in constant flux, and the only thing we can know is the
probability of the particle at a given state. Born postulated that this probability is
P = ѱ2. Needless to say, Schrödinger didn’t like this at all as he thought his wave function
was being misused. He took a swing at Born with his now famous thought experiment:
the quantum cat. But before we check if the cat in the box is dead or alive and why,
consider this witty story: In the quintessential American cartoon Futurama (by Matt
Groening – creator of The Simpsons), our hero Fry enrolls in the police academy in
New-NewYork on Earth in the year 3000. One day while on patrol, Fry chases a bandit
carrying a mysterious box in the trunk of his car. Once in custody, the bandit is revealed
to be Werner Heisenberg. Fry looks at the box with a face full of trepidation and asks:
“What’s in the box?” To which Heisenberg replies, “a cat.” “Is the cat dead or alive?” asks
Fry. Heisenberg replies: “the cat is neither dead nor alive but in a superposition of states
with a probability assigned to each.” Long story short, Heisenberg the bandit is arrested
as a major violator of the laws of physics. This was a funny tale for the physics buff.
Nevertheless, it shows the quantum cat has become folklore, and the prime example
used to explain the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

The powerful Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle (HUP) is the work of German


physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), and it is one of the foundations of quantum
theory. It describes a degree of uncertainty in the relationship between the position (x)
and the momentum (ρ) of a particle. More clearly, we can measure the exact position
or momentum of a particle but not both. The uncertainty principle arises from the
fundamental wave-matter duality of quantum objects (see Figure 1-6).

Figure 1-6. Uncertainty is a fundamental property of the wave-particle duality of


a quantum object’s complementary variables such as position and momentum

Tip A remarkable point is that at the beginning, this degree of uncertainty was
confused with the observer effect, which states that the act of measurement alters
the state of a quantum system. As a matter of fact, Heisenberg himself used the
observer effect as a physical explanation of this postulate. Since then this has
been proven untrue with a rigorous mathematical derivation of HUP provided by
physicist Earle Hesse Kennard in 1928.

The uncertainty principle has a profound effect in the world of thermodynamics:


for example, it gave rise to the notion of zero-point energy. In the Kelvin scale of
temperature, zero kelvin is called the absolute zero or the temperature at which
all molecular activity stops. This fact is forbidden by quantum mechanics and the
uncertainty principle because, if all molecular activity ceases, then the position and
momentum of a particle will be known. This is not possible; you either know the position
or the momentum of a particle but not both. Thus even at absolute zero, particles are
vibrating with a tiny amount of energy, hence the term zero-point energy.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958) was a dear colleague of Einstein and a
Nobel laureate for the remarkable Exclusion Principle which states that no two electrons
can have the same set of quantum numbers. These numbers describe the state of the
electron; therefore, no two electrons can be in the same quantum state at a time. In
Pauli’s time, the chemical effect of the electron was described by a set of three quantum
numbers:

• n: The principal quantum number

• l: The orbital angular momentum

• ml: The magnetic quantum number

Pauli studied experimental results from chemical tests on the stability of atoms
with even vs. odd numbers of electrons. At the time it was thought that an atom with
even numbers of electrons was chemically more stable than one with odd numbers.
Furthermore, these numbers were thought to be arranged in symmetric clusters or
closed shells around the nucleus. Pauli realized that these complex shells can be reduced
to a single electron by adding a new quantum number to the trio above. Pauli introduced
a new two-valued quantum number that will later be known as the quantum spin. Pauli’s
discovery was later generalized for all particles in the standard model:

• Fermions: Named after one of the architects of the nuclear age


(Enrico Fermi), these obey Fermi-Dirac statistics and Pauli’s
exclusion principle. Fermions have a half-integer spin and include
electrons, quarks, and leptons (electrons, neutrinos).

• Bosons: These obey Bose-Einstein statistics and do not follow Pauli’s


exclusion principle. Furthermore, they have integer value spin and
include photons, gluons, W-Z bosons, and the almighty Higgs boson
(the so-called god particle).

Pauli’s exclusion principle is important in that it helps explain the complex shell
structure of atoms and its effect on their chemical stability. It also explains the way
atoms share electrons explaining the chemical variety of elements in nature and their
combinations. For this, Pauli received a Nobel Prize in 1945 for “a contribution through
his discovery of a new law of Nature, the exclusion principle or Pauli principle,” with the
incredible honor of being nominated by Albert Einstein.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

The Genius of Paul Dirac


English physicist Paul Dirac (1902–1984) is considered one of the most significant
contributors to the development of quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics.
You probably heard of the term antimatter, that is, matter with the same mass as regular
matter but opposite charge. Dirac was the first to derive an equation to predict its
existence. Among many of Dirac’s contributions are

• Dirac equation: This equation is considered an incredible achievement


for quantum mechanics for two important reasons: First, it was an
attempt to account for special relativity (space-time coordinates)
within Schrödinger’s wave function (see Figure 1-7). Such a feat is
considered to be the holy grail of physics: merging relativity and
quantum mechanics into a single theory of everything. Unfortunately,
Dirac’s equation fell a little short of the feat of the millennium.
We’ll explain that later on. Second, it predicts the existence of
antimatter, unsuspected and unobserved at the time, yet confirmed
experimentally years later via experiments of particle colliders.

Figure 1-7. The Dirac equation was the first attempt to inject relativistic space-
time in the context of quantum mechanics
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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• Dirac’s intentions of treating the atom in a manner consistent


with relativity had a profound effect in the structure of matter. His
equation introduced two new mathematical objects which now are
fundamental in physics and quantum field theory:

• ak and β: These are 4x4 matrices closely related to Pauli’s


matrices. Remembering Pauli’s exclusion principle, it introduced
a new quantum number to explain electron shell clusters using
a 2x2 matrix that was later known as electron spin (or spinor). In
the same line, Dirac’s matrices are called bispinors.

• A four-component wave function ѱ: It has four components


because its evaluation at any given point is a bispinor. Physically,
it is interpreted as the superposition of a spin-up electron, spin-
down electron, spin-up positron, and spin-down positron. Note
that Dirac’s four-component wave function differs from Pauli’s
two-component wave function and Schrödinger’s wave function
for a single complex value.

• Hole theory: Dirac’s equation has solutions with negative energies.


To cope with this fact, Dirac introduced the hypothesis of Hole theory.
This theory postulates that the vacuum is a many body quantum state
where all the negative energy electron eigenstates are occupied. This
description came to be known as the Dirac sea. Furthermore, since
Pauli’s exclusion principle forbids two electrons from occupying the
same quantum state, additional electrons will be forced to occupy
a positive eigenstate with positive-energy electrons forbidden from
decaying into negative-energy eigenstates. Dirac reasoned that there
may be unoccupied negative-energy eigenstates in this sea which
he called holes reasoning that they behave like positively charged
particles because positive energy is required to create a particle-hole
pair from the vacuum. He initially thought that the hole may be the
proton; however, it was pointed out later that the hole should have
the same mass as the electron; thus, it could not be the proton as it
is around 1800 times as massive as the electron. This hole was later
identified as the positron which was discovered experimentally by
American physicist Carl Anderson in 1932!

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

E instein vs. Bohr, Nonlocality and Spooky Action at a Distance


(EPR Paradox)
In the early part of the 19th century, an unknown battle was being fought by two titans
of physics: Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein. Einstein did not like Max Born’s probabilistic
interpretation of the wave function. He wanted to extend his relativity to the atomic
scale for a single unified theory of physics. Thus in 1935, he along with colleagues Boris
Podolsky and Nathan Rosen published the notorious EPR paradox. The goal of this paper
was to drive a coup de grâce at the heart of quantum mechanics by showing the absurdity
of one of its fundamental principles: entanglement. Entanglement is a fundamental
property of quantum systems that originates when two particles interact with each other.
For example, if one has spin-up, the other particle will instantaneously show spin-down
when measured, and thus they are said to be entangled. The bizarre part is that this
event occurs instantaneously across space, even time (nonlocality). So, for example, take
two entangled particles, leave one on Earth, and move the other to the edge of the solar
system, then perform a measurement on the spin of the first. The second particle at the
edge of the solar system will instantaneously take the opposite spin value. This seemed
absurd to Einstein who believed that the speed of light was the ultimate speed limit in
the universe. If nothing can travel faster than light, how can the first particle notify the
other about its spin instantaneously? Einstein called this spooky action at a distance.

Tip Einstein abhorred the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics


because he could not bear the idea that the act of observation (measurement) is
what defines the state of a particle. He believed that states (properties) of a particle
were defined at the moment of its creation, famously writing to Bohr, “God does
not throw dice.” To which Bohr replied: “You should stop telling God what to do.”
Einstein sought to defeat this idea, and he spent the last decades of his life looking
for the holy grail of physics: a unified theory of relativity and quantum mechanics.
He was unsuccessful, and so the holy grail still eludes us: the mother of all
equations to unite the Heavens, the Earth, and the atom.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Bell’s Theorem Settles Einstein vs. Bohr and the EPR Paradox
Einstein vs. Bohr raged over the years with no clear winner in sight. Both physicists
passed away without settling their differences. However, in 1964, Irish physicist John
Stewart Bell (1928–1990) published a theorem to settle things once and for all. Bell’s
theorem did not seek to prove who’s right: quantum mechanics or relativity. It simply
provides the means to test the principle of nonlocality in entangled particles. In simple
terms, Bell’s theorem states that the sum of probabilities for a correlated three variable
quantum system is less than or equal to 1. That is, P (A = B) − P(A = C) − P (B = C) ≤ 1.

Figure 1-8. Explanation of Bell’s theorem using photon polarization at


three angles

To illustrate Bell’s theorem, consider photon polarization at three different angles


(A, B, and C) in Figure 1-8. We seek to calculate the minimum probability that the
polarization (indicated by +/−) for two neighbors is the same. For that purpose, we use a
table with the eight possible permutations of A, B, and C plus the neighbor polarization
(+/− columns 5,6,7). We also calculate the sum and average. Note that equal neighbor
polarization is indicated by ++ or −− in which case we count a 1. The average is the sum
divided by 3. The results above show that the minimum probability must be greater than

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

or equal to 1/3; what Bell’s theorem is saying here is that if reality is defined by the act of
observation as quantum mechanics predicts, then the minimum probability must be less
than 1/3.
On the other hand, if relativity is correct (the state of a particle is defined at creation),
then the probability must be greater than or equal to 1/3. Now the trick is to find out
if quantum mechanics violates Bell’s inequality. If it does, then our universe is bizarre
(Bohr and Planck were correct and quantum mechanics is saved). On the other hand,
if the inequality is not violated, then Einstein’s relativity wins and quantum mechanics
is wrong.
Amazingly, in 1982, French physicist Alain Aspect (1947–present) came up with
an experiment to test if quantum mechanics violates Bell’s theorem (see top right
side of Figure 1-8). The experiment used a laser and a calcium source to create pairs
of entangled photons. These photons travel in opposite directions passing through a
polarization filter with the results accounted for at the end. The goal was to calculate the
probability that both photons either pass thru or not at different angles, count the totals,
and see if the sum of probabilities is greater than or equal to 1/3. Remember that each
photon pair is entangled thus spooky action at a distance may occur when they pass the
filter. The results were astounding. The probability sum was around 1/4; Bell’s inequality
was violated as quantum mechanics predicted. It looks like God does throw dice after all!

Tip The late physicist Steven Hawking (1942–2018) once said “Not only god
throws dice but he is a compulsive gambler.” Some predictions of quantum
mechanics are so bizarre that they escape understanding. Our brains are wired to
make sense of the world around us; however, at the quantum scale, some things
cannot be understood, only accepted.

Aspect’s experiment also took a shot at spooky action at a distance. Testing if a


photon is capable of telling its entangled partner about its polarization instantaneously
is not an easy task. To achieve this, the experiment was slightly modified to use an optical
switch that selectively shifts optical signals on or off at a rate of around 2 nanoseconds
(ns). Now it takes light traveling at 186 thousand miles/sec around 20 ns to travel
from one side of the experiment to the other (close to 14m). The goal was to run the
experiment again and see if the new results match the old ones. If they do then, the
photon was able to tell its partner about the polarization faster than light can travel from
one end of the experiment to the other, something that is forbidden by relativity which

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

says that nothing in the universe can travel faster than the speed of light. The results
matched exactly in both instances: astounding and scary at the same time; imagine if
both photons were placed at the edges of the galaxy.
In an interview for the British BBC, John Bell spoke about these results: In physics,
some things escape our understanding, and we are left with no choice but to accept
them, as if reality is playing a trick on all of us. Amazing things occur at the quantum
scale, but the ultimate irony is that we cannot use them. Even though entangled particles
can send signals faster than light across huge distances, information cannot be sent in
the signal. A fact that is also predicted by quantum mechanics; what a bummer, forget
about texting your alien buddies on Alpha Centauri.

Tip It is hard to believe that Bell’s masterful theorem remained unnoticed for
years. Of course, that changed to the point that prominent physicists have called it
“The most profound discovery in science.”

 onsciousness, Mysticism, and the Collapse


C
of the Wave Function
Quantum mechanics tells us that the states of particles exist in superposition within a
probabilistic curve or wave function. Furthermore, when a measurement is performed
on the particle via a detector or measuring device, the wave function is said to collapse
to a single state. Why the collapse remains a mystery, all we know is that the collapse
signifies the transition from the quantum to the classical realm. Nevertheless, this
seems to occur whenever a quantum system interacts with the outside world. When
such bizarre physical phenomena were discovered, physicists turned to philosophy and
mysticism to make sense of what is going on. As a matter of fact, sacred Hindu texts like
The Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, and Mahabharata have entities popping in and
out of existence. In the sacred text of the Rigveda, the speed of light is calculated at 2202
Yojanas in a half Nimesa which in ancient units translates to around 185K miles/second.
Quantum principles have been used through the ages to validate metaphysical
concepts such as divinity, consciousness, and positive thinking among others. But
setting all this aside, why has quantum mechanics convinced leading physicists of the
intrinsic role mind-consciousness could play in reality? There is a fundamental principle

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

in science called causality. It is so embedded in our everyday existence that we take


it for granted: cause-and-effect, for every action there is an equal opposite reaction,
actions have consequences, etc. But what if there was scientific proof that causality can
be violated? Such proof will be incomprehensible as it would challenge the very fabric
of reality; after all, a scientist’s brain is wired to make sense of physical phenomena via
observation. Such an experiment does exist, and it is called the double-slit experiment
first performed by Thomas Young in 1801 (see Figure 1-9).

Figure 1-9. The double-slit experiment showing wave-particle duality appears to


violate causality

In the double-slit experiment in Figure 1-9, photons originating from a laser beam
travel through a metal plate with two close slits with the resulting projection recorded
on a detector screen. In the first step, an observer or measuring device is placed on the
screen resulting in the interference pattern shown on top of the figure. In this case, the
pattern indicates that light behaves like a wave. Now, if the observer is moved close to
the two slits to look at which slit the photon goes through, then the resulting pattern

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

changes to a cluster of two lines (bottom of the figure); here the photons behave like
particles. Why this happens is one of the great mysteries in physics. A few concrete
conclusions were drawn by experts at this point:

• The experiment illustrates the wave-particle duality of photons


intrinsic to all quantum phenomena. Note that since the days
Thomas Young first performed the experiment, the same results have
been replicated for electrons, atoms, and molecules; thus, the effect
applies to objects at the atomic-quantum scale only.

• Quantum systems are fundamentally probabilistic: There are no


exact answers in quantum mechanics, only the probability of an
object at a given state and its almighty wave function.

Then there are the really strange implications. The great American physicist Richard
Feynman once said of the double-slit experiment, “the secrets of quantum mechanics
can be gleaned from careful study of this single experiment.” There seems to be one or
two bizarre things at work here depending on how you look at them:

• Reality appears to be created or described by the act of observation. It


is our choice which defines the state in which the light is: particle or
wave. This is so strange; will things exist if the observer was removed?
Why do we need an observer in the first place? Who or what created
the observer?

• The arbitrary choice of moving the observer between the screen


and slits appears to travel back in time to decide in which state
the light should be (wave or particle). This goes beyond strange; a
more palatable explanation for this would be to think in terms of
superposition of states: the light exists in probabilistic superposition
of wave-particle states when not observed.

So the role consciousness plays in this saga remains. Is consciousness-observation


fundamental to our reality? If so, wouldn’t that challenge scientific dogma which says
that consciousness is an isolated illusion of the brain? Science allows us to gather
independent and verifiable evidence untainted by expectations and flourishes by
removing all traces of the mind from physical phenomena.

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Science seeks to build objective and reliable models of the world thriving on the
standard and verifiable experimental method. Quantum mechanics now seems to reveal
that, at the deepest level of nature, objective science is no longer possible. Could the
mind play an intrinsic role in the unfolding of the world? Max Planck once said: “It seems
like the mysteries of nature cannot be solved by ourselves as we are part of nature and thus
the mystery we are trying to solve in the first place.”

Tip Some quantum mechanics principles appear to defy understanding, and


when faced with the unbelievable, master physicists like Planck, Schrödinger, and
others have turned to philosophy to make sense of their scientific discoveries.

Many Worlds Interpretation


In the many worlds interpretation (MWI) of quantum mechanics, the wave function
is universal. It exists in all realities, and it does not collapse in our universe when we
observe phenomena. The multiverse is much weirder than we ever imagined.
In the Copenhagen interpretation, the collapse of the wave function signals the
transition between the quantum and classical realms. However, there is another way to
interpret this, which is in a set of infinite realities where all outcomes are possible.
When Erwin Schrödinger came up with his quantum cat thought experiment to
challenge the principle of superposition that he called absurd, he thought that if we open
the box and find out the cat is alive is because we are part of an entire quantum timeline
in which the poisoning of the cat never occurred. Nonetheless, there is an equally valid
timeline in which the cat died with another version of us experiencing it. Not only that,
but the number of timelines is infinite and occurs simultaneously. Sounds outrageous,
but it is a very serious interpretation of the mathematics.

Tip The many worlds interpretation was proposed by American physicist Hugh


Everett (1930–1982) in his 1957 PhD thesis “Theory of the Universal Wave
Function.”

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Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

In the context of the double-slit experiment, the Copenhagen interpretation says


that, at the moment of observation, all superimposed photon trajectories (histories)
merge (collapse) into a single timeline of the observer’s reality. The many worlds
interpretation on the other hand says that this merge never happens, all possible
histories continue, and we find ourselves in one of those timelines (see Figure 1-10).
Note that all histories are equally likely. However, some are similar to each other, and we
tend to land in the most common history.

Figure 1-10. In MWI all possible photon trajectories continue in their own
timelines

Tip Everett’s idea was not taken seriously when first proposed, probably because
he was a graduate student at the time.

All in all, MWI may be the purest interpretation of quantum mechanics as its maths
does not require the collapse of the wave function. Nevertheless, the idea of realities
branching out of each other at every instance induces an existential crisis that could
justify its unpopularity. Imagine infinite versions of yourself out there going through
every possible life path. It just sounds too bizarre. All in all, the most important specifics
about MWI are

• Many worlds is a deterministic interpretation: It eliminates the


probabilities intrinsic to the wave function by postulating that
any given timeline is a predictable chain of cause and effect. No
superposition of states.

22
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• Even though it has gained popularity in recent years, there is no


evidence of its existence. It is supported by the mathematics of
quantum mechanics but still remains an interpretation.

• It has not provided predictions to distinguish itself from other


interpretations, nor is it complete in its explanation. It fails to explain
what happens when neighboring histories interact or why the wave
function translates to probabilities.

• Aside from the existential crisis it incites, it presents another deep


philosophical unease: What happens to free will? If we live in a
deterministic universe, then we are making all possible decisions at
any given time; therefore, we have no free will. A valid thesis yet a
dreadful view of existence.

Supplementary Interpretations
When it comes to interpretations of quantum mechanics, Copenhagen and many worlds
are the most popular. Yet there are many more, which fall in two big categories: collapse
vs. no-collapse of the wave function, further classified by determinism, nonlocality
(spooky action at a distance), and observer presence. The following list describes some
of them according to the collapse of the wave function.

Conscious Observer
Also known as the von Neumann-Wigner interpretation, proposed by Hungarian
mathematician John von Neumann (1903–1957) with contributions by Hungarian
physicist Eugene Wigner (1902–1995). It dwells in the realm of philosophy by
hypothesizing that the wave function is universal and that it is the consciousness of the
experimenter which collapses it. There is not much meat in the bones of this theory;
nevertheless, over the years it has branched into ideas such as

• Subjective reduction: As consciousness collapses the wave function,


there is a point of intersection between quantum mechanics and
mind-body. Researchers in this field are hard at work on finding a
correlation between conscious and physical events.

23
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• Participatory anthropic principle: Championed by legendary


American physicist John Archibald Wheeler (1911–2008). It says that
consciousness plays a role in bringing the universe into existence. A
bizarre idea, if things can get any weirder; all in all, consider this: if
consciousness may bring reality into existence, then what happened
before humans evolved to try to uncover it? Could a dinosaur’s
consciousness do the trick? Furthermore, if consciousness is an
intrinsic property of life, what happened before life evolved on Earth?
Did reality exist at the dawn of the solar system or after the big bang?

Quantum Information
A truly fascinating theory, this is an attempt to eliminate the indeterminism (chance)
in the collapse of the wave function by taking cues from standard quantum physics
which says that information is recorded irreversibly. In this context, information means
a quantity that can be understood mathematically and physically, and irreversible
means that quantum states cannot roll back to previous ones due to the second law of
thermodynamics: entropy. Entropy states that the disorder (entropy) of the universe
can only increase. Perhaps, this could be better understood from the perspective of
the so-called arrow of time. That is, because time can only increase, and because of
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle where quantum states are intrinsically random,
recorded information is irreversible due to the fundamental uncertainty of quantum
mechanics. All in all, the quantum information interpretation is based on three
principles:
• The wave function evolves deterministically, going through
all possibilities. A particle will randomly choose one of those
possibilities to become real.

• The conscious observer is allowed; however, it cannot gain


knowledge until information has been recorded irreversibly in the
universe. Once recorded, the information becomes knowledge in the
observer’s mind.
• The measuring apparatus is quantum not classical, but it can
be statistically determined and capable of recording irreversible
information. So is the human mind that gains knowledge.

24
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Tip In this interpretation, there is only one world: the quantum world, and the
quantum to classical transition. Furthermore, the determinism of classical laws of
motion and causality are fundamentally statistical. Everything is probabilistic, but
near certainty.

The following theories eradicate the notion of the wave function collapse.

Pilot Wave Theory


Also known as de Broglie-Bohm theory named after pioneer physicists Louis de Broglie
(1892–1987) and David Bohm (1917–1992). It accommodates the wave function with
the notion of configurations (the position of all particles in a quantum system). This
theory is deterministic (no randomness is allowed); this implies that configurations exist
even when systems are not observed (no superposition of states). It is also nonlocal and
accepts spooky (instantaneous) action at a distance. Most notable is the presence of a
guiding equation that governs the evolution of the configurations over time. In particular,
this theory consists of two components:

• A configuration for the entire universe. These are the positions of all
particles in our universe q(t) ∈ Q where Q is the configuration space.

• A pilot wave ѱ (q, t) ∈ C. This is a two-component wave function that


governs the evolution of the configuration over time (t).

So, at every moment there exists not only a wave function (pilot wave), but also
a well-defined configuration of the whole universe. This effectively gets rid of the
indeterminism of the Copenhagen interpretation and the superposition of states (no
quantum cat is allowed). Thus, what we perceive as reality is made by the identification
of the configuration of our brain with some part of the configuration of the whole
universe.

• Double-slit: In the context of the double-slit experiment, pilot wave


says that each photon has a well-defined trajectory that passes
exactly through one of the slits. This is in contrast to Copenhagen
which states that the photons are not localized in space until detected
(observed). Furthermore, the final position of the particle on the
detector screen and the slit through which it passes is determined

25
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

by the initial position of the particle; with the crucial assumption


that the initial position is not knowable or controllable by the
experimenter, so there is an appearance of randomness in the pattern
of detection. According to Bohm, the wave function interferes with
itself and guides the particles through the quantum potential in such
a way that the particles avoid the regions in which the interference is
destructive and are attracted to the regions in which the interference
is constructive resulting in the pattern obtained experimentally.

• Relativity: Pilot wave conflicts with special relativity in the sense that
it is nonlocal (accepts instantaneous action at a distance). Over the
years, several extensions have been added in an attempt to overcome
this conflict. Bohm himself in 1953 presented an extension to the
theory using absolute time (where time is the same everywhere –
something that is a big no in special relativity; where time is highly
malleable and may be different relative to the position of the
observer).

• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: Copenhagen tells us that we


cannot measure two correlated variables (position and momentum)
in a quantum system at the same time due to the intrinsic uncertainty
of quantum mechanics. In pilot wave theory, however, we can
measure the position and momentum of a particle at the same time.
Each particle has a well-defined trajectory, as well as a wave function.
Observers have limited knowledge as to what this trajectory is (and
thus the position and momentum). It is the lack of knowledge of the
particle’s trajectory that accounts for the uncertainty.

• Entanglement and Bell’s theorem: Pilot wave theory makes the


same empirically correct predictions for the Bell test experiments as
ordinary quantum mechanics. This is because of the fundamental
nonlocality of this theory. As stated in the previous section (see Bell’s
theorem), in 1982 Alain Aspect showed experimentally that Bell’s
inequality is violated; furthermore, he showed the instantaneous
(faster than light) action between the two entangled photons as
predicted. Pilot wave theory describes the physics of Aspect’s
experiment by setting up a wave equation for both particles with

26
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

the orientation of the apparatus affecting the wave function. It is the


wave function that carries the faster-than-light effect when changing
the orientation of the polarization filters. It is worth reiterating that
quantum mechanics as well as Bell’s theorem and pilot wave theory
do not allow information to travel faster than light. A very important
distinction.

Time-Symmetric Theories
These are a set of theories championed by pioneers of quantum field theory Richard
Feynman and John Wheeler. They introduce the concept of retro-causality. This is the
notion that events in the future can affect ones in the past (just like events in the past
affect ones in the future). In time symmetry, a single measurement cannot describe
the state of a particle, but given two measurements performed at different times, it is
possible to calculate the exact state of the system at all intermediate times. This notion
affects the fundamentals of quantum systems in two ways:

• The collapse of the wave function is not a physical change to the


system, but a change in our knowledge of it due to the second
measurement.

• When it comes to entanglement, it is not a true physical state but just


an illusion created by ignoring retro-causality. The point where two
particles become entangled is simply a point where each particle
is being influenced by events that occur to the other particle in
the future.

De-coherence
This is an interpretation introduced in 1970 by the German physicist Heinz Dieter Zeh
(1932–2018). According to Zeh, de-coherence is the loss of information from a system
into the environment. For this to occur the following must be true:

• Viewed in isolation, the system’s dynamics are non-unitary (this


means that the time evolution of a quantum state according to the
Schrödinger equation is represented by a non-unitary operator).
Although the combination of the isolated system and environment
evolves in a unitary fashion.
27
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• The dynamics of the system alone must be irreversible.

• Entanglements can be generated between the system and


environment having the effect of transferring quantum information
to the surroundings.

Even though de-coherence discards the collapse of the wave function, it is an


attempt to understand it. It does not generate an actual wave function collapse.
It only provides an explanation for its apparent collapse, as the quantum system
leaks information into the environment. Note that de-coherence fails to explain the
measurement problem¸ that is, how and why the wave function collapses. It tries to,
nonetheless, by the transition of states from the quantum system to the environment.

F rom Quantum Mechanics to Quantum Fields:


Evolution or Revolution
After the golden age of physics in the 1930s, came what has been called the Second
Quantization Revolution spearheaded by the great British physicist Paul Dirac. He made
a profound contribution by finding a way to describe the behavior of the electron in
relativistic terms using his great equation. Dirac not only gave us a relativistic description
of the electron but also provided the basic recipe to quantize other properties of our
universe such as mass, charge, position, and energy. In the following years, these ideas
became the foundation to quantize all the subatomic forces in nature such as the weak,
strong nuclear forces, and electromagnetism. These are examples of what is now called
quantum field theory (QFT): the basis of modern physics.

28
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-11. Basic description of an electron quantum field (top) and the electron
emitting a photon (bottom)

The fundamentals of QFT are simple, yet as bizarre as the theory it splinters from:

• In the subatomic world, fields span the entire universe. There is a


field for each particle in the standard model: electrons, protons,
quarks, photons, etc.

• The particles we know and love are just localized vibrations in their
respective field.

• Fields can interact with one another to explain how particles are
created and destroyed.

To understand interactions between particles, consider Figure 1-11 showing an


electron field. The electron is a localized vibration in this field (top); if the electron emits
a photon, then QFT says that some of the energy of the electron sets up another vibration
in the photon field (bottom) which then moves away.

29
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Tip The idea of a field was started around 250 years ago by the English
scientist Michael Faraday (1791–1867) with his experiments in electromagnetism.
Over a decade of experimentation, Faraday developed an intuition of how
electric and magnetic phenomena behave. The result: the modern view of the
electromagnetic field.

For a scientist like Faraday to come up with the abstract idea of a field spanning all of
space, in the 1700s, was one of the most revolutionary ideas in science. Faraday’s eureka
moment came when he realized the repelling action that resulted when trying to put two
magnets together. He imagined there is something in there even though we cannot see it.
He called this something, lines of force; we call it the magnetic field (see Figure 1-12).

Figure 1-12. Faraday’s experiment in electromagnetic induction and his theory of


lines of force gave us the present notion of the electromagnetic field

It will take another 50 years for Faraday’s idea to be scientifically proved by his pupil
James Clerk Maxwell and later Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. Furthermore, another 150 years
for it to be used as the basis of QFT in modern day physics.

Tip QFT takes ideas from quantum mechanics, such as energy flowing as
discrete chunks (quanta), and combines it with Faraday’s idea of fields which are
continuous, smooth objects oscillating in space. This is Faraday’s legacy: there are
no particles in our universe, only fields and the vibrations they produce. Thus, QFT

30
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

seems like a simple combination of two old principles into a modern description
of reality; nevertheless, its mathematics are complicated. So much so that solving
most of the equations in QFT requires supercomputing power.

 e Are All Made of Quantum Fields, but We Don’t


W
Understand Them
In modern physics, the periodic table describes the basic particles we are all made of.
It starts with three particles: the electron (discovered by JJ Thomson in 1897) and two
quarks (up and down at the top of Figure 1-13). In the 1970s, we learned that the familiar
parts of the nucleus, the proton and neutron, are themselves made of smaller bits
quarks, with the proton made of two up quarks and one down quark and the neutron
made of two down quarks and an up quark.

Tip The names of the quarks seem bizarre (up, down, strange, charm). Physicists
in the 1970s used these names for no good reason. It’s not like the up quark points
upward or the down quark points downward; they are simply names given by the
individuals who discovered them.

Figure 1-13. The physics equivalent to the periodic table showing the basic
building blocks of the universe: the electron, neutrino, quarks, and the
fundamental forces of nature

31
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Erős, tagbaszakadt, vöröses hajú leány volt. Igazi típusa a
párizsvidéki parasztlánynak: eleven, kacér és vakmerő.
Mikor másodízben látta a két bakát ugyanazon a helyen, vidáman
szólt hozzájuk:
– Jó napot, vitéz urak!… Minden vasárnap ide gyünnek?
Péter, aki merészebb és a szóra készebb volt, mint János,
zavartan dadogta:
– Igen. Itt pihenünk.
Ennyi volt az egész. De a következő vasárnap a leány már rájuk
vihogott, kötekedve és fölényesen, mert látta félénkségüket:
– Mit csinálnak? Tán csak nem a fű növését hallgatják?
Péter fényrederülő arccal válaszolt:
– De biz azt, galambom!
– Nézze csak nó! És gyorsan nő legalább?
A férfi még mindig nevetve mondta:
– Azt már nem mondhatnám!
Továbbment. De mikor a friss tejjel visszajött, megállt előttük:
– Megízlelnék?… Legalább eszükbe jut a falu, ahonnan ide
gyüttek.
Az egyfajtájúak közös ösztöne megsúgta neki, aki falujától talán
szintén elszakadt, hogy mi rágódik a kis bakák fájó szívén.
Mindkettőjüknek megdobbant a szíve a leány barátságos szavára.
Péter a vödör alá tartotta a flaskót, amiben a bort hozták, s a leány
a szűk nyakon nagy üggyel-bajjal becsurgatta a tejet. Először Péter
ivott a tejből, óvatosan és minden pillanatban meggyőződést
szerezve, hogy a neki járó résznél nem fogyasztott többet. Azután
János vette át az üveget.
A leány lába elé téve a vödröt csípőjére tett kézzel állt előttük és
nagyon boldognak látszott, hogy a katonáknak örömet okoz.
Azután fölkapta a földről a vödröt s elszaladt, visszakiáltva még:
– Isten áldja! Oszt vasárnap gyüjjenek ám!
A két baka szemét utána meresztette, ameddig csak magas,
hajladozó alakját láthatta. A leánynak tűnő képe mind kisebb és
kisebb lett, míg végre úgy látszott, hogy a zöld vetés egészen
elnyeli.
*
A következő vasárnap, amikor a kaszárnyából kiléptek, János
megkérdezte Pétertől:
– Nem kéne neki valami édességet vinni?
A fölvetett gondolat tetszett Péternek is, de az ajándékra
vonatkozólag más véleményen volt. Ő inkább májashurkát akart
vinni. János viszont ragaszkodott a karamel-bonbonokhoz, amelyeket
maga is nagyon kedvelt. Végre is János véleménye győzött és egy
szatócsnál vásároltak két souért piros és fehérszínű cukorkákat.
Kint az erdőszélen ez alkalommal ebédjüket gyorsabban költötték
el, mert türelmetlenül várták a leány megérkezését.
János látta meg előbb:
– Nézd csak, ott gyün.
Péter előrenyujtotta nyakát s úgy kémlelt:
– Ő az! Lógázza a vödröt!
A leány már messziről nevetve kiáltotta:
– Hogy szolgál az egészség, vitéz urak?
A fiúk egyszerre kiáltották vissza:
– Köszönjük s a magáé?
A leány most már hosszasabban beszélgetett velük egyszerű
dolgokról: az időről, az aratásról, gazdáiról.
A fiúk nem merték a cukorkákat felajánlani s azok János
zsebében szépen olvadozni kezdtek.
Végül is Péter megbátorodott:
– Hoztunk valamit magának, ha meg nem sértenénk vele.
A leány mosolyogva kérdezte:
– Mi légyen az?
János fülig pirulva húzta ki zsebéből a hosszú, vékony
papirstaniclit.
A leány egyszerre több darabot vett szájába s míg jóízűen
szopogatta, nyelvével szája egyik sarkából a másikba tologatta az
összeragadt édességet, úgy hogy arca hol itt, hol ott dudorodott ki.
A két fiú boldog elmerüléssel szemlélte.
Azután elment fejni s mikor visszajött, tejjel kínálta meg a két kis
katonát.
A fiúk egész héten róla álmodoztak s többször emlegették is
egymás előtt.
A következő vasárnap már közibük ült a lány. Mind a hárman
kezüket térdük köré kulcsolták, szemükkel a messzeségbe bámultak
s szülőfalujokból apró dolgokat meséltek el. A tehén, látva, hogy a
lány útközben letelepedett, nagy nehéz fejét feléje fordította s
nedves orrát fölfelé nyujtva, keserves bőgéssel hivogatta…
Azután már a lány együtt evett velük. Néha szilvával tömött
zsebbel jött, mert a gyümölcsérés ideje elérkezett. A két kis breton
legény a lány társaságában otthonosan érezte magát s fesztelenül
csevegett, mint két gondtalan madár.
*
Egy keddi napon azután az történt, hogy Ganidec Péter,
katonáskodása alatt először, esti kimenőt kért és csak tíz órakor jött
vissza.
Jánost nyugtalanította a dolog s föl nem foghatta, hogy társa hol
töltötte idejét.
Pénteken Péter tíz sout kért szomszédjától kölcsön és felsőbb
engedéllyel az esti órákat megint kint töltötte.
Vasárnap pedig, amikor rendes sétájukra elindultak, János úgy
találta, hogy Péternek egészen különös és szokatlan arckifejezése
van.
Határozott gyanú nem alakult ki Kerderen János elméjében, de
valami ismeretlen dologtól szerfölött félt. Egy szót sem váltottak,
amíg szokott helyükre nem érkeztek; itt ebédjüket lassan költötték
el, de egyiküknek sem volt étvágya.
A lány nemsokára föltűnt az úton. Várakozó szemmel figyelték
közeledését, mint minden vasárnap. Mikor már nem volt messze,
Péter fölugrott és elejibe ment. A lány letette a földre a vödröt és
Pétert megcsókolta. Karjával szenvedélyesen ölelte át nyakát, ajkát
hosszan tapasztotta ajkára és egyáltalában nem törődött azzal, hogy
János ott van s látja őket.
Szegény János földult lélekkel, meghasogatott szívvel bámult
rájuk s egyelőre számot sem tudott adni magának arról, hogy mi
történt és hogy mi fáj neki abban, ami történik.
Azután Péter és a lány leültek a fűbe és elkezdtek beszélgetni.
János nem nézett rájuk. Most már tudta, hogy miért ment ki Péter
két este a kaszárnyából, tudott mindent és szívén az árulás sajgó
sebet ütött.
A másik kettő együtt ment el a tehenet megfejni.
János tekintetével követte őket. Kézenfogva mentek. Péter piros
nadrágja a napfényben olyan volt, mint nagy csillogó vérfolt. Mikor a
tehénhez érkeztek, Péter lehajolt a fakalapácsért s leütötte a farudat,
amely a tehenet elreteszelte.
A lány leguggolt és szórakozott kézzel végigsimítva a tehén
kiugró gerincén, a fejéshez fogott. Mikor készen volt, a vödröt a
füvön hagyta. Péter felé nyujtotta kezét s mindketten a sűrű erdőbe
mentek.
János kimeredt szemmel nézte őket s már nem látott mást, mint
a zöld levélfalat, amely mögött nyomtalanul eltűntek. Szívét oly zavar
és oly keserűség szorította össze, hogy leszédül, ha megkísérli
felállni.
Ott maradt hát mozdulatlanul, nagy, állati szenvedéstől
fejbekólintva. Szeretett volna üvölteni, elrohanni innen, magát
elrejteni valahová és senkit, de senkit sem látni.
Egyszerre csak látta, hogy a cserjés megrezzen. Ők jöttek ki és
kézenfogva közeledtek, mint faluban a jegyesek. Péter hozta a tejjel
teli vödröt.
Előtte megálltak s újra összeölelkeztek. A lánynak nem jutott
eszébe, hogy Jánost tejjel kínálja. Mikor kibontakozott Péter
karjából, kezébe vette a tejesvödröt és barátságos, bizalmas
mosollyal intve János felé, megindult az úton.
A két kis baka egyedül maradt. Mozdulatlanul ültek, mint mindig
és nyugodt arckifejezésük semmit sem árult el abból, ami lelkükben
végbemegy. A nap teljes erővel tűzött le rájuk. A tehén néha-néha
feléjük nézett és elbődült.
A szokott órában fölálltak és hazafelé indultak.
Péter mogyorófavesszőt hántott, János hozta az üres üveget. A
bezonsi kocsmárosnál otthagyták az üveget s a hídon szokás szerint
megállottak, hogy a víz folyását nézzék.
János mindjobban és jobban hajlott ki a korlátra, mintha a víz
ellenállhatatlan erővel vonzotta volna. Péter tréfálkozott vele: »Tán
szomjas vagy, sógor?« De alig ejtette ki az utolsó szót, mikor János
feje magával rántotta egész testét, a lábai a levegőbe csapódtak és
testével félkört írván le, a kis kékkabátos, pirosnadrágos baka egy
darabban bukott a vízbe és merült el benne.
Péter a rémülettől összeszorított torokkal kiáltani sem tudott.
Messzebb a víz felszínén megpillantott valamit, ami mozog: János
feje pillanatra fölmerült, azután megint alábukott. Majd megint
messzebb a hullámokból kinyúlt egy kéz, egyetlenegy kéz és aztán
az is végleg eltűnt. Ennyi volt az egész.
A mentésre elősiető hajósok ezen a napon nem találták meg a
holttestet.
Péter egyedül, feldult arccal szaladt haza a kaszárnyába és
könnyező szemmel, fuldokló hangon, minduntalan orrát törölgetve
mondta: »Kihajolt… egészen a derekáig… és egyszer zsupsz… a feje
bukfencet hányt… és esett… esett…«
Tovább nem bírta folytatni, oly nagy megindultság fogta el. Hát
még, ha tudta volna…
TARTALOM.

Parent úr 5
Borigó gazda fülbaja 58
Eladó 70
Az ismeretlen 79
Vallomás 87
A keresztelő 94
Veszedelmes játék 101
Az őrült 110
Vidéki pörösködések 119
A hajtű 125
Szalonkavadászat 133
A vonaton 145
Nyafinyaff 154
A felfedezés 165
A magányosság 171
Lefekvés előtt 178
A kis baka 187
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PARENT ÚR ***

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