SEEN 793

Causative Variables in SLA and Teaching Approaches

- The first and best predictor of
Causative Variables Spanish Fluency.
- Acquisition is more important than - Second was the parent’s need for
Learning. spanish (For opportunities).
- In order to acquire two important - (Case Study 2) The correlation between
conditions are necessary: the amount of exposure to the classroom
a. Comprehensible (or even better, to the SLA proficiency
comprehended/ i+1) - Krashen, Zelinski, Jones, and
b. Low affective filter - to allow the Usprich (1978), tested students in
input “in”. an extension (evening and
How would you describe a comprehensible weekend) program in English as a
input? second language at Queens
- Curriculum College in New York, and reported
- Teaching strategy robust correlations between
- Approaches to teach grammar. reported years of formal study and
performance on a variety of ESL
tests.
- (Case Study 3) The length of formal study
and the second language proficiency.
- Finding the correlation of r=0.45 for
performance on a cloze test and
similar results for other measures.
Their subjects were Japanese
studying English as a foreign
language in Japan, a clear foreign
language situation in which the
classroom was the main, if not only,
source of comprehensible input.

2. When teaching Does not Help

- (Case Study 1) Fathman (1975) found no
significant differences in English
The affective filter is the barrier that prevents the proficiency between children who had
learner from acquiring the language. Such as: ESL instruction and those who did not.
- Feelings - It can be hypothesized that children
- Emotional state acquired most of their
- Anxiety comprehensible input from outside
- Low self esteem the classroom and playground.
- (Case Study 2) Hale and Budar (1970)
studied immigrant adolescents in
Language Teaching Does it Help?
Hawaiian junior high schools.
- They noted that the subjects
1. When Teaching Does help formed a natural division. One
- (Case study 1) Promotoria- Refers to the group was composed of students
attendance in the classroom or classroom who spoke less common
in Spanish. It is the major source of languages. These students did not
comprehensible input.
 have the "benefit" of a formal ESL have been in the country for some
program and were isolated from minimum length of time (one year?)
speakers of their own language.
The second group consisted of Reported Use of SLA- Those who say they use
students who had the chance to the second language more actually acquire more.
associate with other students who There is a significant relationship between "use"
spoke their own first language. and acquisition, since “use” nearly always entails
These students did attend ESL comprehensible input.
classes. Hale and Budar report that - Johnson and Krug (1980) studied 72
the first group actually made better international students at Southern Illinois
progress in English, a finding that University and found a modest but
seems to question the value of ESL significant 0.34 correlation between
classes. The first group, however, proficiency in English (as measured by the
may have had more accuracy of grammatical morphemes in
comprehensible input, possibly obligatory occasions in an interview
through having to associate more situation) and subjects’ report of the
with English speakers and with amount of leisure time they spent speaking
other non-native speakers using and listening to English.
English as a lingua franca. This - Heidelberg project, as cited in Schumann
study also fits our generalization (1978b), examined factors predicting
and confirms that the issue is not proficiency in German as a second
plus or minus ESL or language language for guest workers (Italian and
teaching but plus or minus low filter Spanish speakers) in Germany. They
comprehensible input. reported a correlation of 0.64 between
German syntactic proficiency and "leisure
contact" with Germans and one of 0.53
Exposure Variables in L2 Acquisition
between German proficiency and "work
contact". Both leisure and work contact can
The Length of Residence (LOR) - LOR may reflect plausibly be interpreted as indicating
simply the comprehensible input the child obtains. comprehensible input.
1. Those who had been in the United States
for three years did better on the SLOPE
test than those who had been in the Age as a variable in L2 Acquisition
United States for two years, and this group,
in turn, outperformed those who had been AGE is a predictor of second language proficiency,
in the United States for only one year. and younger acquirers are better at second
2. Walberg, Hase, and Rasher (1978) studied language acquisition than older acquirers. It can
Japanese-speaking children who had been be argued, however, that age is not in itself a
in the United States a range of zero to 12 predictor of second language rate or attainment
years, with most reporting a LOR of three and that here, too, everything reduces down to the
to four years. Self-report and report of quantity of comprehensible input and the level of
teachers were used as estimates of the the affective filter.
children's proficiency in English. 1. Adults proceed through the early stages of
3. Ekstrand (1976), however, found no second language development faster than
relationship between LOR and child children do (where time and exposure are
second language proficiency in his study held constant)
of immigrant children in Sweden. The 2. Older children acquire faster than younger
median LOR in his study was only 10.5 children, time and exposure held constant.
months, and it may be the case that LOR 3. Acquirers who begin natural exposure to
effects are not seen unless the children second languages during childhood
 generally achieve higher second language ● Type two acculturation has all the
proficiency than those beginning as adults. characteristics of type one, but in this case
-Krashen, Long, and Scarcella the learner regards the TL speakers as a
(1979) reference group whose life styles and
● Younger acquirers actually received values he consciously or unconsciously
"simpler" input = greater speed. desires to adopt.
● Child's superiority in ultimate attainment
has been hypothesized to be due to the Schumann Acculturation Hypothesis
strengthening of the affective filter at about ❖ Segregation- (or separation) is the
puberty. opposite of assimilation: the immigrant
maintains his/her culture of origin while
● Such strengthening is related to formal
avoiding interactions with the host society
operations (Krashen, 1981)
● Can modify L2 for greater ❖ Integration- The immigrant participates in
comprehensibility (ex. ask for help, change the host society while maintaining his/her
the topic, and direct the conversation culture of origin. He/she can then mix the
better) values of his/her culture of origin with
those of the culture of the host society.
● Conversational Competence
Integration gives rise to Multiculturalism.
● Adults to produce formally acceptable
utterances using first language rules ❖ Assimilation- The immigrant establishes
repaired by the Monitor. relations with the host society while
● The older acquirers' rate superiority reduce abandoning his or her original culture and
to the greater ability of the adult and older identity. He/she adopts the culture of the
child to obtain comprehensibly input. Thus, host society without maintaining his/her
culture of origin. Assimilation leads to a
comprehensible input again is
Melting Pot.
hypothesized to be the causative variable,
and not age per se. ❖ Marginalization- is the opposite of
● The child-adult differences in attainment integration. In this case, the immigrant
are not due to any change in the loses his/her cultural identity without being
"language acquisition device" (LAD) but are able to establish relations with the host
society. Marginalization is often the result
due to the filter.
of exclusion and discrimination against the
● Adults are still "acquirers", that they retain
immigrant.
the natural language acquisition capacity
children have.
● Adults can achieve extremely high levels
of competence in L2

Schumann Acculturation Hypothesis

Schumann defines there are two types of

acculturation.
● Type one acculturation, the learner is
socially integrated with the TL (target
language) group and, as a result, develops
sufficient contact with TL speakers to
enable him to acquire the TL. In addition,
he is psychologically open to the TL such
that input to which he is exposed becomes
Pidginization is a linguistic process that occurs
intake.
when people who do not speak the same
language come into contact. It involves the ➔ Provides tool for conversational
simplification of the contacting language and the Management- No attempt to help
exploitation of linguistic common denominators. It students manage a conversation with
is essentially an oral process with limited native speakers. It is not comprehensible-
communication. It includes REDUCTION AND especially if the native speakers
SIMPLIFICATION. themselves mentioned its absurdity.

Creole- is a language that comes from a simplified Audio Lingualism

version of another language or a mix of two or ➔ Comprehensible- It is easy to understand
more languages. since the dialogue is being read aloud, but
early exercises can feel a little robotic, with
Decreolization, or debasilectalization, is the less focus on the actual meaning, this
process by which a vernacular loses its basilectal, begins with a dialogue and utilizes pattern
or “creole,” features under the influence of the drills. Mechanical drills: repetition is
language from which it inherited most of its deemed more important.
vocabulary. ➔ Interesting/Relevant- Drills often lack
real-life relevance and can be repetitive,
The basilect is the variety that is the most making it difficult for students to get
divergent from the local standard speech. interested.
- An Acrolect refers to the variety of a ➔ Grammatically Sequence- It is not
creole that has no significant difference grammatically sequenced, it is influenced
from Standard English, often spoken by the by frequency and prediction by contrastive
most educated speakers. analysis, The lesson is more dominated by
- The Mesolect has unique grammatical “structures of the day”.
features that distinguish it from Standard ➔ Quantity- This fills an entire class schedule
English; and the basilect, often spoken by with language activities. It doesn't provide
the least educated people. meaningful quantity of real communication.
The students are speaking but not
communicate in a way that deepens
Teaching Approaches
understanding (Information). Most of the
time is spent repeating words or patterns.
Grammar Translation Focuses on memorizing forms rather than
➔ Comprehensible- Not comprehensible due using language meaningfully.
to the translation focusing on the form ➔ Affective Filter Level- It violates several
rather than the context. aspects of the input hypothesis: Production
➔ Interesting/Relevant- It is not interesting is expected immediately and is expected
enough for the students, their attention is to be error-free. Drills and repetitions can
not piqued. be anxiety-inducing as it proceed to actual
➔ Grammatically Sequence- It is verbal application rather than allowing the
grammatically sequenced, it follows all the students to explore or start with written
rules, and the text is grammar-focused words. “Off-the-defensive”
rather than information-focused. ➔ Tools for Conversational Management-
➔ Quantity- falls short on a great deal of This helps the students learn set phrases
comprehensible input. for conversation, which helps students
➔ Affective Filter Level- Has high affective practice basic responses. However, they're
filter level for it violates every component using scripted dialogues, they may find it
of the input hypothesis. Putting the hard to use these phrases in real-life
students “on the defensive”, and also conversations that don’t follow a set
anxiety level is raised. pattern.
 to the target language is necessary
Cognitive Code beforehand.
➔ Comprehensible- Not comprehensible/ ➔ Affective Filter Level- It has a high
provides a little comprehensible input. It affective filter due to rigidity given on
focuses on form, not on the meaning. The grammatical accuracy, usage of error
activities are designed to provide correction. This method should foster an
meaningful contexts; dialogues, games environment that does not create high
and role-playing. This aims for fluency but anxiety for it to work effectively in
often centers on specific structures. language acquisition.
➔ Interesting/Relevant- Depends on the ➔ Tools for Conversational Management-
communicative competence activities; Instructional tools are given in the target
These are activities designed to practice in language, learners should be already
meaningful contexts, including dialogue, equipped with the language tools needed
games, and role-playing. for interaction.
➔ Grammatically Sequence- It is not
grammatically sequenced; it follows a Natural Approach
sentence structure prioritizing “the ➔ Comprehensible- Utilizes Realia, pictures,
structure of the day” throughout the and student’s previous knowledge (Making
lesson. their speech comprehensible from the first
➔ Quantity- Greater quantity of day).
comprehensible input than grammar ➔ Interesting/Relevant- Emphasis of
translation, but doesn’t achieve an ideal feelings (Particularly students), focuses on
total focus on the message. personal information, the goal is to
➔ Affective Filter Level- Error correction is establish “group feeling”, discuss their past
emphasized. An affective filter histories, about their hope and plans for
environment, students are expected to the future.
produce accurate language immediately. ➔ Grammatically Sequence- It is not
➔ Tools for Conversational Management- grammatically sequenced, for structures
No explicit tools provided. However, some can be developed in the process.
communicative activities may inadvertently “Acquisition over learning”
assist with conversational skills. ➔ Quantity- Classroom is the main source of
comprehensible input. Monitor process:
Direct Method (Inductive Teaching) can be done at home.
➔ Comprehensible- Huge amount of ➔ Affective Filter Level- Low affective filter,
comprehensible input because of the anxiety is reduced or eliminated, it focuses
frequency of the target language use. on the interests of the students.
Topics and structure are incorporated with ➔ Tools for Conversational Management-
the Target Language for the whole class Form of short dialogues (Simple
period. structures), formation of dialogues can be
➔ Interesting/Relevant- It can be anchored understood conversely with native
towards students’ interests. However, speakers. Native speakers have the real
grammar teaching is put into touch of expressions and use of the
focus—meaningful but rarely language.
communicative discussions.
➔ Grammatically Sequence- It is strictly Total Physical Response
sequenced, therefore lessening the ➔ Comprehensible- TPR is comprehensible.
chance of having real communication. It makes language understandable by
➔ Quantity- The entire class is filled with linking words into actions. This allows the
comprehensible input, sufficient exposure students to build comprehension naturally,
 without needing translation. Good for ➔ Quantity- Needs to have a long and
beginners. varied dialogue dominating the session,
➔ Interesting/Relevant- This creates a fresh having pure input and as a basis for
interesting class atmosphere that can help communicative use of the L2.
keep students engaged and motivated, ➔ Affective Filter Level- the behavior of the
however it should not be repetitive. teacher which may helps learners. Music
➔ Grammatically Sequence- Not helps to lower anxiety and diminishing
grammatically sequenced “Each lesson tension to induce a state of relaxed
should have a grammatical focus, it is alertness for optimal use of second
entirely possible to disregard having one.” language acquisition.
according to Asher. Though the command ➔ Tools for Conversational Management-
given will contain parts of grammar and No explicit mention, however, of giving
syntax, the learning is implicit. students the tools they need to converse
➔ Quantity- Most of the time, TPR with more competent speakers. Dialogues
emphasizes the quantity of language should attempt to be realistic
exposure by integrating physical
movement with verbal commands, allowing
students to engage actively and
continuously throughout a lesson.
➔ Affective Filter Level- it lowers their
affective filter because they are not
expected to give a vocal response in the
second language until they feel ready to
do so. On the other hand, a student's
affective filter may be raised because of
the need for expressive physical
responses.
➔ Tools for Conversational Management-
Though there is no mention of tools from
Asher, one unique tool TPR provides is the
ability to read non-verbal gestures in a
conversation.

Suggestopedia and Desuggestiopedia

➔ Comprehensible- Based on situations
familiar to the student, the use of the
student's first language in Part One is
partially justified on the grounds that it
helps the student confirm that he has
indeed understood the text.
➔ Interesting/Relevant- Practical value that
is relevant to students' needs.
➔ Grammatically Sequence- Does do not
seem to focus on specific points of
grammar. Dialogues are rambling
conversations loosely aggregated around
common themes, which cover a great deal
of territory with considerable built-in
redundancy.