Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing Hybrid ROuting:

Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) is a In the hybrid routing protocols, each node maintains the
stateless on-demand protocol. Two major functions of
AODV protocols are route discovery and route network topology information up to m hops.
maintenance. The performance of the protocol is improved Following are the Hybrid Routing Protocols:
by keeping the routing information in each node. 1. Core Extraction Distributed Adhoc Routing (CEDAR).
2. Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).
AODV is a distance vector routing protocol, which means 3. Zone Based Hierarchical Link State Routing (ZHLS).
routing decisions will be taken depending on the number of
hops to the destination. A particularity of this network is to Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP):
support both multicast and unicast routing. Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) is a hybrid routing protocol that
effectively combines the best qualities of proactive and
Algorithm: reactive routing protocols. The concept behind this protocol
When a route is needed to reach a destination, the protocol is to use a proactive routing protocol within a limited zone in
initiates route discovery. The source node sends a route the r-hop neighborhood of each node and use a reactive
request message (RREQ) to its neighboring nodes, using routing protocol for nodes beyond this zone.
flooding. If these nodes don't have information about the There are two types of protocols:
destination, they forward the message to all their
neighboring nodes, and so on.
1. Intra-Zone Routing Protocol (IARP):
If any neighboring node has information about the 2. Inter-Zone Routing Protocol (IERP).
destination node, it sends a route reply message to the An Intra-Zone Routing Protocol (IARP) is the protocol used in
initiator of the route request message. The path is recorded the region where a particular node uses proactive routing,
in the intermediate nodes, identifying the route, and is and Inter-Zone Routing Protocol (IERP) is the reactive routing
called the reverse path. protocol used beyond the region.

Since each node forwards the route request message to all

its neighbors, more than one copy of the original message
can arrive at a node. To prevent duplicates, a unique ID is
assigned to each route request message. When a node
receives a message, it checks this ID and the initiator's
address, discarding the message if it has already processed
that request.

A node with information about the path to the destination

sends a route reply message to the neighbor from which it
received the route request message. This process
continues, allowing the route reply message to travel back
along the reverse path. When the route reply message
reaches the initiator, the route is established, and data
packets can be sent.
Routing zone:
If a node detects a link failure to its next hop, it propagates The routing zone of a given node is a subset of the network. In
a link failure notification message, Route-Error (RERR), to the routing zone, all nodes are reachable within less than or
each of its active upstream neighbors, informing them to equal to the zone radius hops.
erase that part of the route. These nodes then propagate Within the routing zone of a node, the node keeps the
the link failure notification message further. information about routes to all nodes by exchanging periodic
route update packets.
Advantages: This is the responsibility of IARP. Therefore, the update control
The main advantage of AODV protocol is that routes are traffic is higher with the larger the routing zone.
established on demand, and destination sequence numbers
are used to find the latest route to the destination, reducingThe responsibility of the IERP is to find the paths to the nodes
connection setup delay. that are not within the routing zone. IERP efficiently uses the
information available at every node's routing zone.
Disadvantages: Advantages:
One of the disadvantages of the AODV protocol is that ZRP reduces the control overhead compared to on-demand
intermediate nodes can lead to inconsistent routes if the approaches and table-driven approaches.
source sequence number is very old, and the intermediate Disadvantages:
nodes have a higher but not the latest destination sequenceZRP generates higher control overhead than the schemes in
number, thereby having stale entries. Also, multiple the absence of a query previous control. The query control
RouteReply packets in response to a single RouteRequest should ensure that redundant or duplicate RouteRequests are
packet can lead to heavy control overhead. Another not forwarded.
disadvantage of AODV is that periodic beaconing leads to The performance of packet depends on the zone radius.
unnecessary bandwidth consumption.
DHCP: Components of DHCP:
DHCP is a protocol used for dynamically configuring the DHCP server:
hosts on a network, such as workstations, personal It assigns the IP address and other information to the clients
computers, and printers. DHCP can help in assigning when they request for the information.
various types of information such as routing information,
directory services information, and default web server and DHCP client:
mail servers. It communicates with the DHCP server to get the desired
However, the most important and commonly used information regarding its configuration. This
information for which DHCP is used is the IP address and communication can take place when the computer starts.
subnet mask information. DHCP was primarily designed The user of the DHCP client can also initiate a DHCP client
for managing the network and the clients automatically. request to the DHCP server to renew its information.
With DHCP, it is not necessary to configure the network
and client information manually for individual hosts. DHCP relay agent:
This protocol provides a four-point information (IP It is used to relay (forward) client requests to the DHCP
address, subnet mask, IP address of router, IP address of server. This is required when the DHCP server is yet to
name server) to a diskless computer or to a computer assign the client an IP address. Without an IP address, a
which is booted for the first time. It is a client/server client cannot use IP routing on its own. A DHCP relay agent
protocol which is backward compatible to BOOTP. helps the client to communicate with the DHCP server when
the client does not have an IP address.
DHCP Operation:
Two different operating conditions: Advantages of DHCP:
Efficiency: Automates IP address assignment, saving time
DHCP client and server on the same network. and reducing human errors.
DHCP client and server on different networks. Centralized Management: Simplifies network
Operation on the same network: administration by centrally controlling IP address allocation.
This situation is not very common, but sometimes the Scalability: Easily scales to accommodate new devices
DHCP client and server happen to be on the same without manual configuration.
network. Disadvantages of DHCP:
Dependency: Network functionality relies on
DHCP server availability; failure can disrupt
connectivity. Security Risks: Potential for
unauthorized devices to gain network access if DHCP
security measures aren't implemented.
Configuration Errors: Misconfigurations can lead to IP
conflicts or allocation issues, requiring
troubleshooting.

MANET:
A network in which the locations of the switches,
hubs, or routers can be mobile is referred to as Mobile
Ad-hoc Network or MANET.
• In MANET, the number of routers available at an
instant can increase or decrease, and the available
routing paths can change.
• The mobile devices or wireless sensors as well as the
access points can have switches or routers. Each
mobile device or sensor functions as a node with a
switch or router.
The operation: • An important characteristic of ad-hoc network
The DHCP server sends a passive open command on port architecture is that they are self-organizing, i.e., their
67 of UDP and waits for client's response. organization can change due to the movement of a
The DHCP client sends an active open command on port 68 device or sensor.
of UDP. This message is encapsulated in the UDP datagram Important characteristics of MANET are as follows:
with port 67 as the destination port and port 68 as the 1. Seamless interaction and ubiquitous mobile
source port. The UDP datagram is then encapsulated in an computing environment.
IP datagram. Note that the client at this time does not 2. Seamless connectivity maintained between the
know its own IP address (i.e., the source address) and the devices when they move with the nearby wireless
server's IP address (destination address). Therefore, the nodes, sensor nodes, and embedded devices in
client uses an all-zero address as the source address and an automobiles.
all-one address as the destination address. Either a 3. One of the important characteristics of a MANET
broadcast or a unicast message using port 67 is used. Port node is neighbor discovery.
68 is used as the destination port. Broadcast address is 4. Data routing abilities: Data can be routed from a
used only for those systems which do not allow the source node to a neighboring node.
bypassing of ARP.
 Multi cast routing:
On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP) is a
multicast routing protocol designed for ad-hoc networks
with mobile hosts.
ODMRP is a mesh-based, rather than a conventional
tree-based, multicast scheme and uses a Forwarding
Group concept.
ODMRP is a flooding-based multicast routing protocol
for mobile ad-hoc networks. Unlike the pure flooding
scheme, data is not flooded throughout the network in
ODMRP. Instead, data is flooded only throughout the
forwarding group, which is continually maintained by
VANET: periodic flooding of control messages.
The forwarding group, which was first introduced in
Vehicle ad-hoc networks (VANETs) are a promising FGMP (Forwarding Group Multicast Protocol), is a set of
technology for increasing the efficiency and security ad-hoc nodes specially chosen to forward multicast
of transportation systems. traffic for a particular multicast group. The formation
• Vehicles connected to each other through an ad-hoc and maintenance of this forwarding group ensure that
formation form a wireless network called "vehicular ad-hoc all these forwarding group nodes provide at least one
network (VANET)." path from the multicast sender to all receivers.
• Vehicular ad-hoc networks are a subgroup of mobile ad-
hoc networks (MANETs). To establish and maintain such a forwarding group,
• VANETs consist of network entities, mainly including ODMRP depends on the following operations: Multicast
vehicles and roadside infrastructure units (RSUs). sender advertisement.
• The communications in VANET are classified into three JOIN-ABLE broadcast by multicast receivers.
categories:
The communications between vehicles (V2V or vehicle-to-
vehicle communication). Dynamic Source Routing (DSR):
The communications between one vehicle and RSUs (V2R). • The Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR) is a simple
The broadcast of the vehicles. and efficient routing protocol designed specifically for
• VANETs can be applied in electronic toll system collection use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile
and broadcast of traffic information; access to roadside nodes.
devices. • DSR allows the network to be completely self-
• Every participating car is a wireless router or node. The organizing and self-configuring, without the need for any
range of connection is approximately 100 to 300 meters. existing network infrastructure or administration.
Cars/vehicles may fall out of the signal range and drop out of • It is a reactive protocol, and all aspects of the protocol
the network. operate entirely on-demand basis.
• DSR protocol uses the concept of source routing
approach (every data packet carries the whole path
information in its header) to forward packets.
• The protocol is composed of the two main mechanisms
of "Route Discovery" and "Route Maintenance". DSR
requires each node to maintain a route cache of all
known self-to-destination pairs. If a node has a packet to
send, it attempts to use the cache to deliver the packet.

Advantages of DSR:
1. DSR uses a reactive approach, which eliminates the
need for periodic network-wide table update messages
required in a table-driven approach. Intermediate nodes
also utilize the route cache efficiently to reduce the
control overhead.
2. DSR is simple and loop-free.
Characteristics of VANET: Disadvantages:
1. High mobility at nodes. 1. The disadvantage of DSR is that the route
2. Rapidly changing network topology. maintenance mechanism does not repair a broken-down
3. Unbound network size. link.
4. Potential support from infrastructure. 2. The connection setup delay is higher than in table-
5. Real-time data exchange. driven protocols. Even though the protocol performs
6. Crucial effect of security and privacy. well in static and low-mobility environments,
7. Multihop wireless network. performance degrades rapidly with increasing mobility.
 Proactive vs Reactive
MANET VS VANET
Proactive: DSDV
Reactive: DSR, AODV
IP Packet Delivery: Indirect TCP:
Indirect TCP, segments divide a TCP connection into a fixed
Suppose a mobile node (A) wants to connect to another part and a wireless part. Figure 4.6 illustrates an example
host (server X). Fig. 4.2.J illustrates the working of Mobile with a mobile host connected via a wireless access point to
IP. the wired internet where the corresponding host resides.
• Host (server X) wants to transmit an IP datagram to
mobile node A. The home address of A is known to X. The
host X does not know whether A is in home

Standard TCP is used between the fixed computer and

the access point. No computer in the internet recognizes
any changes to TCP. Instead of the mobile host, the
access point now terminates the standard TCP
connection, acting as a proxy. This means that the
access point is now seen as the mobile host for the fixed
host and as the fixed host for the mobile host. Between
the access point and the mobile host, a special TCP,
The network address as the destination IP address in the IP adapted to wireless links, is used.
header. However, changing TCP for the wireless link is not a
requirement. A suitable place for segmenting the
A datagram is routed to A's home network. At A's home connection is at the foreign agent as it not only controls
network, the incoming IP datagram is intercepted by the home the mobility of the mobile host anyway but can also
agent. The home agent discovers that A is in a foreign hand over the connection to the next foreign agent
network. A care-of address is allocated to A by the foreign when the mobile host moves on.
network and available with the home agent. The foreign agent acts as a proxy and relays all data in
The home agent encapsulates the entire datagram inside a both directions. If the Correspondent Host (CH) sends a
new IP datagram, with the care-of address in the IP header. packet to the Mobile Host (MH), the Foreign Agent (FA)
This new datagram with the care-of address as the destination acknowledges it and forwards it to the MH. MH
address is then transmitted by the home agent. acknowledges upon successful reception, but this is only
The incoming IP datagram is intercepted by the foreign agent used by the FA.
at the foreign network. The foreign agent strips off the outer IP If a packet is lost on the wireless link, CH doesn't
header and delivers the original datagram to A. The mobile observe it and FA tries to resend it to maintain reliable
node A intends to respond to this message and send traffic to data transport. If the MH sends a packet, the FA
X. The IP datagram from A to X travels directly across the acknowledges it and forwards it to CH. If the packet is
network, using X's IP address as the destination address. lost on the wireless link, the mobile host notices this
To support the entire operation, the Mobile IP should have much faster due to the lower round trip time and can
three basic qualities: directly retransmit the packet. Packet loss in the wired
network is handled by the foreign agent.
Discovery: The mobile node uses a discovery procedure to .
identify prospective home agents and foreign agents. Advantages of I-TCP:
Registration: A mobile node uses a registration procedure to Following are some of the major advantages of I-TCP:
inform its home agent of its care-of address. 1. I-TCP does not require any changes in the standard
Tunneling: Tunneling procedure is used to forward IP TCP protocol, which is used by the hosts in the fixed
datagrams from a home address to a care-of address. network.
2. Due to the strict partitioning into two connections,
Need of reverse tunneling: transmission errors such as lost packets on the wireless
Reverse tunnels are necessary to ensure that the Mobile Node link don't propagate into the fixed network.
(MN) can participate in a multicast group. Nodes in the home 3. Due to partitioning into two connections, it is possible
network can participate in a multicast group, but an MN in a to use a different transport layer protocol between the
foreign network cannot transmit multicast packets. foreign agent and the mobile host.
A reverse tunnel is needed because it represents only one hop,
irrespective of how many hops are really needed from the
foreign network to the home network. This allows the MN to
efficiently participate in multicast communication despite
being located in a foreign network.
Disadvantages of Indirect TCP:
1. Loss of end-to-end semantics: An acknowledgment to a
sender no longer means that a receiver has truly received a
packet. Foreign agents might crash, leading to potential loss of
data integrity.
2. Higher latency possible: Due to buffering of data within the
foreign agent and forwarding to a new foreign agent, higher
latency can occur, impacting the overall communication
performance.
3. Security issues: The foreign agent must be a trusted entity,
as it plays a crucial role in relaying data between the mobile
host and the correspondent host. Unauthorized access to or
compromise of the foreign agent can lead to security
vulnerabilities in the network.
Transaction oriented TCP(T/TCP):
Transaction-Oriented TCP (T/TCP) is an extension of the TCP
protocol, designed to optimize the performance of short-
lived connections. Traditional TCP involves a three-way
handshake to establish a connection before data exchange
can occur. However, for short transactions, this handshake
overhead can significantly impact performance.

T/TCP aims to mitigate this overhead by combining the

connection establishment and data transfer phases into a Advantage:
single step. It achieves this by introducing two new TCP The advantage of T/TCP is the reduction in the overhead
flags: the T/TCP Request (T/TCP-REQ) and T/TCP Reply (T/ to establish and release a connection compared to
TCP-RP) flags. standard TCP.
T/TCP working: Disadvantages:
The disadvantages of T/TCP are as follows:
1. **Connection Request**: The client sends a T/TCP-REQ 1. Since T/TCP is not the original TCP anymore, some
packet, which combines the SYN (synchronize) and data changes are required in the mobile host and all
segments in a single packet. This packet includes the data correspondent hosts.
that the client wants to send to the server. 2. This approach does not hide mobility.
3. T/TCP exhibits several security problems.
2. **Connection Establishment**: Upon receiving the T/TCP-
REQ packet, the server responds with a T/TCP-RP packet,
acknowledging the connection request and also containing Snooping TCP:
any data that the server wants to send to the client. One of the drawbacks of I-TCP is that it segments the
single TCP connection into two TCP connections, which
3. **Data Exchange**: Following the exchange of T/TCP-REQ loses the original end-to-end TCP semantic. Snooping
and T/TCP-RP packets, data transfer between the client and TCP is a TCP enhancement that works completely
server proceeds as with regular TCP. transparently and leaves the TCP end-to-end connection
intact.
4. **Connection Termination**: Once the transaction is
complete, the connection can be terminated using the The main function of snooping TCP is to buffer data close
standard TCP mechanisms. to the mobile host to perform fast local retransmission in
case of packet loss. This enhancement in the standard
T/TCP reduces the overhead associated with short TCP should be carried out at the foreign agent in the
transactions by eliminating the separate connection Mobile IP context, as shown in Fig. 5.4.2.
establishment phase. However, it introduces some
complexities and potential security concerns. For example,
it may be vulnerable to certain types of attacks such as
connection hijacking. Additionally, it's not widely adopted
due to these complexities and the availability of other
optimizations such as HTTP keep-alive connections and
connection pooling.
Operation: The SH monitors all packets sent to the MH and ACKs
• The foreign agent intercepts and buffers all packets returned from the MH. If the SH does not receive an ACK for
destined for the mobile host. It monitors packet flow some time, it assumes that the MH is disconnected. It then
in both directions to identify acknowledgments. throttles the sender by setting the sender's window size to 0.
• If no acknowledgment is received within a set time Setting the window size to 0 forces the sender to go into
frame, indicating packet loss, the foreign agent persistent mode where the state of the sender will not
initiates a faster retransmission from its buffer. change no matter how long the receiver is disconnected.
• To maintain transparency, the foreign agent refrains
from acknowledging data to the correspondent host This means that the sender will not try to retransmit data. As
to uphold end-to-end semantics. However, it can soon as the SH (either the old SH or a new SH) detects
filter duplicate acknowledgments to prevent connectivity again, it reopens the window of the sender to
unnecessary retransmissions. the old value. The sender can continue sending at full speed,
• In case of foreign agent failure, the correspondent and this mechanism does not require changes to the
host's timeout mechanism still triggers sender's TCP.
retransmissions.
• To optimize efficiency, the foreign agent discards The wireless side uses an adapted TCP that can recover from
duplicates of packets already retransmitted and packet loss much faster. This modified TCP does not use slow
acknowledged by the mobile host, reducing start; thus, M-TCP needs a bandwidth manager to
unnecessary traffic on the wireless link. implement fair sharing over the wireless link.

Figure 4.6.5 illustrates the snooping TCP packet delivery Advantages of M-TCP:
timing, where the foreign agent detects missing packets 1. It maintains the TCP end-to-end semantics. The SH does
and signals the mobile host to retransmit them promptly, not send any ACK itself but forwards the ACKs from the MH.
with TCP handling packet reordering at the 2. If the MH is disconnected, it avoids useless
correspondent host. retransmissions, slow start, or breaking connections by
simply shrinking the sender's window to 0.
Advantages of snooping TCP: 3. As no buffering is done as in I-TCP, there is no need to
1. The end-to-end TCP semantic is preserved. forward buffers to a new SH. Lost packets will be
2. It is not necessary to change the correspondent host. automatically retransmitted to the SH.
3. It does not need a handover of state as soon as the
mobile host moves to another foreign agent. Disadvantages of M-TCP:
4. It does not matter if the next foreign agent uses the 1. As the SH does not act as a proxy as in I-TCP, packet loss
enhancement or not. on the wireless link due to bit errors is propagated to the
sender. M-TCP assumes low bit error rates, which is not
Disadvantages of snooping TCP: always a valid assumption.
2. A modified TCP on the wireless link not only requires
1. Snooping TCP does not isolate the behavior of the modifications to the MH protocol software but also new
wireless link from the wired connection as well as I-TCP. network elements like the bandwidth manager.
2. Due to the use of negative acknowledgments between
the foreign agent and the mobile host, additional Registration process of a mobile node via foreign
mechanisms are added on the mobile host. agent (FA) and directly with home agent (HA).
3. The snooping and buffering of data may be useless if
certain encryption schemes are applied between the After receiving a COA, the MN needs to register with the HA.
correspondent host and mobile host. The purpose of the registration is to inform the HA of the
current location of MN so that HA can correctly forward
Mobile TCP: packets to MN.
It is possible to carry out registration in the following two
When a mobile host gets disconnected, both I-TCP and different ways depending on the location of the COA.
Snooping TCP do not help much. The M-TCP (Mobile TCP)
approach has the same goals as I-TCP and snooping TCP, If the COA is at the FA:
i.e., to prevent the sender window from shrinking if bit
errors or disconnections but not congestion cause current
problems. M-TCP helps to improve overall throughput, to
lower the delay, to maintain end-to-end semantics of TCP,
and to provide a more efficient handover. M-TCP is
especially adapted to the problems arising from lengthy or
frequent disconnections.

M-TCP splits the TCP connection into two parts as I-TCP

does. An unmodified TCP is used on the standard host-
supervisory host (SH) connection, while an optimized TCP
is used on the SH-mobile host (MH) connection.
As the first step, the MN sends its registration request IP-in-IP Encapsulation:
(containing the COA) to the FA (see Fig. 5.1.6(a)). The FA
forwards this request to the HA. Header Format: In IP-in-IP encapsulation, the outer IP
The HA now sets up a mobility binding that contains the header contains the following fields:
mobile node's home IP address and the current COA. Source IP Address: The IP address of the HA, which serves
In addition to this, the mobility binding also contains the as the sender of the encapsulated packet.
lifetime of the registration which is negotiated during the Destination IP Address: The IP address of the MN, which is
registration process. the intended recipient of the encapsulated packet.
Registration will expire automatically after the lifetime and Protocol: Set to indicate that the payload is an IP packet
will be deleted. Therefore, an MN should re-register before (protocol number 4).
expiration.
This mechanism is essential to avoid mobility bindings which Payload: The payload of the outer IP packet is the original IP
are not in use anymore. packet intended for the MN. This packet retains its original
After setting up the mobility binding, the HA sends a header, including the source and destination IP addresses,
registration reply message back to the FA which forwards it as well as the payload data.
to the MN as shown in Fig. 5.1.6(a).
Purpose: The encapsulated packet is routed to the HA,
B) If the COA is co-located: which decapsulates the packet, retrieves the original IP
packet, and forwards it to the MN's current location.

IP-in-IP encapsulation provides a straightforward and

widely supported method for delivering IP packets to
mobile nodes in Mobile IP networks. However, it may incur
additional overhead due to the encapsulation process and
the larger packet size resulting from the presence of two IP
headers.

The MN sends the registration request message directly to

the HA.
And in response, the HA can send the registration reply
message directly to HA as shown.
This is also the registration procedure.

Tunneling:

A tunnel is used to establish a virtual pipe to send data Agent Advertisements:

packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel endpoint. In Mobile IP, an agent advertisement is a message broadcast
Packets entering a tunnel are forwarded inside the tunnel by mobility agents, such as home agents (HAs) and foreign
and leave the tunnel without any change. Thus, we can agents (FAs), to announce their presence and capabilities to
define tunneling as sending a packet through a tunnel mobile nodes (MNs). These advertisements are crucial for the
without changing it. Tunneling is achieved by using
encapsulation. MNs to determine their point of attachment to the network
and to detect when they move from one network to another.
Encapsulation:
In Mobile IP, encapsulation refers to the process of These advertisement messages are in the form of beacon
wrapping the IP packets intended for a mobile node (MN) broadcasts into the subnet. For these advertisements, ICMP
within another IP packet to facilitate their delivery to and
from the MN as it moves between different networks. messages are used with some mobility extensions. There are
Encapsulation allows the MN to maintain its original IP two parts of this packet: the upper part is the ICMP packet
address regardless of its current point of attachment to while the lower part represents the extension needed for
the network. mobility.
Different methods of encapsulation used in Mobile IP
include:
IP-in-IP Encapsulation
Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE)
Minimal Encapsulation (MIN-ENC)
 Correspondent Node (CN):
Agent Solicitation: A CN is a partner necessary for communication with the
The mobile node must send agent solicitations if the agent MN. The CN can be either a fixed node or a mobile
advertisements are not present or the interarrival time is node.
too high, and an MN has not received a COA by other
means, e.g. DHCP. Home Network:
The agent solicitations are based on RFC 1256. It must be The home network is the subnet to which the MN
ensured that these solicitation messages do not flood the belongs according to its IP address. Mobile IP support is
network even when a MN searches for an FA endlessly not required within the home network.
sending out solicitation messages.
As soon as a mobile node enters a new network, it can send Foreign Network:
out three solicitations, one per second. The foreign network is the current subnet the MN visits,
Note that in highly dynamic wireless networks with moving which is not the home network.
MNs, even one-second intervals between solicitation
messages might be too long. Home Agent (HA):
Many packets will be lost before an MN even gets a new A home agent is essentially a router attached to the
address, without additional mechanisms. home network of a mobile host.
If a node does not receive any answer to its solicitations, It plays a crucial role in Mobile IP by helping in the
then it should decrease the rate of solicitations routing of packets to and from the mobile node when it
exponentially, until the maximum interval between is away from its home network.
solicitations (typically one minute) is reached.
It is possible to discover a new agent anytime, not just if the Foreign Agent (FA):
MN is not connected to a new agent. Let us consider a A foreign agent is a router situated on a foreign network
situation where an MN is looking for a better connection but that assists mobile nodes in communicating with their
is still sending via the old path. The MN goes through the home network while they are away.
steps of advertisements or solicitations after which it can
now receive a COA, either one for an FA or a co-located
COA.
The MN knows its current location (either home network or Mobility for File System:
foreign network) and the capabilities of the agent. As the Mobility is the ability to move or be moved freely
next step, the MN should register with the HA (the
registration process) if the MN is in a foreign network as and easily. Mobility means the movement of
described below. individuals from one place or position to another,
ensuring that their independence is maintained (e.g.,
moving from a wheelchair to a bed or transferring
Basic Terminologies in Mobile IP: from the bed to a chair), as well as bed mobility
(changing positions from one to another).

Motivation for mobility is efficient and transparent

access to shared files within a mobile environment
while maintaining data consistency.

Mobility Problems
Most severely faced problems for support of
mobility are:

1. Limited resources of mobile computers (memory,

CPU, etc.)
2. Low bandwidth, variable bandwidth, temporary
A CN (Correspondent Node) is connected via a router to the disconnection
internet. The home network and the foreign network are also
connected to the internet via routers. The HA (Home Agent) is 3. High heterogeneity of hardware and software
implemented on the router that connects the home network to the components (no standard PC architecture)
internet. 4. Wireless network resources and mobile
computers are not very reliable
Teminologies: 5. Standard file systems (e.g., NFS, network file
Mobile Node (MN):
A mobile node is defined as an end-system or router capable of system) are very inefficient, almost unusable.
changing its point of attachment to the internet using Mobile IP.
6. Problems of distributed, loosely coupled systems
7. Weak consistency
8. Conflict detection

Database in Mobile Environments:

Database systems in mobile environments include:
1. Request processing
2. Replication management
3. Location management
4. Transaction processing
Rayleigh Distribution:

In mobile radio communication, the Rayleigh

distribution is popularly used for explaining the
statistical time-varying nature of the received envelope
of a flat fading signal. Fig. 6.2.1 illustrates the Rayleigh
distribution of signal strength with respect to time.

It is a graph of elapsed time in milliseconds on the x-axis

and the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the
Rayleigh distribution versus the received signal strength
in decibels on the y-axis.

PDF:
The probability density function (PDF) of the Rayleigh
distribution can be expressed using the following
expression.

Fading and types of fading:

Fading channels are defined as the phenomenon in

wireless communication where the strength of a
transmitted signal is not constant but varies over
time. The variation in signal strength is caused by the
following factors as it travels from the transmitter to
the receiver:

Reflections of the signal.

Diffractions of the signal.
Scattering of the signal.

There are several types of fading channels with

their own characteristics. Some of them are as
follows:
1. Rayleigh fading: Rayleigh fading is a statistical
model of fading characterized by randomly
fluctuating signal strength. This type of fading is
present in wireless environments that have a
large number of multipath components of the
transmitted signal.
2. Ricean fading: Ricean fading is also a statistical model of fading
characterized by a dominant Line-of-Sight (LOS) component and 2. Wideband channels:
secondary scattered multipath components of the transmitted We may define wideband channels as the
signal. This type of fading is commonly observed in urban communication channels that have a much larger
environments with tall buildings. bandwidth and can transmit a larger amount of data.
These channels are not as resistant to interference as
3. Nakagami fading: Nakagami fading is a statistical model of fading narrowband channels and have a shorter range of
characterized by a parameter called the "m-parameter" that can be communication. The typical applications of wideband
used to model different fading environments. This type of fading is channels are high data rate applications, such as:
commonly used to model environments where both line-of-sight
and non-line-of-sight components of the transmitted signal are Video streaming.
present. Online gaming.
High-speed data transfer.
4. Rician fading: Rician fading is also a statistical model of fading
that is similar to Ricean fading. However, the Rician model of fading The choice between narrowband and wideband
is more general and can be used for modeling a wider range of channels for an application is based on the specific
fading environments requirements of the application, including data rate
and signal quality.
Examples of Channel Models:
Ricean Fading: ITU-R Vehicular A Channel Model
Ricean fading is defined as a statistical model of fading commonly COST 231-Hata Model
used to describe the behavior of wireless communication channels.
It is useful for modeling wireless communication channels with a
dominant Line-of-Sight (LOS) component. In Ricean fading, it is Multipath Propogation:
assumed that the transmitted signal follows different paths to reach Multipath propagation refers to the phenomenon
the receiver, with one of these paths being the direct path (LOS) and where radio waves, or any electromagnetic waves,
others being indirect (scattered) paths. travel from a transmitter to a receiver via multiple
paths. This occurs when signals reflect, refract, or
This fading model is characterized by a dominant Line-of-Sight (LOS) diffract off obstacles such as buildings, trees, hills,
component and scattered multipath components. The total signal and other objects in the environment. As a result,
strength in Ricean fading is modeled as the sum of a LOS multiple copies of the transmitted signal may arrive
component at a constant amplitude and a Rayleigh-distributed at the receiver at different times and with different
scattered component. The LOS component represents the direct phases and amplitudes.
path between the transmitter and receiver, while the scattered It can lead to several effects, including:
component represents the reflection and scattering of the signal
along other paths. 1. **Fading**: Multipath propagation can cause
fading, where the received signal strength
The Ricean K-factor is a parameter used to characterize the fading fluctuates rapidly over time or space.
environment. A high value of the K-factor indicates that the LOS 2. **Interference**: When multiple copies of the
component is strong, while a low K-factor indicates a weak LOS signal arrive at the receiver with different phases,
component. they can interfere with each other constructively or
destructively, leading to signal enhancement or
Narrowband and Wideband Channels: attenuation.
The main difference between narrowband and wideband channels 3. **Delay Spread**: The multiple paths taken by
lies in the bandwidth of the signal being transmitted over them. the signal can result in a spread of arrival times at
Narrowband channels are primarily used in low data rate the receiver. This phenomenon is known as delay
applications due to their small bandwidths, while wideband spread and is characterized by the time difference
channels are preferred in high data rate applications due to their between the arrival of the earliest and latest signal
larger bandwidths. components.
4. **Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)**: In digital
1. Narrowband channels: communication systems, multipath propagation
We may define narrowband channels as the communication can cause ISI, where symbols transmitted closely in
channels that have a small bandwidth and can only transmit a time interfere with each other at the receiver due
limited amount of data. These channels offer more resistance to to delayed versions of the signal arriving after the
interference and have a longer range of communication than intended sampling instant.
wideband channels. The typical applications of narrowband
channels are low data rate applications, such as: Understanding and mitigating the effects of
multipath propagation are crucial in designing
Voice communication in mobile phones. reliable wireless communication systems.
Remote control systems. Techniques such as diversity reception,
Machine-to-machine communication. equalization, adaptive modulation, and coding
Examples of Channel Models: schemes are employed to combat the challenges
Gaussian Channel Model posed by multipath propagation.
Rayleigh Fading Channel Model
ISI:
ISI stands for Inter-Symbol Interference. It's a phenomenon that
occurs when symbols transmitted over a communication
channel overlap in time due to the presence of multiple signal
paths with different delays.

In multipath fading channels, the transmitted signal reaches the

receiver through multiple paths due to reflections, diffraction,
and scattering. Each of these paths may have a different delay
and attenuation, causing the received signal to be a combination
of delayed and attenuated versions of the original signal. When
symbols are closely spaced in time, the delayed versions of
previous symbols can interfere with the detection of subsequent
symbols, leading to ISI.

ISI can degrade the performance of communication systems by Coherent Detection:

making it difficult for the receiver to correctly interpret the Coherent detection is a method used in communication
transmitted symbols. Techniques such as equalization, diversity systems where the receiver has precise knowledge of the
reception, and error-correcting codes are often employed to phase of the transmitted signal. This technique involves
mitigate the effects of ISI in multipath fading channels. the use of a locally generated carrier signal that is phase-
locked with the carrier signal used at the transmitter. By
Non Coherent Detection: matching the phase of the received signal with the locally
Non-coherent detection is a method used in communication generated reference, coherent detection allows for more
systems where the receiver does not require knowledge of the accurate demodulation and decoding of the transmitted
phase of the received signal. Instead, it relies solely on the data.
amplitude or envelope of the received signal to make decisions
about the transmitted data. Key Points about Coherent Detection:
Phase Synchronization: The receiver must maintain
In short, non-coherent detection simplifies the receiver design phase synchronization with the transmitter. This is
by eliminating the need for phase synchronization, making it typically achieved using a phase-locked loop (PLL).
particularly useful in scenarios where maintaining phase
coherence between transmitter and receiver is challenging or Higher Accuracy: Coherent detection can achieve better
impractical, such as in mobile communication or when dealing performance in terms of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and
with frequency-selective fading channels. bit error rate (BER) compared to non-coherent detection
because it can fully utilize both the amplitude and phase
This approach is commonly used in frequency-shift keying (FSK) information of the received signal.
and amplitude-shift keying (ASK) modulation schemes, where
the receiver simply compares the received signal's amplitude or Applications: It is commonly used in modulation schemes
frequency with predefined thresholds to determine the such as:
transmitted symbols. While non-coherent detection may
sacrifice some performance compared to coherent detection, it Phase-Shift Keying (PSK): Coherent detection is essential
offers practical advantages in certain real-world communication for demodulating PSK signals, where information is
scenarios. encoded in the phase of the carrier.
Amplitude Modulation (AM): Particularly in double-
Non-coherent FSK Detection sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) systems.
The modulated FSK signal is forwarded from the bandpass filter Frequency Modulation (FM): When combined with
1 and 2 with cut off frequencies equals to space and mark techniques like FM stereo broadcasting.
frequencies. So, the unwanted signal components can be
eliminated from the BPF. And the modified FSK signals are
applied as input to the two envelop detectors. This envelope
detector is a circuit having a diode (D). Based upon the input to
the envelope detector it delivers the output signal. This
envelope detector used in the amplitude demodulation process.
Based upon its input it generates the signal and then it is
forwarded to the threshold device. This threshold device gives
the logic 1 and 0 for the different frequencies. This would be
equal to the original binary input sequence. So, the FSK
generation and detection can be done in this way. This process
can be known for the frequency-shift keying modulation and
demodulation experiment also. In this FSK experiment, FSK can
be generated by the 555 timer IC and detection can be possible
by 565IC which is known as a phase-locked loop (PLL).
ASK: BER:
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a modulation technique used BER (Bit Error Rate) is a performance parameter in a
in digital communication systems where the amplitude of a communication system which is defined as the number of
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the digital data errors in a communication system over a specified
being transmitted. The carrier frequency remains constant, number of bits. The BER should be ideally zero and
but the amplitude changes to represent different binary practically it should be as low as possible. BER is adversely
states. affected by the reduction in signal strength due to fading.
Key Points about ASK: In a fading channel, the signal strength will vary, affecting
Binary Representation: the BER, which can cause errors in the received signal.
Binary ASK (BASK): The simplest form of ASK where two The higher the BER, the more will be the number of
distinct amplitudes represent binary '0' and '1'. For example, a errors. The BER can be used for comparing the
higher amplitude might represent '1', and a lower or zero performance of different communication systems under
amplitude might represent '0'. different fading conditions.
Modulation and Demodulation:
Modulation: The digital signal modulates the amplitude of the There are several methods for improving BER in fading
carrier wave. When a binary '1' is transmitted, the carrier is environments. Some of them are as follows:
present with a certain amplitude; for a binary '0', the carrier
may be present with a lower amplitude or be completely 1. Error correcting codes.
turned off. 2. Diversity techniques.
Demodulation: The receiver detects the amplitude variations 3. Modulation techniques.
of the incoming signal and converts them back to the original 4. Power control.
digital data.
Advantages: We can calculate the BER in fading channels by using the
Simplicity, Bandwidth Efficiency following methods:
Disadvantages:
Noise Sensitivity: ASK is highly susceptible to noise and 1. Monte Carlo simulation.
interference because it relies on amplitude variations 2. Numerical integration.
Power Efficiency: It is less power-efficient compared to other 3. Analytical models.
modulation techniques like FSK and PSK
Applications:
Optical Communication: ASK is widely used in optical fiber Small Scale fading vs Large Scale Fading:
communication.
RFID Systems: ASK is commonly used in Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) systems for simple data transmission.

FSK:
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is a digital modulation technique
where the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the digital data being transmitted. Each
distinct frequency represents a different binary state.

Key Points about FSK:

Binary Representation:
Binary FSK (BFSK): Uses two frequencies to represent binary
'0' and '1'. For instance, a higher frequency might represent
'1', and a lower frequency might represent '0'.
Modulation and Demodulation:
Modulation: The frequency of the carrier wave is shifted
between predetermined values corresponding to the digital
input.
Demodulation: The receiver detects the different frequencies
and converts them back to the original binary data.
Advantages:
Noise Resistance: FSK is more resistant to noise and
interference compared to Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).
Reliability: It offers better performance in noisy
environments, making it suitable for radio transmission.
Disadvantages:
Bandwidth Usage: FSK generally requires a wider bandwidth
than ASK and PSK for the same data rate.
Applications:
Modems: Commonly used in modems for data
communication over telephone lines.
RF Communications
 Mobile OS:
M-Commerce The Operating System (OS) is a master control program for a
An important application of mobile computing is device. It manages all software and hardware resources.
mobile commerce (M-commerce). Mobile commerce
(M-commerce) involves carrying out any activity - The operating system controls, allocates, frees, and modifies the
related to buying and selling of products, services, or memory by increasing or decreasing it.
information using mobile hand-held devices such as - The operating system also manages files, disks, and security,
hand-held computers, mobile phones, or laptops. provides device drivers and GUIs for desktop or mobile
Mobile e-commerce is just one of the many subsets of computers, and supports other functions and applications.
electronic commerce. Mobile e-commerce can also be - A mobile OS is a software platform on top of which other
known as mobile commerce. programs, called application programs, can run on mobile devices
such as PDAs, cellular phones, smartphones, and more.
Examples of M-commerce:
Broken into three main categories (mobile shopping,
mobile payments, and mobile banking), the highest
growth areas for M-commerce are:

1. In-app purchasing (buying clothing items via a retail

app).
2. Mobile banking.
3. Virtual marketplace apps like Amazon.
4. Digital wallets like Apple Pay, Android Pay, and
Samsung Pay.
5. Mobile ticketing.

Benefits:
1. **Convenience**: Enables shopping and
transactions from anywhere via mobile devices.
2. **Personalization**: Offers tailored experiences Needs:
through location-based services. The OS enables the assignment of priorities for requests to the
3. **Speed**: Facilitates quick transactions with one- system and controls I/O devices and networks.
click payments and mobile wallets. Mobile OS enables running application tasks, taking into
4. **Reach**: Expands market reach and customer account hardware and network constraints.
engagement via mobile apps and notifications. Mobile OS allows a programmer to develop applications
5. **Consumer Alignment**: Matches the increasing without considering the specifications, drivers, and
trend of mobile usage, boosting sales potential. functionalities of the hardware of the system.
6. **Cost Efficiency**: Reduces overhead costs for It enables an application to run by abstracting the mobile
businesses with mobile-based operations. system hardware.
Mobile OS enables the programmer to abstract the devices,
Applications of M-Commerce: such that the application need not know the full details of the
M-commerce applications can be categorized into the font and font size of the mobile device display.
following two applications:
Types of Mobile os:
1. Business-to-Consumer (B2C) applications. 1. Java ME Platform ·
2. Business-to-Business (B2B) applications. 2. Palm OS
3. Symbian OS
A. Business-to-Consumer (B2C) applications : 4. Windows Mobile OS
In · Business-to-consumer (B2() applications the 5. BlackBerry OS
products or services are sold by a business firm to a 6. iPhone OS - Google Android Platform.
consumer.
Features of Mobile OS:
B. Business-to-Business (B2B) applications: Multitasking: The OS handles multitasking by managing
In Business-to-Business (B2B) applications, products or multiple program executions simultaneously.
services are sold by a company to its dealers. Process Scheduling: Schedulers are special system software
For example, a TV manufacturing company will which handle process scheduling in various ways. Their main
typically sell its products through a dealer network task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the system and to
instead of selling the product directly to the decide which process to runMemory Allocation: The main
consumers. memory must accommodate both the operating system and
the various user processes. Therefore, we need to allocate
More applications: different parts of the main memory in the most efficient way
1. **Mobile Banking: possible.
2. **Mobile Payments: File System Interface: A frequent use of streams is to
3. **Mobile Shopping: communicate with a file system to which groups of data (files)
4. **Mobile Ticketing: can be written and from which files can be retrieved.
6. **Location-Based Services: Keypad Interface: Provides an efficient keyboard interface.
B2B Model:
In B2B commerce, commercial transactions occur between
organizations, meaning companies conduct business with each
other.
B2B commerce involves the use of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) to facilitate credit terms and The examples of B2C commerce are:
recurring transactions between a company and its suppliers. 1. E-tailors: The companies offering multimedia
The examples of B2B commerce are: websites that provide shopping malls.
2. Portal: Interactive order processing and secure
1. Business-to-Business (B2B) Buyer: electronic payment systems.
- Many companies offer a variety of marketing and product 3. Transaction broker/market creator.
information on the World Wide Web. 4. Mobile Ticketing
- Marketplaces/hubs.
- B2B service providers. Mobile Ticketing:
With the help of mobile phones, movie tickets can be
purchased (called m-tickets) by using credit cards,
debit cards, Paytm, UPI, etc.
After receiving the payment, a unique barcode is sent
to the customer's mobile phone by an SMS.
The purchaser can enter the movie hall by simply
showing the barcode downloaded into the mobile
device.

Design issues / Constraints of Mobile os:

Following are the special constraints which influence
the design of a mobile OS:
1. Limited processing power.
2. Limited battery power.
3. Limited screen size.
4. Miniature keyboard.
5. Limited memory.
6. Limited and fluctuating bandwidth of the wireless
medium.

1. Limited processing power:

A majority of the modern mobile devices consist of
ARM (Advanced RISC Machine) based processors.
Ordering and delivery confirmation : - ARM based processors are definitely energy
In this application, dealers use mobile phones to order the efficient, powerful, and cheaper compared to desktop
products. or laptop processors, but these processors are
The purchase orders can be sent to the supplier in a considerably slower.
standard format. Also, there are restrictions on the sizes of the on-chip
A dealer can automatically re-order the products and specify and off-chip memories.
the quantity required through a simple 2. Limited battery power:
application by scanning the bar code on a product. Mobile devices should be lightweight to increase their
The bar code is scanned by using the camera of a portability.
mobile phone. Due to strict limitations on the size and weight of
The mobile phone keeps track of the consignment status mobile devices, they have small batteries, and it is not
during the transport and delivery process. possible to recharge the device as and when required.
A truck driver can confirm that a consignment has been 3. Limited screen size:
delivered by reading the bar code on a packet The screen size of a mobile handset needs to be small
using a mobile device. to make it portable, which restricts the size of the
display screen.
To overcome the constraint of screen size and
B2C Model: minimize user inconveniences, new innovative user
In B2C commerce, commercial transactions are between interfaces should be supported by the mobile OS.
organizations and consumers directly, who are the end- 4. Limited Memory
users of its products or services. In a mobile device, there is less permanent and
• The business-to-consumer, consumer concerns the use of volatile storage compared to that of modern desktop
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to enable or laptop computers.
forms of cash and credit commerce between a company and The OS should be as small as possible to cope with the
its consumers. limited memory of a mobile device.
SDK: Expansion support:
A Software Development Kit (SDK) is a set of tools, libraries, • The expansion capability not only augments the memory
documentation, and sample code provided by platform and I/O, but also facilitates data interchange with other
vendors to facilitate the development of applications for Palm devices and with other non-Palm devices such as
their operating systems, such as iOS or Android. digital cameras and digital audio players.
a) Handwriting recognition input called Graffiti 2.
In mobile computing, SDKs serve as essential resources for b) HotSync technology for synchronization with PC
developers aiming to harness the capabilities of computers
smartphones and tablets. These kits typically include APIs c) Sound playback and record capabilities.
(Application Programming Interfaces) that grant access to d) TCP/IP network access
device features like cameras, GPS, accelerometers, and e) Support of serial port, USB, infrared, Bluetooth, and Wi-
more. Fi connections
f) Defined standard data format for PIM (Personal
Within the context of operating systems, SDKs are Information Management) applications to store calendar,
instrumental in leveraging the functionalities and unique address, task, and note entries, accessible by third-party
characteristics of each OS. Developers utilize SDKs to build applications
native, cross-platform, or hybrid applications, depending on
their requirements and target audience. Symbian OS:
Symbian OS is a 32-bit operating system, running on
SDKs streamline the app development process by offering different flavors of ARM architecture.
standardized interfaces and pre-built components, • It is a multitasking operating system with very little
accelerating time-to-market and ensuring compatibility with dependence on peripherals.
the underlying OS version. • Kernel runs in privileged mode and exports its services to
user applications and user libraries.
Moreover, SDKs often incorporate debugging and testing
tools, allowing developers to diagnose issues and optimize Features of Symbian OS:
performance during the development lifecycle. 1. Symbian is a real-time OS: It has a real-time,
multithreaded kernel.
Overall, SDKs are indispensable resources for mobile 2. Data Caging: Symbian OS allows applications to have
developers, empowering them to create feature-rich their own private data partition. This feature allows
applications that leverage the full potential of mobile applications to guarantee a secure data store, which can
computing platforms and operating systems. be used for e-commerce applications, location-aware
applications, etc.
Palm OS: 3. Multimedia: Symbian OS supports audio, video
Palm OS is an embedded operating system designed for ease recording, playback, streaming, and image conversion.
of use with a touchscreen-based graphical user interface. 4. Platform Security: Symbian OS provides a security
• It has been implemented on a wide variety of mobile mechanism against malware.
devices such as smartphones, barcode readers, and GPS 5. Internationalization support: Symbian OS supports the
devices. Unicode standard.
• It is run on ARM architecture-based processors and is 6. Symbian OS is fully object-oriented and component-
designed as a 32-bit architecture. based.
7. Optimized memory management.
Features of Palm OS:
• The key features of Palm OS are: Android OS:
Android is an open-source software development platform
A single-tasking OS: for creating mobile applications.
• Palm OS Garnet (5.x) uses a kernel developed at Palm, but • Android is an open-source software stack that includes:
it does not expose tasks or threads to user applications. In 1. Operating system: Linux operating system kernel that
fact, it is built with a set of threads that cannot be changed provides a low-level interface with the hardware, memory
at runtime. management, and process control.
• Palm OS Cobalt (6.0 or higher) does support multiple 2. Middleware: A runtime to execute Android applications.
threads but does not support creating additional processes 3. Key mobile applications: Email, SMS, PIM, web browser,
by user applications. etc.
• Palm OS has a preemptive multitasking kernel that 4. Along with API libraries for writing mobile applications,
provides basic tasks but it does not expose this feature to open-source libraries such as SQLite, WebKit, and OpenGL
user applications. ES.
Memory management: • The components of the underlying OS are written in C or
• The memory, RAM and ROM, for each Palm reside on a C++, while user applications are built for Android in Java.
memory module known as a card. In other words, each Even the built-in applications are written in Java.
memory card contains RAM, ROM, or both. • An important feature of the Android platform is that
• Palms can have no card, one card, or multiple cards. there's no difference between the built-in applications and
applications created with the Software Development Kit
(SDK).
• Android is only a software. By leveraging its Linux kernel
to interface with the hardware, Android runs on many
different devices.
 IOS:
Android Architecture: iOS (iPhone OS) is a mobile operating system developed by
Apple Inc. and distributed exclusively for Apple hardware.
It was originally released in 2007.
• iOS is the operating system presently used in many
mobile devices, including the iPhone, iPad, and iPod touch.
It is a closed and proprietary OS, owned and controlled by
Apple. It cannot be used by various mobile phone vendors
on their systems.
• Apple does not allow iOS installation on third-party
hardware. iOS grabbed the market attention because
several innovative features are provided in iOS.
• iOS includes some user interactions with gestures such
as swipe, tap, pinch, and reverse pinch, etc.
• An innovative user interaction supported by iOS includes
internal accelerometers. Internal accelerometers are used
by some applications to respond to shaking the device for
the undo command, rotating the device in three
dimensions to switch the display mode from portrait to
The Linux kernel layer: landscape, etc.
• The Linux kernel includes drivers for hardware, networking,
file system access, and inter-process communication. Main features of iOS:
• The Linux kernel is at the bottom of the Android stack. It - Programmed in: C, C++, Objective-C, and Swift
never really interacts with users and developers but is at the - OS family: OS X, UNIX
heart of the whole system. Its importance stems from - Initial release: June 29, 2007
providing the following functions in the Android system: - Kernel type: Hybrid (XNU)
a) Hardware abstraction - Default user interface: Cocoa Touch (multi-touch, GUI)
b) Memory management programs - Kernel Type: Hybrid Kernel Architecture
c) Security settings Mobile Payments:
d) Power management software Mobile payments, or M-payments, are a payment tool
e) Other hardware drivers (Drivers are programs that control where a mobile device is used to initiate, authorize, and
hardware devices.) confirm an exchange of financial value in return for
products and services. They represent a natural
Native code libraries layer: development of E-payment schemes. Mobile devices in
• The next layer in the Android architecture includes Android mobile payment systems can be mobile phones, PDAs, and
native libraries. Libraries carry a set of instructions to guide any other device that connects to a mobile network for
the device in handling different types of data. For instance, making payments.
the playback and recording of various audio and video
formats are guided by the media framework library.
Android Runtime:
• The Android runtime is written in Java and executes in
Dalvik. The core Java packages provide a full-featured Java
programming environment, and Dalvik employs services of
the Linux-based kernel to provide an environment to host
Android applications.
• Dalvik is open-source software responsible for running apps
on Android devices.
Application framework layer:
• An important block of the application framework is the
application manager. The application managers include
windows, contents, activities, telephony, location, and
notifications.
Application layer:
• The applications are at the topmost layer of the Android
stack. An average user of the Android device would mostly A mobile payment gateway facilitates secure fund
interact with this layer (for basic actions, such as making transfers between a user's mobile device and a
phone calls, accessing the Web browser, etc.). merchant's bank, akin to a traditional POS terminal. It
• The layers further down are accessed mostly by developers, forwards cardholder information to the issuing bank for
programmers, and the like. verification, with the payment processor managing the
• Several standard applications come installed with every transaction via the merchant account. Utilizing an API,
device, such as: the gateway enables seamless communication between
a) SMS client app the mobile app and the payment platform, ensuring
b) Dialer encrypted data traffic for privacy.
c) Web Browser
Security Issues:
1. Data Breaches: Mobile payment systems store sensitive
information, making them prime targets for hackers aiming
to steal credit card details and personal data.
2. Malware and Phishing Attacks: Mobile devices are
vulnerable to malware and phishing, posing risks of
unauthorized access to financial information through
malicious apps or deceptive links.
3. Unsecured Wi-Fi Networks: Transactions over unsecured
Wi-Fi networks can expose sensitive data to interception by
cybercriminals, particularly on public networks lacking
encryption.
4. Lost or Stolen Devices: Mobile devices containing
payment information are prone to loss or theft, potentially
resulting in unauthorized transactions and financial losses.
5. Lack of Strong Authentication: Weak authentication
methods like simple PINs increase susceptibility to
unauthorized access, highlighting the importance of
implementing robust authentication measures like
biometrics.
Types of Mobile Payments: • The structure of a microkernel-supported multi-server
1. SMS-based payment: design is illustrated in Fig. 4.2.1.
- In this solution, the customer sends a text message for • Microkernels and their user environments are most often
the payment, and the payment is added to his phone bill. implemented in the C or C++ programming languages with
a little bit of assembly, but other implementation languages
2. POS-based payment: are possible too.
- In POS-based payment, the user makes use of a • A microkernel is a tiny operating system core that
handheld device to make a payment for rendered products provides the foundation for modular and portable
at locations such as stores, vending machines, etc. extensions.
3. Bar code-based payment:
- In this type of payment, the user scans the bar code to
pay the amount, and the respective amount for the
purchase is deducted from the wallet balance of the user.

4. NFC (Near Field Communication) based payment:

- This type of payment requires the user to install certain
payment applications such as Visa PayWave, MasterCard
PayPass, etc. While paying the transaction amount, the user
enables the payment app, and the necessary details are
transferred to the POS machine through Bluetooth.

Microkernel OS:
• A multi-server design divides the OS functionality into
several independent user-level processes. The ability of A microkernel with a small privileged core surrounded by
user-mode services would deliver unprecedented
each single process is also tightly controlled. The kernel only modularity, flexibility, and portability. An operating
maintains a minimum set of basic functionality that cannot system designed using microkernel technology has the
be done in user space. This type of design is called following structure:
microkernel. OS = Microkernel + User subsystems (Servers)
• The microkernel implements essential core-operating • Microkernel does not necessarily mean a small system.
The term "micro-" suggests that the kernel provides only
system functions. The functions typically encompass minimal functionality that allows user-level system
process management, inter-process communication, processes to perform OS services efficiently.
address space management, and hardware abstraction.