CAPACITORS

INDEX
Introduction

Capacitors

Capacitance

Dielectrics in a capacitor

Principle of capacitor

Classification of capacitors

Types of capacitors

Charging of a capacitor

Energy stored in a capacitor:

Work done by a battery during charging

Grouping of capacitors

Effect of a metallic slab in a parallel plate capacitor

Applications of capacitors

Choosing a capacitor

Experiment on capacitors

Result

Conclusion

Bibiliography
Introduction:

Capacitors play a significant role in the family of passive electronic

components, and their uses are everywhere. Capacitors make the flash in our
digital camera happen. Capacitors is the reason for us being able to change the
channel on our TV.
These guys are the little batteries. The capacitor is a component which
has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in the form of an electrical charge
producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates, much like a
small rechargeable battery. To keep it simple – a capacitor stores an electrical
charge, much like a battery. Also referred to as caps, we can find these
capacitors in applications that require energy storage, voltage suppression, and
even signal filtering.
There are many different kinds of capacitors available from very small
capacitor beads used in resonance circuits to large power factor correction
capacitors, but they all do the same thing, they store charge. In its basic form, a
capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal) plates which are
not connected or touching each other, but are electrically separated either by air
or by some form of a good insulating material. This insulating material could be
waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid gel as used in
electrolytic capacitors. As a good introduction to capacitors, it is worth noting
that the insulating layer between a capacitor’s plate is commonly called the
Dielectric.
The conductive metal plates of a capacitor can be either square, circular
or rectangular, or they can be of a cylindrical or spherical shape with the general
shape, size and construction of a parallel plate capacitor depending on its
application and voltage rating.
1.Capacitors:

Capacitors of different sizes.

Any conducting object that carries a charge is characterized by an electric
potential that is constant everywhere on and within that object. If two such
conductors have a potential difference between them then, as any potential
difference is able to accelerate charges, the system effectively stores energy.
Such a device that can maintain a potential difference, storing energy by storing
charge is called capacitor. Any arrangement of two isolated conductors carry
equal and opposite charges can be called as a capacitor.
The relation between the amount of charge a capacitor store and the
potential difference it maintains depends on the geometry of the capacitor and
the presence of dielectric material. Capacitors play and major role in the electric
circuits and also a key element of most AC circuits. The two conductors can be
spherical, cylindrical or plain sheets. The conductors are called the plates of the
capacitor and charge on the positive plate is called the charge on the capacitor.
When charges +Q and -Q are given to two plates a potential
difference(V) is developed between the plates. The capacitance of the
arrangement is defined as C is equal to Q/V. High potential difference implies
strong electric field around the conductors. A strong electric field can ionize the
surrounding air and accelerate the charges so produced to the oppositely
charged plates there by neutralizing the charge on the capacitor plates
2.Capacitance:
Capacitance is defined as the amount of charge required to raise the
potential of a conductor by 1 volt (Or) it is the amount of charge stored per volt,
or C = Q/V. The SI unit of capacitance is Farad. Capacitor with large
capacitance can hold large amount of charge Q at a relatively small V. There is
a limit to the amount of charge that can be stored on a given capacitor without
significant leaking.
3.Dielectrics in a capacitor:

Capacitor with a dielectric medium

The charge of the capacitor leaks away due to the reduction in the
insulating power of the intervening medium called ‘Dielectric’. A dielectric is a
material that's a poor conductor of electricity and has insulating properties.
Dielectrics are receptive to electromagnetic waves and can store an electrical
charge due to dielectric polarization.

Dielectric effects inside the medium in an Electric Field

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, the positive and negative
charges in the material are slightly displaced in opposite directions, which
reduces the electric field. This process is called electric polarization. The
maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand without
breakdown is called its dielectric strength. The dielectric strength of air is about
3x106 Vm-1.

4.Principle of a capacitor:
Consider an insulated metal plate A. Let it be connected to a voltage
source and charge to a maximum i.e., No more flow of charge occurs from the
cell to the conductor. Now, an uncharged plate B is brought near it. Due to
electrostatic induction, negative charges introduced on the left phase and
positive charge on the right face. The negative charge reduces the potential of
plate A and positive charge increases the potential of Plate A. As negative
charges closer to the plate its effect is more and the potential of plate is reduced.
Thus, more charge can be given to the plate A increasing its capacitance. If the
other face of plate B is connected to the earth, the positive charge flows through
the earth the potential of plate A is decreased even more making it possible to
store more charge. Thus, we see that is an earthed conductor is brought near to a
conductor, its capacitance increases.

5.Classification of capacitors (based on arrangement and geometry):

This classification of capacitors is based on the shape of the two conductors
and their arrangements such as
 Parallel plate capacitors
 Spherical capacitors
 Cylindrical capacitors
A parallel plate capacitor has two parallel plates separated by a dielectric
material, while a cylindrical capacitor is a type of parallel plate capacitor with a
conducting cylinder surrounded by a concentric cylindrical shell, and a
spherical capacitor is made of two concentric conducting spheres
5.1. Parallel plate capacitors:
A parallel plate capacitor is a system of two identical, parallel conducting
plates separated by a distance and connected across a battery. The plates are
charged when connected to the battery, creating an electric field between them.
The plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery acquires a positive
charge, while the plate connected to the negative terminal acquires a negative
charge.
 A Parallel plate capacitor
The dielectric medium between the plates acts as a separator. The
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to the area of the plates
and inversely proportional to the distance between them. This means that larger
plates and closer plates can store more charge.

Parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium

A parallel plate capacitor can only store a finite amount of energy before
dielectric breakdown occurs. Supplying too much charge can cause the potential
to increase and lead to charge leakage.
 Arrangement of charges in parallel plates capacitor in the presence of an
electric field
The direction of the electric field is from positive to the negative plate
does the electric field is localized between the two plates and its uniform
throughout. For plates with finite area, this will not be true near the outer
boundaries of the plates. The field lines bend outward at the edges called
fringing plates and this is called as fringing of the field.

Fringing plates on the edges of a parallel plate capacitor

5.2. Spherical capacitors:

A spherical capacitor is made up of two concentric conducting spherical
shells, one inside the other, with equal and opposite charges. The shells are
separated by a dielectric and held in place by insulating supports. When
connected to an energy source, both shells become equally charged, but there is
a potential difference due to the difference in the radii of the two spheres.
Energy is stored in the electric field between the shells.
 Spherical capacitor Cross sections of a spherical capacitor

5.3. Cylindrical capacitors:

Cylindrical capacitor is often used for the storage of electric charge. It is a
type of capacitor, which possesses the shape of a cylinder having an inner radius
as 'a' and the outer radius as 'b. '

Cylindrical capacitor
6.Types of capacitors:
Capacitor geometry can be axial or radial. In axial capacitors, there is one
pin on each end of the cylinder, while in radial capacitors, both pins are on the
same end. Here are some other types of capacitors:

Axial Capacitors Radial capacitors

6.1. Ceramic capacitors:
A ceramic capacitor is a fixed-value capacitor where the ceramic material
acts as the dielectric. It is constructed of two or more alternating layers of
ceramic and a metal layer acting as the electrodes. The composition of the
ceramic material defines the electrical behavior and therefore applications.

Ceramic capacitors
6.2. Electrolytic capacitors:
An electrolytic capacitor is a polarized capacitor that uses an electrolyte
to achieve a higher capacitance than other types of capacitors. The electrolyte is
a liquid or gel with a high concentration of ions. The capacitor's anode or
positive plate is made of a metal that forms an insulating oxide layer through
anodization, which acts as the capacitor's dielectric.

Electrolytic capacitors
6.3. Film capacitors:
A film capacitor is an electrical capacitor that uses a thin plastic film as a
dielectric. Film capacitors are also known as plastic film capacitors, film
dielectric capacitors, polymer film capacitors, and power film capacitors. They
also have excellent heat resistance, cold resistance, good chemical resistance,
and oil resistance, but are not resistant to strong alkali. Capacitance depends on
the geometry.

Film capacitors
6.4. Mica capacitors:
Use mica as the dielectric material. Mica capacitors are often used in
circuits that require low capacitance values, high stability, and low losses, such
as radio circuits and TV transmitters.

Mica capacitors
6.5. Paper capacitors:
A paper capacitor, also known as a fixed capacitor, is a device that stores energy
in the form of an electric field. It's made up of two metallic plates with paper in
between, which acts as a dielectric material. When a small electric charge is
applied to the plates, the positive charge is attracted to one plate and the
negative charge to the other.

Paper capacitors
6.6. Polymer capacitors:
A polymer capacitor, also known as a polymer electrolytic capacitor (e-cap), is
a type of electrolytic capacitor that uses a solid conductive polymer electrolyte
instead of a liquid or gel electrolyte. Polymer capacitors are often used in
designs that require high reliability, small size, stable capacitance, and long life.

Polymer capacitors
6.7. Super capacitors:
 Principle and structure of Super capacitors
Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors, are energy storage
devices that store and deliver energy at high rates. They are different from
regular capacitors because they have a higher capacitance. Supercapacitors store
energy electrostatically by polarizing an electrolytic solution. This mechanism
is highly reversible, allowing Super capacitors to be charged and discharged at a
very high rate, during a large number of cycles.

Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors have low voltage limits, higher power density, and
consume less power. They can store large amounts of energy and bridge the gap
between conventional capacitors and rechargeable batteries. Supercapacitors are
ideal for short-term power needs that require a quick charge. They are not a
replacement for batteries, which are better for storing long-term energy.
7.Charging of a capacitor:
The charging of a capacitor is done with the help of a battery. The battery
or Cell acts like a pump which transfers charge from lower potential to higher
potential. Initially, both the plates are neutral when a cell is connected between
the plates, it transfers charge from one plate to other. This makes one of the
plates positively charged and other plate negatively charged.

A Battery is connected across a Parallel plate capacitor

8.Energy stored in a capacitor:
 Capacitors share many similar characteristics to batteries, including their
ability to store energy. However, unlike the battery, capacitors can’t hold nearly
as much power.
Consider an uncharged capacitor of capacitance C. When this capacitor is
connected to a cell of potential difference V, a total charge Q appears on its
positive plate. The energy stored in a capacitor is:
U = 1/2CV2 (or) U = 1/2QV
9.Work done by a battery during charging:
The battery transferred a charge Q across its terminals which have a
potential difference V.
Thus, the work done by the battery is,
W = QV = CV2 = Q2/C
10.Grouping of capacitors:
10.1. Series grouping:
When capacitors are arranged in a row, so that same charge flows through
each capacitor connected, is called series combination. The arrangement shown
in in the following figure is an example of series grouping.

Series grouping
10.2. Series combination:
When the arrangement of capacitors connected in series between A and B
is connected to a cell between the points A and B, Same charge Q will appear
on each capacitor. When placing capacitors in series, the total capacitance of
your circuit is the inverse of all your capacitances added together.
 Series combination
10.3. Parallel grouping:
When two or more capacitors are connected between two given points, such that
potential difference across each capacitor is same then they are said to be in
parallel. The arrangement shown in the following figure is an example of series
grouping.

Parallel grouping
10.4. Parallel combination:
When the arrangement of capacitors connected in parallel between A and B is
connected to a cell between the points A and B, the potential difference between
their plates is same. When you place capacitors in parallel in a circuit, you can
find the total capacitance by adding all of the individual capacitances together.

Parallel combination
10.5. Equivalent capacitance:
Equivalent capacitance is the capacitance of a single capacitor, which can store
same amount of charge and energy as done by the assembly of capacitance.

11. Effect of a metallic slab in a parallel plate capacitor:

Inserting a metallic slab in a parallel plate capacitor

When a metallic slab is placed between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor, it
creates two capacitors in series, each with the same value if the slab is centered
and covers at least as much area as the plates. Capacitors in series add inversely,
so the resulting capacitor will have half the value of the individual capacitors.

After inserting a metallic slab in a parallel plate capacitor

12.Applications of capacitor:
Capacitors play a significant role in the family of passive electronic
components, and their uses are everywhere.
 Capacitors can deliver energy way faster than a battery, which makes them the
perfect fit for powering the flash in a camera, tuning a radio station, or
switching the channels on a TV.
Its’s hard to find a circuit that doesn’t include an Integrated Circuit or IC these
days.

Microchip
An integrated circuit, also known as a microchip, computer chip, or chip, is a
small electronic device made up of many interconnected electronic components
such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors. In these types of circuits, capacitors
have a critical job to perform by removing all of the high-frequency noise found
in the power supply signals that power an IC.
Any fluctuation in voltage can be fatal to an IC and can even result in the chip
powering off unexpectedly. By placing capacitors between the IC and a power
supply, they calm the voltage fluctuations and also act as a second power source
if the primary power drops its voltage enough to turn off an IC.
One of the most recent advancements in capacitor applications has to do with
the explosion of touchscreen technologies. The glass screens that make up these
touch sensors have a very thin, transparent metal coating. When our finger
touches the screen, this creates a voltage drop, identifying the exact location of
our finger.
13.Choosing a capacitor:
For choosing a capacitor. There are five variables to consider, including:
Size – This includes both the physical size of your capacitor as well as its total
capacitance. as the more capacitance you need, the larger they get.
Tolerance – Just like their resistor counterparts, capacitors also have a variable
tolerance. Tolerance for capacitors lies anywhere between ±1% to ±20% of its
advertised value.
Maximum Voltage – Every capacitor has a maximum voltage that it can
handle. Otherwise, it will explode. Max voltages is 1.5V to 100V.
Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) – Like any other physical material, the
terminals on a capacitor have a very tiny amount of resistance. This can become
a problem if you need to be mindful of heat and power loss.
Leakage Current – Unlike our batteries, capacitors will leak their stored
charge. Paying attention to how much your capacitor leaks is necessary.

EXPERIMENT ON CAPACITOR:

Charging and discharging of capacitor in R-C circuits

1.Aim: -
To verify that 63% charge is stored in a capacitor in a R-C circuit at its time
constant and 63% charge remains when capacitor is discharged and hence plot a
graph between voltage and time

2.Introduction: -
An R-C circuit is a circuit containing a resistor and capacitor in series to a
power source. Such circuits find very important applications in various areas of
science and in basic circuits which act as building blocks of modern
technological devices. It should be really helpful if we get comfortable with the
terminologies charging and discharging of capacitors.

Charging of capacitor
Capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in
an electric field. In the hydraulic analogy, charge carriers flowing through a
wire are analogous to water flowing through a pipe. A capacitor is like a rubber
membrane sealed inside a pipe. Water molecules cannot pass through the
membrane, but some water can move by stretching the membrane. The analogy
clarifies a few aspects of capacitors:

The flow of current alters the charge on a capacitor, just as the flow of water
changes the position of the membrane. More specifically, the effect of an
electric current is to increase the charge of one plate of the capacitor, and
decrease the charge of the other plate by an equal amount. This is just like how,
when water flow moves the rubber membrane, it increases the amount of water
on one side of the membrane, and decreases the amount of water on the other
side.

The more a capacitor is charged, the larger its voltage drop; i.e., the more it “pushes
back" against the charging current. This is analogous to the fact that the more a
membrane is stretched, the more it pushes back on the water. Current can flow
"through" a capacitor even though no individual electron can get from one side to the other.
This is analogous to the fact that water can flow through the pipe even though
no water molecule can pass through the rubber membrane. Of course, the flow
cannot continue the same direction forever; the capacitor
will experience dielectric breakdown, and analogously the membrane will
eventually break. The capacitance describes how much charge can be stored
on one plate of a capacitor for a given "push" (voltage drop). A very stretchy,
flexible membrane corresponds to a higher capacitance than a stiff membrane.
A charged-up capacitor is storing potential energy, analogously to a stretched
membrane.

Discharging of capacitor:

Using hydraulic analogy only we can understand that when the capacitor is
charged the membrane is stretched, but now if you allow the water to come out
slowly and let the membrane relax, then it is called discharging of capacitor. In
other words, when the charge on each of the plates becomes zero and the
potential difference across its terminals drops to zero.

Materials required:

 Breadboard
 100µF capacitor
 1 MΩ resistor
  Multi-meter
 9V battery
 Wire stripper, connecting wires, battery connector
 Stopwatch

Theory:

When a capacitor of capacitance C is connected in series with a resistor of

resistance R and then connected to a battery of EMF E it gets charged but since
some resistance has been introduced, this charging process takes some time and
hence the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor varies as an
exponential function of time, i.e.
V α ext

Applying KIRCHHOFF'S LAW in the above circuit during charging i.e.

E - Vc - IR = 0………………... (1)

Vc = Q/C

Putting above in eq. (1)

E - Q/C - IR = 0

I = dQ/dt

Therefore,

E - Q/C – (dQ/dt) R = 0

E - Q/C = (dQ/dt) R

EC – Q = (dQ/dt) RC

Integrating both the sides,

(2)

Hence, we get,

(For a capacitor)

Therefore,

…………… (3)

Where,
Q = charge at time T.
Qo = maximum charge

Also,
Q = CV
Qo = CVo
Where voltage V is,

V is voltage at time T
Vo is maximum voltage

Therefore, from Equation 3:

And now, the equation for discharging is:

When RC = t, the equation becomes

On solving further, we get,

It shows us that the voltage on capacitor at time t=RC becomes 63% of the max
voltage, which means 63% of total charge has been stored in the capacitor. This
product of R and C has been given a new name, i.e., time constant and is denoted
by τ, which means for any capacitor in RC circuit 63% of total charge is stored at time
constant.
In my experiment I have used a 100µF capacitor and a 1MΩ resistor thus time
constant = 100×10-6×106 = 100 secs.

Procedure:
o Connect all the components in breadboard
o Now take multimeter leads and place them in the two terminals
o Now take the Battery and its terminal across the terminal of the
capacitor and start the stopwatch. Note the readings at 20sec
intervals and write them down.
o [NOTE: – Since the voltage depends on reciprocal of exponential
function and as time passes by the changing readings will get
slowed down and even after infinite time the capacitor could not be
charged up to max voltage. Also, since its time constant is 100sec
which is quite practical to measure at and hence this experiment is
very much justified.].
o Take 10 readings and if required the 20sec gap could be increased
because as the time passes by the change in voltage becomes
smaller and smaller.
o Now let the capacitor be charged up to 460 secs because then it
will become 99.99% charged [since we have a limited time and we
can’t wait for infinite time for it to charge completely. Now
remove the battery and now attach a wire in place of the battery
terminals and again note the multimeter readings changing and
record them.
o Plot a graph between voltage and time for charging as well as
discharging.
Observation:

S Multi-meter reading while Multi-meter reading while Time (in

No. charging (in V) discharging (in V) S)

1 0 8.95 0

2 1.65 7.34 20

3 3.02 6.00 40

4 4.11 4.91 60

5 4.90 4.03 80

6 5.69 3.30 100

7 6.72 2.21 140

8 7.00 1.54 180

9 8.12 0.74 250

10 8.40 0.43 300

Graphical Representation

Plot of voltage vs time

Time on X-axis and Voltage on Y-axis

 For Charging
  For Discharging

Calculation:
Now since the Graph are very much similar to the graph of charging and
discharging of capacitor. At τ =100s, during charging of capacitor the voltage
on capacitor is 5.69 volt as it is observed in the experiment. Now using the
charging formula:

V= 9(1-e-t/t)
V= 9(1-1/e)
V= 5.67 ~ 5.69

Which is achieved experimentally as well.

Similarly, during discharging,

V= 9-e-1
V= 3.32 ~ 3.30

Which is achieved experimentally as well.

Result:

Hence it is verified experimentally that 63% charge is there on capacitor after

time constant during charging and 63% charge is lost at time constant during
discharging.

Precautions:

 Do all the connection carefully

 Do all the connection neat and tight

 Do not connect Led without resistance

 Keep yourself safe from high voltage

 Before doing any experiment, please consult to your subject

teacher or lab assistance

Conclusion:
 Capacitors are electronic components that store and release electricity in a
circuit, and pass alternating current without passing direct current. They are
similar to batteries, but batteries convert chemical energy into electrical energy,
while capacitors store electrostatic energy in an electric field. Capacitors are
made up of two electrical conductors separated by a distance, with the space
between them filled by a vacuum or an insulating material called a dielectric.
When connected to power, the plates hold opposite electrical charges, which the
capacitor can later release into the circuit.
The amount of charge a capacitor can store depends on two main factors:
 the voltage applied and
 the capacitor's physical characteristics, such as its size.
The capacitance of a capacitor is the amount of charge stored per volt, or C =
Q/V. The standard units of capacitance are microfarad (μF), nanofarad (nF), and
picofarad (pF). Capacitors are used in applications that require energy storage,
voltage suppression, and signal filtering. They are an essential part of electronic
equipment and are almost always used in electronic circuits. When the power
supply is connected to the capacitor, there is an increase in flow of electric
charge called charging. When the power supply is removed from the capacitor,
the discharging phase begins and there is a constant reduction in the voltage
between the two plates until it reaches zero.
Bibliography
www.byjus.com
www.vedantu.com
www.wikipedia.com
NCERT book class 12