Vector

Vector quantity is any quantity that has magnitude and direction, such
as displacement or velocity.
Vector quantities are represented by mathematical objects called
vectors.
Geometrically, vectors are represented by arrows, with the end marked
by an arrowhead.
Examples of vector quantities
• Force: 20 newtons (N) to the left
• Displacement: 50 kilometers (km) east
• Velocity: 11 meters per second (m/s) upwards
• Acceleration: 9.8 meters per second squared (m/s²) downwards
• Momentum: 250 kilogram meters per second (kg m/s) south west
Vector addition is one of the most common vector operations that a
student of physics must master. When adding vectors, a head-to-tail
method is employed.
A variety of mathematical operations can be performed with and upon
vectors. One such operation is the addition of vectors. Two vectors can
be added together to determine the result (or resultant). This process of
adding two or more vectors has already been discussed in an earlier
unit. Recall in our discussion of Newton's laws of motion, that the net
force experienced by an object was determined by computing the
vector sum of all the individual forces acting upon that object. That is
the net force was the result (or resultant) of adding up all the force
vectors. During that unit, the rules for summing vectors (such as force
vectors) were kept relatively simple. Observe the following summations
of two force vectors:
These rules for summing vectors were applied to free-body diagrams in
order to determine the net force (i.e., the vector sum of all the
individual forces). Sample applications are shown in the diagram below.
In this unit, the task of summing vectors will be extended to more
complicated cases in which the vectors are directed in directions other
than purely vertical and horizontal directions. For example, a vector
directed up and to the right will be added to a vector directed up and to
the left. The vector sum will be determined for the more complicated
cases shown in the diagrams below.
There are a variety of methods for determining the magnitude and
direction of the result of adding two or more vectors. The two methods
that will be discussed in this lesson and used throughout the entire unit
are:
• the Pythagorean theorem and trigonometric methods
• the head-to-tail method using a scaled vector diagram
The Pythagorean Theorem

The Pythagorean theorem is a useful method for determining the result

of adding two (and only two) vectors that make a right angle to each
other. The method is not applicable for adding more than two vectors or
for adding vectors that are not at 90-degrees to each other. The
Pythagorean theorem is a mathematical equation that relates the length
of the sides of a right triangle to the length of the hypotenuse of a right
triangle.
To see how the method works, consider the following problem:

Eric leaves the base camp and hikes 11 km, north and then hikes 11 km
east. Determine Eric's resulting displacement.

This problem asks to determine the result of adding two displacement

vectors that are at right angles to each other. The result (or resultant) of
walking 11 km north and 11 km east is a vector directed northeast as
shown in the diagram to the right. Since the northward displacement
and the eastward displacement are at right angles to each other, the
Pythagorean theorem can be used to determine the resultant (i.e., the
hypotenuse of the right triangle).
The result of adding 11 km, north plus 11 km, east is a vector with a
magnitude of 15.6 km. Later, the method of determining the direction
of the vector will be discussed.
Let's test your understanding with the following two practice problems.
In each case, use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the magnitude
of the vector sum. When finished, click the button to view the answer.
Using Trigonometry to Determine a Vector's Direction
The direction of a resultant vector can often be determined by use of
trigonometric functions. Most students recall the meaning of the useful
mnemonic SOH CAH TOA from their course in trigonometry. SOH CAH TOA is a
mnemonic that helps one remember the meaning of the three common
trigonometric functions - sine, cosine, and tangent functions. These three
functions relate an acute angle in a right triangle to the ratio of the lengths of
two of the sides of the right triangle. The sine function relates the measure of
an acute angle to the ratio of the length of the side opposite the angle to the
length of the hypotenuse. The cosine function relates the measure of an acute
angle to the ratio of the length of the side adjacent the angle to the length of
the hypotenuse. The tangent function relates the measure of an angle to the
ratio of the length of the side opposite the angle to the length of the side
adjacent to the angle.
These three trigonometric functions can be applied to the hiker
problem in order to determine the direction of the hiker's overall
displacement. The process begins by the selection of one of the two
angles (other than the right angle) of the triangle. Once the angle is
selected, any of the three functions can be used to find the measure of
the angle. Write the function and proceed with the proper algebraic
steps to solve for the measure of the angle. The work is shown below.
Once the measure of the angle is determined, the direction of the vector can be
found. In this case the vector makes an angle of 45 degrees with due East. Thus, the
direction of this vector is written as 45 degrees. (Recall from earlier in this
lesson that the direction of a vector is the counterclockwise angle of rotation that
the vector makes with due East.)
 The Calculated Angle is Not Always the Direction

The measure of an angle as determined through use of SOH CAH TOA

is not always the direction of the vector. The following vector addition
diagram is an example of such a situation. Observe that the angle within
the triangle is determined to be 26.6 degrees using SOH CAH TOA. This
angle is the southward angle of rotation that the vector R makes with
respect to West. Yet the direction of the vector as expressed with the
CCW (counterclockwise from East) convention is 206.6 degrees.
Test your understanding of the use of SOH CAH TOA to determine the vector
direction by trying the following two practice problems. In each case, use SOH CAH
TOA to determine the direction of the resultant. When finished, click the button to
view the answer.
In the above problems, the magnitude and direction of the sum of two
vectors is determined using the Pythagorean theorem and
trigonometric methods (SOH CAH TOA). The procedure is restricted to
the addition of two vectors that make right angles to each other. When
the two vectors that are to be added do not make right angles to one
another, or when there are more than two vectors to add together, we
will employ a method known as the head-to-tail vector addition
method. This method is described below.
Use of Scaled Vector Diagrams to Determine a Resultant
The magnitude and direction of the sum of two or more vectors can also be determined by
use of an accurately drawn scaled vector diagram. Using a scaled diagram, the head-to-tail
method is employed to determine the vector sum or resultant. A common Physics lab
involves a vector walk. Either using centimeter-sized displacements upon a map or meter-
sized displacements in a large open area, a student makes several consecutive
displacements beginning from a designated starting position. Suppose that you were given a
map of your local area and a set of 18 directions to follow. Starting at home base, these 18
displacement vectors could be added together in consecutive fashion to determine the
result of adding the set of 18 directions. Perhaps the first vector is measured 5 cm, East.
Where this measurement ended, the next measurement would begin. The process would be
repeated for all 18 directions. Each time one measurement ended, the next measurement
would begin. In essence, you would be using the head-to-tail method of vector addition.
The head-to-tail method involves drawing a vector to scale on a sheet of
paper beginning at a designated starting position. Where the head of
this first vector ends, the tail of the second vector begins (thus, head-to-
tail method). The process is repeated for all vectors that are being
added. Once all the vectors have been added head-to-tail, the resultant
is then drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last
vector; i.e., from start to finish. Once the resultant is drawn, its length
can be measured and converted to real units using the given scale.
The direction of the resultant can be determined by using a protractor
and measuring its counterclockwise angle of rotation from due East.
A step-by-step method for applying the head-to-tail method to
determine the sum of two or more vectors is given below.
• Choose a scale and indicate it on a sheet of paper. The best choice of
scale is one that will result in a diagram that is as large as possible, yet
fits on the sheet of paper.
• Pick a starting location and draw the first vector to scale in the
indicated direction. Label the magnitude and direction of the scale on
the diagram (e.g., SCALE: 1 cm = 20 m).
• Starting from where the head of the first vector ends, draw the second
vector to scale in the indicated direction. Label the magnitude and
direction of this vector on the diagram.
Repeat steps 2 and 3 for all vectors that are to be added
• Draw the resultant from the tail of the first vector to the head of the
last vector. Label this vector as Resultant or simply R.
• Using a ruler, measure the length of the resultant and determine its
magnitude by converting to real units using the scale (4.4 cm x 20 m/1
cm = 88 m).
• Measure the direction of the resultant using the counterclockwise
convention discussed earlier in this lesson.
An example of the use of the head-to-tail method is illustrated below.

The problem involves the addition of three vectors:

20 m, 45 deg. + 25 m, 300 deg. + 15 m, 210 deg.

SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m
The head-to-tail method is employed as described above and the
resultant is determined (drawn in red). Its magnitude and direction is
labeled on the diagram.
Interestingly enough, the order in which three vectors are added has no
effect upon either the magnitude or the direction of the resultant. The
resultant will still have the same magnitude and direction. For example,
consider the addition of the same three vectors in a different order.

15 m, 210 deg. + 25 m, 300 deg. + 20 m, 45 deg.

SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m
When added together in this different order, these same three vectors still produce
a resultant with the same magnitude and direction as before (20. m, 312 degrees).
The order in which vectors are added using the head-to-tail method is insignificant.
 Addition of Vectors Graphically
Vectors adding can be done using graphical and mathematical methods.
These methods are as follows:
• Vector Addition Using the Components
• Triangle Law of Addition of Vectors
• Parallelogram Law of Addition of Vectors
Vector Addition Using the Components
Vectors that are represented in cartesian coordinates can be
decomposed into vertical and horizontal components. For instance, a
vector A at an angle Φ, as shown in the below-given image, can be
decomposed into its vertical and horizontal components as:
In the above image,
Ax, represents the component of vector A along the horizontal axis (x-
axis), and
Ay, represents the component of vector A along the vertical axis (y-axis).
We can note that the three vectors form a right triangle and that the
vector A can be expressed as:
A = Ax + Ay
Mathematically, using the magnitude and the angle of the given vector,
we can determine the components of a vector.
Ax = A cos Φ
Ay = A sin Φ
For two vectors, if its horizontal and vertical components are given, then
the resultant vector can be calculated. For instance, if the values
of Ax and Ay are provided, then we will be able to calculate the angle and
the magnitude of the vector A as follows:

|A| = √ ((Ax)2+(Ay)2)
Hence, we can conclude that:
If the components of a vector are provided, then we can determine the
resultant vector
Likewise, we can determine the components of a vector using the above
equations, if the vector is provided
Similarly, we can perform the addition on vectors using their components, if these
vectors are expressed in ordered pairs i.e column vectors. For example, consider the
two vectors P and Q.
P = (p1, p2)
Q = (q1, q2)
The resultant vector M can be obtained by performing vector addition on the two
vectors P and Q, by adding the respective x and y components of these two vectors.
M=P+Q
M = (p1+q1, p2+ q2).
This can be expressed explicitly as:
Mx = p1 + q1
My = p2 + q2.
The magnitude formula to find the magnitude of the resultant vector M is:
|M| = √ ((Mx)2+(My)2)
And the angle can be computed as Φ = tan-1 (My/ Mx)
Laws of Vector Addition
There are two laws of vector addition (As mentioned in the previous
section).
• Triangle law
• Parallelogram law
Using these two laws, we are going to prove that the sum of two vectors
is obtained by attaching them head to tail and the vector sum is given by
the vector that joins the free tail and free head. Let us study each of
these laws in detail in the upcoming sections.
 Triangle Law of Addition of Vectors
The famous triangle law can be used for the addition of vectors and this
method is also called the head-to-tail method. As per this law, two
vectors can be added together by placing them together in such a way
that the first vector’s head joins the tail of the second vector. Thus, by
joining the first vector’s tail to the head of the second vector, we can
obtain the resultant vector sum.
The addition of vectors using the triangle law can be with the
following steps:
• First, the two vectors M and N are placed together in such a manner
that the head of vector M connects the tail of vector N.
• And then, in order to find the sum, a resultant vector S is drawn in
such a way that it connects the tail of M to the head of N.
Thus, mathematically, the sum, or the resultant, vector S, in the below-
given image can be expressed as S = M + N.
Thus, when the two vectors M and N are added using the triangle law,
we can see that a triangle is formed by the two original vectors M and N,
and the sum vector S.
Parallelogram Law of Addition of Vectors
Another law that can be used for the addition of vectors is the
parallelogram law of the addition of vectors. Let’s take two
vectors p and q, as shown below. They form the two adjacent sides of
a parallelogram in their magnitude and direction. The sum p + q is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram through their common point. This is the parallelogram law
of vector addition.
In the above-given figure, using the Triangle law, we can conclude the
following:
OP + PR = OR
OP + OQ = OR, since PR = OQ
Hence, we can conclude that the triangle laws of vector addition and
the parallelogram law of vector addition are equivalent to each other.
Vector Addition Formulas
We use one of the following formulas to add two vectors a = <a1, a2, a3>
and b = <b1, b2, b3>.
• If the vectors are in the component form then the vector sum formula
is a + b = <a1 + b1, a2 + b2, a3 + b3>.
• If the two vectors are arranged by attaching the head of one vector to
the tail of the other, then their sum is the vector that joins the free
head and free tail (by triangle law).
• If the two vectors represent the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram
then the sum represents the diagonal vector that is drawn from the
common point of both vectors (by parallelogram law).
Important Notes on Vector Addition:
Here is a list of a few points that should be remembered while studying
the addition of vectors:
• Vectors are represented as a combination of direction and magnitude
and they are drawn with an arrow representation.
• If the components of a vector are provided, then we can determine
the resultant vector.
• The famous triangle law can be used for the addition of vectors and
this method is also called the head-to-tail method.
A unit vector is a vector of length 1, in Cartesian co-ordinates the unit
vectors along the axis are denoted by i and j respectively. Any two-
dimensional vector can be written in the form ai+bj a i + b j .
When two vectors are multiplied together, they form a dot product that
is equal to the product of their magnitudes, plus the sine of the angle
between the two vectors. The consequent of the dot product of two
vectors is located in the same plane as the two vectors that were used
to compute it.
A dot product is the multiplication of the magnitude of the vectors and
the cos of the angle between them. a . b = |a| |b| cosθ. A vector
product is the product of the magnitude of the vectors and the sine of
the angle between them.

What is the product of two vectors?

The Vector product of two vectors, a and b, is denoted by a × b. Its
resultant vector is perpendicular to a and b. Vector products are also
called cross products. Cross product of two vectors will give the
resultant a vector and calculated using the Right-hand Rule.
 Introduction to Vector Multiplication

A vector has both a magnitude and a direction, and as a result, the dot
product of two vectors and the cross product of two vectors are the two
methods of multiplying vectors.
• Vector multiplication can be divided into two categories. A vector has
both a magnitude and a direction, and as a result, the dot product of
two vectors and the cross product of two vectors are the two
methods of multiplying vectors. Because the resultant value is a scalar
quantity, the dot product of two vectors is often referred to as the
scalar product of two vectors. The cross product is referred to as the
vector product because the output is a vector that is perpendicular to
the two vectors that were used to compute it.
Let us study about the two-way multiplication of vectors, including the
working rule, properties, applications, and examples of this type of
multiplication.
Best way to do vector multiplication
A vector has both a magnitude and a direction associated with it. Dot
product and cross product are two methods of multiplying two or more
vectors. Please allow us to learn more about each of the vector
multiplication operations.
Dot Product
The dot product of vectors, commonly known as the scalar product of
vectors, is a mathematical operation on vectors. The scalar value
produced by the dot product of the vectors is the product of the
vectors. When two vectors are multiplied together, they form a dot
product that is equal to the product of their magnitudes, plus the sine
of the angle between the two vectors. The consequent of the dot
product of two vectors is located in the same plane as the two vectors
that were used to compute it. The dot product can be either a positive
real number or a negative real number in the domain of the real
numbers.
Let a and b represent two non-zero vectors, and let represent the angle
between the vectors. The scalar product, often known as the dot
product, is symbolised by the symbol a.b, which is defined as:

The relationship between the variables a and b is | a | | b | cosθ.

,where |a| is the magnitude of a, |b| is the magnitude of b, and the

angle between them is represented by | a |, | b |, and θ is the angle
between them.
Cross Product
A Cross Product is sometimes referred to as a Vector Product in some
circles. This type of vector multiplication is conducted between two
vectors of varying nature or sorts and is known as the cross product.
Whenever two vectors are multiplied with each other, and the
multiplication is also a vector quantity, the resulting vector is referred
to as the cross product of two vectors, or the vector product,
respectively. When the two supplied vectors are combined, the
resultant vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the two
vectors.
We may further appreciate this by considering the following example: if
we have two vectors lying in the X-Y plane, their cross product will result
in a resultant vector pointing in the direction of the Z-axis, which is
perpendicular to the X-Y plane. The arrow symbol is used to connect the
two initial vectors together. The following diagram illustrates the vector
multiplication or the cross-product of two vectors.

a x b=c
There are two vectors in this equation, and the resultant vector is
represented by the letter c. Suppose that a and b form an angle of 90
degrees, and n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing
both a and b The cross product of the two vectors can be calculated
using the following equation:

a x b=|a| |b|sinθ
 Conclusion
Vector multiplication can be divided into two categories. A vector has
both a magnitude and a direction, and as a result, the dot product of
two vectors and the cross product of two vectors are the two methods
of multiplying vectors. Because the resultant value is a scalar quantity,
the dot product of two vectors is often referred to as the scalar product
of two vectors. The cross product is referred to as the vector product
because the output is a vector that is perpendicular to the two vectors
that were used to compute it. A vector has both a magnitude and a
direction associated with it. Dot product and cross product are two
methods of multiplying two or more vectors. The dot product of
vectors, commonly known as the scalar product of vectors, is a
mathematical operation on vectors. The scalar value produced by the
dot product of the vectors is the product of the vectors.
Multiplication of Vectors
• Multiplication of vectors is of two types. A vector has both magnitude
and direction and based on this the two ways of multiplication of
vectors are the dot product of two vectors and the cross product of
two vectors. The dot product of two vectors is also referred to as
scalar product, as the resultant value is a scalar quantity. The cross
product is called the vector product as the result is a vector, which is
perpendicular to these two vectors.
Let us learn about the two multiplication of vectors, the working rule,
properties, uses, examples of this multiplication of vectors.

How To Do Multiplication of Vectors?

A vector has both magnitude and direction. We can multiply two or
more vectors by dot product and cross product. Let us understand more
about each of the multiplication of vectors.
Dot Product
The dot product of vectors is also called the scalar product of vectors.
The resultant of the dot product of the vectors is a scalar value. Dot
Product of vectors is equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two
vectors, and the cosine of the angle between the two vectors. The
resultant of the dot product of two vectors lie in the same plane of the
two vectors. The dot product may be a positive real number or a
negative real number.
Let a and b be two non-zero vectors, and θ be the included angle of the
vectors. Then the scalar product or dot product is denoted by a.b, which
is defined as:

→a.→b𝑎→.𝑏→ = |→a||→b||𝑎→||𝑏→| cos θ.

Here, |→a||𝑎→| is the magnitude of →a𝑎→, |→b||𝑏→| is the

magnitude of →b𝑏→, and θ is the angle between them.
Cross Product
Cross Product is also called a Vector Product. Cross product is a form of
vector multiplication, performed between two vectors of different
nature or kinds. When two vectors are multiplied with each other and
the multiplication is also a vector quantity, then the resultant vector is
called the cross product of two vectors or the vector product. The
resultant vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the two given
vectors.
We can understand this with an example: if we have two vectors lying in the
X-Y plane, then their cross product will give a resultant vector in the direction
of the Z-axis, which is perpendicular to the XY plane. The × symbol is used
between the original vectors. The vector multiplication or the cross-product
of two vectors is shown as follows.

→a×→b=→c𝑎→×𝑏→=𝑐→

Here →a𝑎→ and →b𝑏→ are two vectors, and →c𝑐→ is the resultant vector.
Let θ be the angle formed between →a𝑎→ and →b𝑏→ and ^n𝑛^ is the unit
vector perpendicular to the plane containing both →a𝑎→ and →b𝑏→. The
cross product of the two vectors is given by the following formula:

→a×→b=|a||b|sin(θ)^n
Working Rule for Multiplication of Vectors
The working rule for the multiplication of vectors, which includes the
dot product, and the cross product, can be understood from the below
sentences.
Dot Product
For the scalar multiplication of vectors, the two vectors are expressed in
terms of unit vectors, i, j, k, along the x, y, z axes, then the scalar product is
obtained as follows:
• If →a=a1^i+b1^j+c1^k𝑎→=𝑎1𝑖^+𝑏1𝑗^+𝑐1𝑘^ and →b=a2^i+b2^j+c2^k𝑏→=𝑎
2𝑖^+𝑏2𝑗^+𝑐2𝑘^, then
• →a.→b𝑎→.𝑏→ = (a1^i+b1^j+c1^k)(a2^i+b2^j+c2^k)(𝑎1𝑖^+𝑏1𝑗^+𝑐1𝑘^)(𝑎2𝑖^
+𝑏2𝑗^+𝑐2𝑘^)
• =(a1a2)(^i.^i)+(a1b2)(^i.^j)+(a1c2)(^i.^k)+(b1a2)(^j.^i)+(b1b2)(^j.^j)+(b1c2(
^j.^k)+(c1a2)(^k.^i)+(c1b2)(^k.^j)+(c1c2)(^k.^k)(𝑎1𝑎2)(𝑖^.𝑖^)+(𝑎1𝑏2)(𝑖^.𝑗^)+
(𝑎1𝑐2)(𝑖^.𝑘^)+(𝑏1𝑎2)(𝑗^.𝑖^)+(𝑏1𝑏2)(𝑗^.𝑗^)+(𝑏1𝑐2(𝑗^.𝑘^)+(𝑐1𝑎2)(𝑘^.𝑖^)+(𝑐1𝑏
2)(𝑘^.𝑗^)+(𝑐1𝑐2)(𝑘^.𝑘^)
• →a.→b𝑎→.𝑏→ = a1a2+b1b2+c1c2
Cross Product
Let us assume that →a𝑎→ and →b𝑏→ are two vectors, such
that →a𝑎→= a1^i+b1^j+c1^k𝑎1𝑖^+𝑏1𝑗^+𝑐1𝑘^ and →b𝑏→ = a2^i+b2^j+
c2^k𝑎2𝑖^+𝑏2𝑗^+𝑐2𝑘^ then by using determinants, we could find the
cross product multiplication of vectors, using the following matrix
notation.
• The cross product multiplication of vectors is also represented using
the cross product formula as:

→a×→b=^i(b1c2−b2c1)−^j(a1c2−a2c1)+^k(a1b2−a2b1)𝑎→×𝑏→=𝑖^(𝑏1𝑐2−𝑏2𝑐1)−𝑗^(
𝑎1𝑐2−𝑎2𝑐1)+𝑘^(𝑎1𝑏2−𝑎2𝑏1)

Note: ^i,^j, and ^k𝑖^,𝑗^, and 𝑘^ are the unit vectors in the direction of x
axis, y-axis, and z -axis respectively.
Properties of Multiplication Of Vectors
• The dot product of the unit vector is studied by taking the unit
vectors ^i𝑖^ along the x-axis, ^j𝑗^ along the y-axis, and ^k𝑘^ along the
z-axis respectively. The dot product of unit
vectors ^i𝑖^, ^j𝑗^, ^k𝑘^ follows similar rules as the dot product of
vectors. The angle between the same vectors is equal to 0º, and hence
their dot product is equal to 1. And the angle between two
perpendicular vectors is 90º, and their dot product is equal to 0.
^i.^i𝑖^.𝑖^ = ^j.^j𝑗^.𝑗^ = ^k.^k𝑘^.𝑘^= 1
^i.^j𝑖^.𝑗^ = ^j.^k𝑗^.𝑘^ = ^k.^i𝑘^.𝑖^= 0
• The cross product of unit vectors ^i𝑖^, ^j𝑗^, ^k𝑘^ follows similar rules
as the cross product of vectors. The angle between the same vectors is
equal to 0º, and hence their cross product is equal to 0. And the angle
between two perpendicular vectors is 90º, and their cross product
gives a vector, which is perpendicular to the two given vectors.

→i×→i=→j×→j=→k×→k=0𝑖→×𝑖→=𝑗→×𝑗→=𝑘→×𝑘→=0

• The cross product of two vectors follow a cyclic order as in the below
image. The cross product of two vector in the cyclical sequence gives
the third vector in sequence.
Application of Multiplication of Vectors
The following are some of the important uses of the multiplication of
vectors. Let us understand each of these uses in the below paragraphs.
• Projection of a Vector
• Angle Between Two Vectors
• Triple Cross Product
• Area of a Parallelogram
• Volume of a Parallelepiped
Multiplication of Vectors
Vector Operations
a + b, a – b, c(a)

Vector Multiplication
Dot product
Cross product
The Vector Dot Product
a = (a1, a2, a3) b = (b1, b2, b3)
a · b = (a1, b1) + (a2, b2) + (a3, b3)

the dot product is a scalar

Example
a = (2, 4) b = (1, -3)

a · b = [(2)(1)] + [(4)(-3)] = 2 – 12 = -10

Properties of the dot product
commutative: a · b = b · a
distributive: a(b + c) = (a· b) + (a · c)
(ca) · b = a · (cb)
a · a = /a/2
0·a=0
a · b = /a//b/ cos 𝜃
a·b
cos 𝜃 =
/a//b/
Example
a = (2, 2, -1) b = (5, -3, 2)
What is the angle between these vectors?
Solution
/a/ = 2 2 + 2 2 + −1 2 = 9 = 3
/b/ = 5 2 + −3 2 + 2 2 = 38
a · b = [(2)(5)] + [(2)(-3)] + [(-1)(2)] = 10 – 6 – 2 = 2
a·b 2
cos 𝜃 = = = 0.108
/a//b/ (3)( 38)
𝜃 = cos-1(0.108) = 1.46 rad = 85°
Orthogonal Vector
𝜋
If the angle between two vectors is or 90° the vectors are orthogonal.
2
For any orthogonal vectors: a · b = 0
Quiz
1. Given: a = (4, -2, 5) b = (-1, 3, -6) c = (7, -5, 1)
i. Find: a · b
a · b = [(4)(-1)] + [(-2)(3)] + [(5)(-6)] = (-4) + (– 6) + (– 30) = -40
ii. Find: b · c
b · c = [(-1)(7)] + [(3)(-5)] + [(-6)(1)] = (-7) + (–15) + (–6) = -28
2. What is the angle between vectors a and b?
The Vector Cross Product
Example
a = (1, 3, 4) b = (2, 7, -5)

a = i + 3j + 4k b = 2i + 7j - 5k
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
3 4 1 4 1 3
axb=1 3 4 = i- j+ k
7 −5 2 −5 2 7
2 7 −5
a x b = (-15 – 28)i – (-5 – 8)j + (7 – 6)k

a x b = -43i + 13j + k
The cross product will always be orthogonal to the plane containing the
original two vectors.
Key Points:
axa=0
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
axa=𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 =𝑎 i- j+ k
𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
a x a = (bc – bc)i – (ac – ac)j + (ab – ab)k

a x a = 0i + 0j + 0k
/a x b/ = /a//b/ sin 𝜃

We can also find the cross product using this method.

1. find the magnitude of the cross product
2. find its direction using the right-hand rule
Any two parallel vectors must have a cross product of zero: a x b = 0
a x b = /a//b/ sin 𝜃
sin 0 = 0
a x b = /a//b/ sin 𝜃
The cross product is equal to the area of the parallelogram formed by
these two vectors.
The cross product is equal to the area of the
parallelogram formed by these two vectors.

Properties of Cross Product

Not Commutative: a x b ≠ b x a a x b = -b x a

Not Associative: (a x b) x c ≠ a x (b x c)

Distributive: a x (b x c) = (a x b) + (a x c)
Assignment:
a = (4, -2, 5) b = (-1, 3, -6) c = (7, -5, 1)

Find: a x b

Find: b x c

Find: a x c
Solutions:
a = (4, -2, 5) b = (-1, 3, -6) c = (7, -5, 1)
Find: a x b
-3i + 19j + 10k
Find: b x c
-27i – 41j – 16k
Find: a x c
23i + 31j – 6k