THE IMPACT OF THE NATIONAL DIRECTORATE OF EMPLOYMENT ON YOUTH

EMPOWERMENT IN OYO STATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Unemployment is one of the greatest challenges to development whose manifestation and magnitude

receives high attention by virtually all governments in the world by tackling its menace through the

efforts of jobs creation. It is defined by International Labour Organization (1982) as it occurs when

people are without jobs and they have actively sought work within the past five weeks (Salami, 2013).

Economists from the earliest time have articulated theoretical paradigms that provide a framework for

diagnosis and remedy in addressing the issue of unemployment, which has remained an engaging social

issue among public policy experts and practitioners in government. For example, the classical school of

economics led by Adam smith, who provided a wealth of knowledge on potency of the free market in

optimum resource allocation to stimulate production, employment and socio-economic development.

Much of its contribution to knowledge lies in its criticism of government regulation of economic

activities. The school argues that government policies should give way to the natural liberty of economic

production and trade, and that private property is a sanctified right as a consequence of human labour

(Husaini,2004).

The National Directorate of Employment is one of the Federal Government’s effort towards encouraging

the survival and development of youth empowerment. The programme is especially charged with
provision of skills and loans to enable young graduates establish their own businesses. The programme

sparked off the highest number of small-scale businesses throughout the country. Under the programme,

the small business owners enjoy low taxes, free technical advice and other support services provided by

the Federal Government to enhance employment generation. (Okenwa, 1999). According to Adebisi and

Oni (2012), the philosophy of the NDE is self enterprise, which emphasizes self-employment and self-

reliance in preference for youth empowerment.

The Keynesian revolution of the 1930s, also commanded the explosive attack on economic

Orthodoxy, apparently treated unemployment as a central issue of great concern and focus. This was

due to the failure of macro- economic system following the great depression of 1930s. The theory

advocated for a reformed capitalism to accommodate government intervention in order to correct

distortions in free enterprise, achieve optimum resource allocation and stimulate employment (schutz,

2004). John Maynard Keynes put forward his idea concerning with how the economy of the west could

be reviewed through demand, employment and consumption. He asserts that;

i. Total income is a function of total employment in a county

ii. The greater the national income, the greater volume of employment ,

iii. The volume of employment depends on effective demand,

iv. Effective demand consists of consumption and investment demand.

v. Consumption demand depends on the propensity to consume.

Keynes is of the view that the age long classical economics was over and that the economy

cannot be regulated by market forces, government intervention is therefore necessary to promote full

employment by forcing down the rate of interest and stimulating investment (Keynes, 1936 cited in Ujo

2008, p.31). Both the Keynes and classical economists agreed that the appreciable decline in aggregate

demand affect the level of investment which leads to unemployment, and eventually cause depression.
 It should be noted that in countries, most especially developing ones like Nigeria, unemployment

level serves as a measure for development as was rightly observed in Dudley Seers definition of

development. Seers (1969) cited in Todaro and smith 2011, p.15) that;

The questions to ask about country’s development are therefore; what has been

happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been

happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels, then

beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned, if

one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all three

have, it would be strange to call the result “development” even if per capita income

doubled.

However, many countries whether advanced capitalist economies or developing countries, have

experienced very high rates of unemployment since the great recession of December 2007, for example

the American economy faced unemployment rate of 9.2%, Egypt had a rate of 19% and Saudi had a rate

of 10% in June 2011.This problem is very costly economically and politically. Economically,

unemployment represents a loss in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Politically, the world witnessed

the Arab revolt in Egypt, Tunisia, Syria, Libya, Iraq and Bahrain, to mention but a few, a revolt that is

caused by unemployment, poverty, inequality and dictatorship (Mouhammed, 2011). It should be noted

also that the Newsweek (2011) reported that more than 200 million people globally were out of work, a

record high as almost two-thirds of advanced economies and half of developing countries were

experiencing a slowdown in employment growth (Salami,2013).

In Africa, World Bank Survey in 2011, showed that 40% of those who joined rebel movement said they

were motivated by a lack of jobs, and 50% of those were involved in one form of criminality or the

other, were also motivated by lack of jobs (Philip, Samson and Ogwu, 2013). There were about 200
million people in Africa between 15 and 24 years of age, representing about 20% of the population and

the continent is said to have the fastest growing and most youthful population in the world. Indeed, in

Africa, unemployment has become a threat to socio economic peace and stability. For instance,

unemployment rate in South Africa increased to 25.20% in the first quarter of 2013 from 24.90% in the

fourth quarter of 2012, Kenya’s reached a high of 40% in December 2011, while Ghana had an

unemployment rate of 11% in 2012. Nigeria, Africa’s populous country, has 25.3% in 2011, 31.4% in

2012 unemployment rate (Innocent, 2014).

Youths are the future of every society as they constitute a larger chunk of the labour force and their

energy and skills contribute in no small amount to societal development. Therefore, youths undoubtedly

represent human capital that could propel a nation to a higher and enviable economic height in the

comity of nations if efficiently employed and deployed in the task of nation building. In spite of the

enormous population of the country, estimated to be about 186 million people (United Nations, 2016)

and its potentials, Nigeria has fared poorly in terms of development of its human capital especially her

youth. Unemployment has been a major problem ravaging Nigeria’s population today and the youth are

mostly hit by it. The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) in its 2018 report puts the rate of

unemployment at 23.1% with about 13.2 million youths unemployed. Youth unemployment reached an

all-time high of 29.7% in 2018. Thus, most youths lack the means to cater for their basic necessities, be

productive economically and selfsufficient. As a result, they have resorted to crime and other illegal

activities to sustain themselves. Youths engage in all manners of crimes such as internet fraud, armed

robbery, drug addiction and peddling, rape, prostitution, trafficking, kidnapping, insurgency, etc. This,

no doubt portends that youth unemployment is a serious problem facing Nigeria in general and Oyo

state.
Nigeria remains the most populous country in Africa and job creation for full employment of labour was

recognized by policymakers as an important process of aligning economic growth with development

needs of the country, the first National Development Plan (2002-68) had, as one of its cardinal

objectives; the development of employment opportunities which would be accessible to all citizens of

Nigeria, the second National Development Plan (1970-74) used industrialization as envisaged in the

industrial policy to create more employment opportunities, the third and fourth National Development

Plans (1975-80 and 1981-85) also have one of their objectives” the reduction in the level of

unemployment” (Mbah and Agu, 2013).

Therefore, generation of productive and gainful employment with decent working conditions based on

skills development to absorb the growing labour force has become a critical factor in the strategy for

economic development in Nigeria (Amire and Chidi, 2015). Indeed, skills development has become a

strategic necessity in building a system of adequate capacity towards ensuring equitable access to all,

particularly the youth, disadvantaged groups, minorities, the poor, women, people with disabilities,

dropouts, and those working in the unorganized sector, reducing mismatch between supply and demand

of skills and diversifying skills development programmes to meet the changing requirements of the

emerging knowledge economy by ensuring quality and relevance of training and building true market

place competencies rather than mere qualifications.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

One of the most fundamental problems of development in developing countries is that of

unemployment, which is not a desirable phenomenon in any given country’s development priorities,

because of its consequences both social, political and economic that ranges from increasing poverty,

personal hardships and depression which often results to criminality such as armed robbery, militancy,
kidnapping, prostitution, street begging, cybercrimes, proliferation of baby manufacturing industries and

insurgency.

Since independence, unemployment and poverty have been two major challenges in Nigeria;

where unemployment rate as at 2000 to 2009 stood at less than 2% and from 1970 to 1979 stood at less

than 4%. However, within those periods, Governments of Nigeria have made several efforts in the form

of self-employment programmes to fight and curb unemployment in the country, such programmes

among were; the Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) in 1973, Operation Feed the Nation (OFN)

in 1976 and the Green Revolution (GR) in 1980. Despite efforts made by the governments of Nigeria,

unemployment rate remained at the increase rate, where the rate stood at less than 7% from 1980 to

1989. It was due to the continued increase rate of unemployment in Nigeria that the federal government

set up a committee under the leadership of Mr. Chukwuma in 1985.

Irrespective of some efforts made by government at different levels (Federal, State and Local) to reduce

unemployment, the issue has continuously presented itself as a major concern to the citizens and

government of Nigeria in general, and Oyo State in particular. In every 365 days, universities in Nigeria

turn out millions of graduates, yet the existing ones are still expecting to lay hands on mean and sources

of income for sustainability. This identified unemployment challenge is strategic in Nigeria’s economy

and has created untold crises to the citizenry and various governments in Nigeria. Based on the

foregoing, the study seeks to empirically evaluate if the establishment of NDE has enhanced the

reduction of youths unemployment in oyo State of Nigeria.

The committee was charged with the responsibility to design strategies that will create mass employment

opportunities in the country. The committee identified among its findings from the survey, which the

informal sector whose employees profile was characterized largely by low skilled, semi-skilled or

unskilled labour, accounted for up to 90% of the workers distributed unevenly in agriculture and other
self-employment ventures. The findings of the committee led to their recommendation to the

Government for the establishment of an employment creation agency.

Consequently, the federal Government approved the establishment of the National Directorate of

Employment (NDE) on 26th March, 1986 with its programmes ; Vocational Skills Development, Rural

Employment Promotion, Small Scale Enterprises and Special Pubic Works Programmes which were

launched nationwide in January, 1987 and currently the NDE’s enabling Act, CAP 250 of the laws of the

Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999 (formerly Decree No. 24 of 1989) gave the NDE legal backing as an

employment agency statutorily charged with the responsibility to design and implement its programmes

to combat mass unemployment (NDE, 2011, p.2). In fact, it has been identified that the increased in rate

of unemployment in Nigeria and Oyo in particular was as a result of inadequate youth development

programmes, lack of essential employable skills, poor training systems and inadequate training materials

and equipment (facilities) for the implementation of NDE’s training programmes ( Adebisi and Oni,

2012 and Emeh, Nwanguma and Abaroh, 2012). And factors which include inadequate funding and late

release of funds from the federation account among others have impaired the effectiveness of the NDE

training programmes (Chinedum, 2006 in Emeh, Nwanguma and Abaroh, 2012). From the foregoing

stated problems, one fundamental question that this study asks is “To what extent has National

Directorate of Employment (NDE) impacted on job creation in Oyo state?” this is the central problem

which the study seeks to investigate.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The main aim of this study is to assess the impact of National Directorate of Employment (NDE) on

youth empowerment in oyo state, while the specific objectives are to

1. Investigate the strategies put in place by the National Directorate of Employment on youth

empowerment programmes in Oyo state.

 2. Evaluate the impact of training facilities and skills acquisition programmes of the National

Directorate of Employment on youth empowerment in Oyo state.

3. Examine the challenges confronting the National Directorate of Employment’s training facilities

and skills acquisition programmes on youth empowerment in oyo state.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions will be formulated based on the research Objectives:

i. What are the strategies put in place by the National Directorate of Employment on the youth

empowerment programmes in Oyo State?

ii. Of what impact are the training facilities and skills acquisition programmes of the National

Directorate of Employment on youth empowerment in Oyo state?

iii. What are the challenges confronting the National Directorate of Employment’s training facilities

and skills acquisition programmes on youth empowerment in oyo state?

1.5 Hypotheses of the study

The hypotheses for the study are stated in null form and they include;

H0: The training facilities and skills acquisition programmes of the National Directorate of

Employment have no impact on youth empowerment in oyo state.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study will focused on the effect of the programmes of the National Directorate of Employment

(NDE) on youth employment in Oyo State, the availability of vocational training facilities for NDE, and

different training programmes in oyo state of Nigeria. Therefore, the findings of the study will be of

immense benefit for the decision makers, government at all levels as well as for the youth, most
especially, the graduates on the availability of different skill acquisition programmes they can enrolled in

other to be job creator and not job seekers.

It will also be significance to Students of tertiary institutions across the nation who may want to research

further on related topics as well as officials of private organizations that have interests in studying youth

empowerment programmes.

On the whole, this work will serve as a great reference point for the government of Nigeria in general,

and Oyo State government and concerned citizens in particular, in examining the State of the policy

implementation in empowering youth through job creation measures in Nigeria and the performance of

National Directorate of Employment (NDE).

1.7 Scope of the Study

This research is to access the impact of National Directorate of Employment on Youth Empowerment in

Oyo State. The study also focuses on the four programmes of National Directorate of Employment, the

Training Centre Facilities and the funding pattern of National Directorate of Employment Skills Training

Programmes; this is due to the importance of skills development on youth empowerment for both

graduates and school leavers and the provision of job opportunities. The study will be carried out at the

Oyo State office of National Directorate of Employment, as well as organized youth within the state.

1.8 Definition of Terms

Funding Pattern: Funding pattern is defined as the way in which money is provided for a particular

purpose. Here, it has been operationally defined as the monthly stipends for trainees, allowances of

master trainers and resettlements or take-off grants for beneficiaries after successful training

National Directorate of Employment: The concept is operationally defined as designing and

implementing programmes to combat mass unemployment, articulating policies aimed at developing

work programmes with labour intensive potential, obtaining and maintaining a data bank on employment

and vacancies in Nigeria.

Skills Acquisition Programmes: Skills acquisition programmes is operationally defined as the

articulated NDE programmes for the pursuance of its underlying philosophy, which is self-enterprise that

emphasizes self-employment in preference to wage employment that are attained through skills training.

These programmes are the vocational skills development programme, the special public works

programme, small scale enterprise and the agricultural employment programme.

Training centre facilities: This are the equipment, tools, machines and workshops that are used by

the master trainers to train their trainees for a particular employable skill.

Unemployment: unemployment is lack of employment or joblessness, a situation whereby people are

available, fit and willing to work but do not find work.

Youth Empowerment: This is the provision of new opportunities for youths and it is the process of

providing new jobs, especially for people who are unemployed and looking for employment.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

Review of relevant literature on the variables under study are explored in this chapter. The review

covers the concepts of unemployment, skill acquisition, loans, and employment as well as related

studies on efforts at unemployment reduction, especially by the National Directorate of

Employment (NDE). In addition, David Easton‟s System Theory was adopted as theoretical

framework for the study.

2.1 Conceptual Review

2.1.1 Concept of Unemployment

According to Badamosi (1999), as cited in Amupitan (2011: 28), unemployment refers to “the state

whereby able-bodied, qualified men and women are available for and willing to work but get no job

to do.” In congruent with this is the submission of Collander (2001), also cited in Amupitan (2011:

27), that unemployment occurs when people are looking for a job but cannot find one. While these

two definitions rightly argue that unemployment occurs when able-bodied persons are looking for

work but cannot find work, they fail to tell us the demographic to which an able-bodied person

who is actively seeking work but cannot find one must belong before he or she can be said to be
unemployed. The definitions also fail to state the duration for which a person must work before he

or she can be said to be not unemployed.

Frank and Bernanke (2001), as cited in Amupitan (2011: 27), comes a bit close to addressing this

with their conceptualisation of unemployment as “adults not holding a job but looking for one.”

This definition is also, at best, vague seeing as adults are generally qualified as people who are at

least eighteen years of age. If we are to follow Frank and Bernanke‟s definition, then, an eighty-

year-old who is looking for a small farmland to cultivate is unemployed.

Njoku and Okezie (2011) give a better definition of unemployment. In their words, “unemployment

in Nigeria is defined as the proportion of the labour force that was available for work but did not

work in the week preceding the survey period by, at least, 39 hours.” In line with this, the

International Labour Organisation defines the unemployed as numbers of the economically active

population who are without work but are available for and seeking work, including people who

have lost their jobs and those who have voluntarily left work (Aiyedogbon and Ohwofasa, 2012:

270). The definitions by these authors capture the fact that the unemployed refer to those among the

economically active population (i.e. the labour force) who are without work but are actively seeking

for work. According to Njoku and Okezie (2012), as cited in Aiyedogbon and Ohwofasa (2012:

270), the population of every economy is divided into two categories; the economically active and

the economically inactive. The economically active population (labour force) or working

population refers to the population that is willing and able to work, including those actively

engaged in the production of goods and services (employed) and those who are unemployed.
The labour force population covers persons aged 15 to 64 years. The category of persons considered

not in the labour force include those not between 15-64 (economically active population) as well as

those within the economically active population, i.e. 15-64, who are unable to work, not actively

seeking for work or choose not to work choose and/or are not available for work. Examples of these

are voluntary full time housewives, underage children 14 and below, adults above 65, full time

students, those in active military service, physically challenged and incapacitated persons whose

incapacitation prevents them from working (NBS, 2015).

The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) however gives a more comprehensive definition of

unemployment. According to the NBS (2015), unemployment refers to the “proportion of those in

the labour force (not in the entire economic active population nor the entire Nigerian population)

who were actively looking for work but could not find work for at least 20hours during the

reference period to the total currently active (labour force) population. Accordingly, one is

unemployed if he/she did absolutely nothing at all or did something but not for up to 20 hours in a

week.”

The unemployment rate is expressed as a percentage of the number of persons available for

employment at any time (Aiyedogbon and Ohwofasa, 2012: 271). Mathematically, it is expressed:

Unemployment rate = Unemployed population x 100

Labour force
2.1.2 Skill Acquisition

The term “skill acquisition” is composed of two key concepts: „skill‟ and „acquisition‟.

Skill, according to Vanpatten and Benati (2010) refers to the ability to do rather than underlying

competence or mental attribute. To clarify this concept, Conford (1996) lists the defining attributes

of skill to include:

i. Skill is learned;

ii. Skill involves motivation, purpose and goals;

iii. Schemas are prerequisite for skilled performance;

iv. Skills require content and context knowledge;

v. Skills are performed and transferred in the presence of specific stimuli;

vi. Skill involve problem-solving relevant to the context;

vii. Standards of excellence are important;

viii. Skill involves comparable replication;

ix. Comparable periods of time are required to reach high levels of skill (Taie, 2014:

1972).

Acquisition, on the other hand, is defined by The Oxford Dictionary as “the learning or developing

of a skill, habit or quality.” In simple terms, therefore, skill acquisition may be defined as the

process of learning or developing the ability to do something. For example, someone who wants to

acquire carpentry skills will have to undergo training in a recognised carpentry school or under a

master craftsman (in this case, a skilled carpenter).

Idoko (2014: 51) defines skill acquisition as “the form of training by individuals or group of

individuals that can lead to acquisition of knowledge for self-sustenance. It involves the training of

people in different fields of trade under a legal agreement between the trainers and the trainees for

certain duration and under certain conditions.”

According to Douli (2004), as cited in Idoko (2014: 51), skill acquisition is the manifestation of

idea and knowledge through training which is geared towards instilling in individuals, the spirit of

entrepreneurship needed for meaningful development. He argues that giving individuals the

opportunity to acquire relevant skills needed for self-sustenance in the economy will promote their

charisma in any work environment.

Magbagbeola (2004) posits that skill acquisition requires the accumulation of different skills that

enhances task performance through the integration of both theoretical and practical forms of

knowledge. In agreement with Magbagbeola‟s submission is Ochiaga‟s (1995) position that skill

acquisition refers to “the ability to do or perform an activity that is related to some meaningful

exercise, work or job” (Idoko, 2014: 51).

According to Uzoka and Bayode (2010), as cited in Umunadi (2014: 50), skill acquisition involves

the mastery of practical skills and knowledge in any vocational and technical field of study. In the

Nigerian educational system, they argue, skill acquisition can be achieved through technical and

vocational education which incorporates teaching, practical experience, and on-the- job training and

retraining.

To Donjor (2011: 24), skill acquisition is a vital instrument of empowerment that seeks to provide

the people with different skills, vocation and entrepreneurial ability like bead-making,

Hat making, sewing, fashion designing, shoe making, making workers interested in their job and, at

the same time, improving on their existing skills.

Skill acquisition is essentially aimed at reducing unemployment through empowerment and human

capital development in the form of vocational training. Trainees and students enrolled in skill

acquisition programmes undergo trainings that are designed to instill into them job-specific and –

related skills with the ultimate aim of making them marketable in the labour market.

An important issue of skill development in Nigeria is to ensure that human resources are developed

to such an extent that the achievement of desired rates of technological change will not be impeded

through lack of personnel with suitable and functional skills for the world of work (Umunadi,

2014: 50). Through requisite skill acquisition which entails the integration of both theoretical and

practical forms of knowledge, Nigerians seeking work would be able to make a swift transition

from a situation of unemployment to that of gainful employment.

2.1.3 Loans

Loan refers to money, property or other material goods that is given to another party in exchange

for future repayment of the principal amount along with interest or other finance charges. A loan
may be for a specific, one-time period or can be available as open-ended credit up to a specified

ceiling amount (www.investopedia.com).

According to Jacoby and Saulnier (1942: 9), in order to appreciate fully the importance of loans, an

understanding of the essential elements of the term „loan‟ is necessary. To them, the basic elements

that define „loan‟ are:

x. Credit extended to a business concern;

xi. A direct relationship between borrower and lender;

xii. Provision at time of making the loan that some part of the principal is repayable

after (some time).

A loan is money received from a friend, bank or financial institution in exchange for future

repayment of the principal, plus interest. The principal is the amount borrowed, and the interest is

the amount charged for receiving the loan. Since lenders are taking a risk that the loan may not be

repaid, they offset the risk by charging a fee – known as interest. Loans typically are secured or

unsecured. A secured loan involves pledging an asset (such as a car, boat or house) as collateral for

the asset. If the borrower defaults, or does not pay back the loan, the lender takes possession of the

asset. In the case of unsecured loan, if the borrower does not pay back, the lender does not have the

right to take anything in return (www.study.com).

Loan is a financial instrument. Finance is the elixir that assists in the formation of new businesses,

and allows businesses to take advantage of opportunities to grow, employ local workers and, in

turn, support other businesses and local, state and federal government through the remittance of

taxes (www.smallbusiness.chron.com).

The various types of loans include: personal loans, cash advances, student loans, mortgage loans,
home equity loans and small business loans. Small business loans are usually offered to people

looking to start a business or looking to grow a small business. Often called “soft loans”, a business

plan is usually required to show validity for what an entrepreneur wants to do before they are

granted (www.study.com).

Different vocational skills upon their graduation in order to help them fund business start-ups. In

2008, for example, the Oyo office of the NDE in collaboration with the Oyo State Micro-Credit

Agency disbursed N3 million soft loans to fifty physically challenged youths in Oyo State who had

been trained in seven different vocational skills by the Directorate (www.thenationonlineng.net).

These soft loans aid the trainees to become instant entrepreneurs as they not only serve as start-up

capital but also as funds to smoothen quick business expansion. The loans afford the trainees the

opportunity to hire employees, buy equipment and invest in the needed inventory.

2.1.4 Concept of Employment

According to Gbosi (2005: 20), “employment is defined as, when collectively specified or not

collectively specified, the total number of persons 15 years and above who are employed in civilian

occupations.” With this, Gbosi agrees that employment is associated with those who are, at least, 15

years of age. However, the definition fails to give the upper age limit for those who may be

considered employed. Amupitan (2011: 31) too falls short in this category with his submission that

“an employed individual is a person who is currently working for wages or self- interest.”

According to the National Bureau of Statistics (2015), a person is regarded as employed if he or she

is engaged in the production of goods and services, thereby contributing to the Gross Domestic

Product (GDP) in a legitimate manner, which is a component of the national accounts and receives

any form or amount of money for that activity. The Bureau goes further to state that for a person to

be considered employed; he or she must work full time, i.e. at least 40 hours, on average, a week.
According to Hussmanns (n.d.: 8), the employed comprise all persons above the age specified for

measuring the economically active population (e.g. 15 years) who, during a specified short period

of either one week or one day, were in the following categories:

a. Paid employment: at work: persons who, during the reference period, performed

some work (i.e. at least one hour) for wage or salary, in cash or in kind; with a job but not at work:

persons who, having already worked in their present job, were temporarily not at work during the

reference period or had a formal attachment to their job;

b. Self-employment: At work: persons who, during the reference period, performed

some work (i.e. at least one hour) for profit or family gain, in cash or in kind; With an enterprise but

not at work: persons with an enterprise (which may be a business enterprise, a farm or a service

undertaking) who were temporarily not at work during the reference period for any specific reason.

Despite that the time-frame in Hussmanns‟ definition is particularly very short, the elements in the

definition best describes what the researcher has in mind to mean “employment”. Hence, the

definition, in addition to the NBS‟ minimum of 40 hours of work a week, is adopted for this study.

2.1.5 Review of Related Studies on NDE Efforts at Unemployment Reduction

In recent times, many researchers have carried out empirical studies on the operations and

programmes of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) as well as on the issue of

unemployment and employment generation in Nigeria.

Toluwalase and Omonijo (2013) evaluated the fundamental efforts of the NDE at using agricultural

programmes to combat poverty among small-scale food crop farmers in Oyo State, where

agriculture is largely practiced as a means of livelihood. The study obtained its data through the
administration of structured questionnaires on 200 arable crop farmers who benefited from NDE

agricultural programmes and 100farmers who did not benefit, in addition to consulting NDE

annual reports, periodical magazines, journals, newspapers, etc. The findings of the study reveal

that socio-economic characteristics like age, education, level of income, household size and income

have correlation with severity of poverty; that those who did not benefit from NDE programmes

(non-benefiting farmers) had the highest vulnerability to poverty as their poverty index was

estimated to be 0.94, compared with 0.11 for the beneficiaries. Going by its findings, the study

recommends that the government should increase the number of beneficiaries of NDE agricultural

programmes in order to develop agriculture as one of the strongest profession to curtail poverty in

Nigeria.

Toluwalase and Omonijo‟s study is however limited in scope as it evaluated only the impact of the

agricultural programmes of the NDE in Oyo State, while other programmes aimed at developing

skills to reduce unemployment and tackle poverty were left unattended. This study is an attempt to

cover this limitation as it examines the vocational scheme of NOAS and the entrepreneurial

schemes of ESDTS and MBSTS, and how these three job-creating NDE schemes have created

employment for people, and consequently reduce unemployment, in Oyo State.

Adebidi and Oni (2012) assessed the operational schemes of the National Directorate of

Employment (NDE) and the relevance of its training programmes to the needs of trainees in

Southwestern Nigeria. The study adopted the survey design. Precisely, the six states of Oyo, Lagos,

Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo in the South West of Nigeria were used for the study. 1200 trainees,

420 trainers, and 120 ex-trainees were sampled from a population of 382,792. The results show that

the NDE had 11 operational schemes and 30 job categories. It also shows that the NDE training

programmes met the needs of the trainees as 99.2% of trainees and 98.3% of ex-trainees said that

they learnt the jobs they had wanted to learn at the NDE. Furthermore, all the 120 ex-trainees
sampled (100%) said that the jobs they now do were the ones they learned at the NDE. The study

concludes that the NDE impacts positively on previously unemployed Nigerians who enrolled in its

programmes by providing them with gainful employment. The study, therefore, recommends that in

order to ensure even enrollment and bring the services of the NDE closer to the grassroots, the

Directorate should have its liaison offices in local government headquarters across the federation.

While Adebisi and Oni‟s study has Oyo State as one of its study areas and, therefore, assessed the

relevance of NDE programmes to the needs of trainees in Oyo State, the study only covers the

period before February, 2012 – it was published in March, 2012. As such, the period since

February, 2012 are not covered in its scope. In addition, the study has the administration of

questionnaires as its sole source of primary data. Interviews were not employed. Furthermore, if the

NDE training programmes actually met the needs of the trainees in the state, as the study found,

how come the level of unemployment in Oyo State is still high? All these are gaps which this study

sought to fill.

In a different study, Obike, Ukoha and Nwajiuba (2007) investigated the role of the National

Directorate of Employment (NDE) in poverty reduction among farmers in Nigeria, using Abia State

as a case study. The simple random sampling technique was adopted for the study, and structured

questionnaires were used to obtain information from 120 respondents – 60 beneficiaries and 60

non-beneficiaries of the NDE in the study area. Results of the study reveal that beneficiaries of the

NDE used more fertilizers than non-beneficiaries, with an average input level of 132.5kg ha-1 per

farmer compared to 100kh ha-1 for non-beneficiaries. Furthermore, average farm land of NDE

beneficiaries was 1.68 ha compared to 1.45 ha for non-beneficiaries. In addition, the value of

improved seedlings used by NDE beneficiaries was on the average N6,733.3 ha-1 whereas the non-

beneficiaries used improved seeds valued at N4,250 ha-1. NDE beneficiaries also enjoyed better

credit of N7,516 per farmer compared to non-beneficiaries who received N2,550 credit on the
average. Similarly, NDE beneficiaries, on the average, used pesticides worth N13,000 ha-1 while

non-beneficiaries used pesticides worth N7,250 on the average. The findings of the study, Obike et

al. (2007) concludes, show that NDE beneficiaries enjoyed better agricultural packages than non-

beneficiaries; that the NDE plays a vital role in poverty reduction among farmers in Abia State,

Nigeria. The study also discovered that farm income is significant for poverty reduction. As such,

the study suggests that policies that boost income should be put in place by the government and the

farmers should be encouraged to adopt the measures. The study also recommends that the NDE

should incorporate policies that will support farmers‟ children‟s education as such measure will

help alleviate poverty among farmers.

Obike, et al.‟s study, while claiming to examine the role of the NDE in poverty reduction in

Nigeria, is, however, limited in scope to only Abia State. In addition, the study focused on only

the agricultural scheme of the NDE and employed questionnaires as its sole source of primary data;

interviews were never used. This study is different from Obike, et al.‟s in that it assesses the

NDE‟s contribution to unemployment reduction in Oyo State, against Obike, et al.‟s examination

of the NDE‟s role in poverty reduction and uses questionnaires, interviews, observation and official

NDE statistics to gather data.

Ukoha, Osuji, Osuji and Ibeagwa (2014) in another study examined the influence of the skill

acquisition programmes of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) on job creation in Abia

State. Both primary and secondary sources of information were used in gathering data for the study.

120 questionnaires were administered to NDE household beneficiaries from a sampling frame of

180 beneficiaries provided by the NDE by means of simple random sampling technique. Out of

these, 108 questionnaires were returned with valid responses. The findings reveal that 18 of the

beneficiaries (representing 16.67% of sampled beneficiaries) acquired Vocational Skills

Development Programme (VSD) training and subsequently created 30 jobs (14.92% of total jobs

created) while 40 respondents (representing 37.04% of sampled beneficiaries) acquired Special

Public Works Programme (SPW) training and created 54 jobs (26.89% of jobs created). 20 of the

respondents (18.51%) had Agricultural Employment Programme (AEP) training and created 82 jobs

(40.79%) whereas 30 of the respondents (27.73%) had Small Scale Enterprise Programme (SSE)

training and created 35 jobs (17%). The results show that the AEP is better equipped with the

necessary logistics and manpower to create jobs; that SSE beneficiaries generated the highest

average annual income of N531,961.00 per beneficiary (N44,330.08 monthly), which suggests that

it is the most profitable skills acquisition programme. The study concludes that the NDE, through

its skills acquisition programmes, is helping its beneficiaries generate employment and,

programmes should be properly funded in order to help its beneficiaries generate more

employment. Proper funding, it submits, will ensure that beneficiaries can purchase the necessary

inputs needed to start up their own businesses and employ more hands.

Ukoha, et al. focused on the general programmes of the NDE, and not on the specific schemes

within each of these programmes. This study focuses on the NOAS within the VSD

Programme/Department and the ESDTS and the MBSTS within the SSE Programme/Department of

the NDE.

In a separate study titled: “An Assessment of the Role of the National Directorate of Employment

(NDE) in reducing Graduate Unemployment in Kaduna State,” Amupitan (2011) sought to find out:

(i) if inadequate awareness of the programmes of the NDE has led to poor enrolment in its skills

acquisition schemes, (ii) if the NDE is reducing graduate unemployment in Kaduna State through

its skills acquisition programmes; (iii) if poor funding is affecting the effectiveness of the NDE.

Data were gathered from primary and secondary sources while the systematic sampling method was
used in determining the sample size and the opportunistic sampling method was used in its

administration. 144 questionnaires out of the 150 administered were completed and returned,

representing 96%. The results of the study reveal that inadequate awareness of the activities of the

NDE has led to poor enrolment in its programmes in Kaduna State; that the NDE is creating

employment through specific skills acquisition schemes, thereby reducing the graduate

unemployment rate in Kaduna State, but that there‟s still room for improvement as the number of

those who have benefitted from the scheme is not commensurate to the number of graduates turned

out yearly by tertiary institutions; and that poor funding has undermined the effectiveness of the

NDE in Kaduna State.

Amupitan study concentrated on examining the role of the NDE in reducing employment among

graduates in Kaduna State. This study, on the other hand, assesses the NDE contribution to

unemployment reduction among those categorized to be within the labour force (15-64 years of

age) in Oyo State.

Ogunlela (2012) assessed the impact of the programmes of the NDE on graduate employment and

unemployment in Kaduna State of Nigeria. The study relied on oral interviews of NDE personnel

and NDE brochures, annual reports, hand books and other documentary sources for its data. The

study discovered that while graduates who benefitted from the training programmes under the

different NDE schemes are normally supposed to be placed on attachment, what obtains is that, in

some cases, graduates trained are not placed on attachment. The study also found that the impact of

the NDE in generating graduate employment in Kaduna State is, at best, modest. Hence, it

recommends an overhaul of the modus operandi of the NDE in order to enhance the achievement of

its laudable objectives.

In assessing the impact of NDE programmes on graduate employment and unemployment,

Ogunlela (2012) relied on just oral interviews with NDE staff and secondary sources to gather data.

This limitation is addressed in this study as the study collected data through interview conducted

with both NDE staff and beneficiaries, questionnaires administered to both staff and beneficiaries of

the NDE, observation and secondary sources.

Amire and Ngwama (2015) examined the contributions of the NDE in facilitating youth

employment through skill development and job creation in Lagos State, Nigeria between 2005 and

2011. To collect data for the study, unstructured interviews were carried out with officials and

Heads of Department at the NDE zonal offices in Lagos State. Secondary data were also

collected from NDE annual reports, periodicals, journals, etc. The findings of the study reveal that

between 2005 and 2012, 4188 graduates registered with the Job Centre Unit of the NDE in Lagos

and out of this number, 341 were employed; that the NDE as an institution has contributed in no

small measure in developing vocational skills, training and creating jobs for the unemployed within

their capacity. The study however submits that the pace of the NDE is slow in meeting the demand

for skills development among graduates in Nigeria. Consequently, the study recommends that the

government develop more institutional capacity to tackle the issue of unemployment in the country

and that the NDE update its data bank as the lack of current data is a serious defect on its operations

– the availability of current data will make for proper planning.

Amire and Ngwama (2015) sought to examine the contributions of the NDE in facilitating youth

employment through skill development but only collected data through interviews conducted with

NDE staff and secondary sources. The opinions of the beneficiaries of the skill development

programmes themselves were never sought. This study is an attempt to fill this gap.
2.1.6 Trends of Unemployment in Nigeria

Nigeria does not have any reliable figure on the trends of unemployment, as no institution has so far

produced accurate figures showing the reliable unemployment rate. The figures published by National

Bureau of Statistics, the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and so on, appeared to be

contradicting. The reason for the differences and contradictions have been explained by Raheen (1993),

Okigbo (1991) and Ohiorhenuan (1986) in Asaju, Arome and Anyio (2014) that, one, only recorded

open unemployment is published by the official statistics and two, the concept of labour force adopted in

Nigerian labour force statistical survey excluded those 15 and above 55 (but actively working) out of the

labour force. Three, unpaid family workers and full house wives were excluded.

However, the yardstick for measuring unemployment in most places is conducted in line with the

Bureau of Labour Statistics in the United States. Each month of BLS surveys about 60.000 randomly

selected households; each person in these households who is 16 years or older is placed in one of the

three categories. They are as follows

i. Employed: A person who has work, full-time or part-time (even for a few hours) during the

past week or is on vacation or sick leave from a regular job.

ii. Unemployed: A person who did not work during the preceding week but made some efforts

to find work in the past 4 weeks.

iii. Out of the Labour force: A person who did not work in the past week and did not look for

work in the past 4 weeks. That is, person who is neither employed nor unemployed are out of

the “Labour force”. Full-time students, unpaid home workers, retire and people unable to

work because of disabilities are examples of people who are out of the labour force-Frank and

Bernanke (2001) in Oboromeni (2011)

 In Nigeria, the Bureau of Statistics, defines an unemployed person as “an active person who did

not work but looked for work in four weeks period preceding the survey”, National Bureau of Statistics

(2008). The unemployment rate in Nigeria is defined as”the proportion of labour force that is available

for work but did not work in the week preceding the survey period for at least 39 hours”. It is worthy of

note that, the International labour organization (ILO) rate is based on one hour.

Unemployment rate according to Business dictionary (2014) refers to the percentage of total

work force that is unemployed and are looking for paid job. Unemployment rate is one of the most

closely watched statistics because a rising rate is seen as a sign of weakening economy that may call for

cut in interest rate. A falling rate, similarly, indicates a growing economy which is usually accompanied

by higher inflation rate and may call for increase in interest rates.

The unemployment rate measures the percentages of employable people in a country’s work

force who are over the age of 16 and who have either lost their jobs or have unsuccessfully sought jobs

in the last month and are still actively seeking work. It is important to distinguish between the

percentages of people who are unemployed and those who are simply not working. Some people may be

in school full-time, working in the home, disabled, or retired. These people are not considered part of the

labour force and are therefore not included in the unemployment rate. Only those people actively looking

for a job or waiting to return to a job are considered unemployed.

Unemployed people typically fall into one of four classifications below;

a) Job losers are people who have been laid off or fired, either temporarily or permanently.

b) Jobs leavers are people who have voluntarily left their jobs and the size of this group may

actually reflect confidence in the state of economy.

c) New entrants are people seeking employment for the first time.
 d) Re-entrants are people who left the labour force for a time and are now returning, such as

parents who opted to raise families or those who left to pursue additional education

(Innocent, 2014).

2.2 Theoretical Framework

There are different theories and models that could be adopted for this study. One of these is

Ledford, Lucas, Daraighi and Ravelli‟s (2013) theory of youth empowerment. According to the

youth empowerment theory, the field of youth empowerment has two levels: the process level, and

the outcomes level. The process – or empowering level – provides opportunities for youth to

develop skills and become problem solvers and decision makers. The outcomes – or the empowered

level – refer to the result of the empowerment process, including the consequences of attempts to

gain control in the community and the effects of interventions designed to empower participants. In

summary, the Youth Empowerment Theory connects individual well-being with the larger and

political environment, and suggests that people need to become active in community decision

making in order to improve their lives, organisations and communities (Ledford, Lucas, Daraighi

and Ravelli, 2013: 1-2).

After a very careful study, however, it was found that David Easton‟s (1965) System Theory will

provide a better and sounder theoretical framework for the analysis of this study. The system theory

was employed in the analysis of similar empirical studies earlier conducted by Amupitan (2011) and

Emeh, Nwanguma and Abaroh (2012) titled “An Assessment of the Role of the National

Directorate of Employment (NDE) in Reducing Graduate Unemployment in Kaduna State” and

“Engaging Youth Unemployment in Nigeria with Youth Development and Empowerment

Programmes” respectively.
2.2.1 The System Theory

The adaptation of the System Theory to the study of political life was first conceived by David

Easton in 1953. In Easton‟s framework, “a system is defined as any set of variables which

interrelate. This system is a political system if it produces decisions accepted as authoritative or

binding by the bulk of the society” (Prestine, 1991: 2). To Easton, a political system could be seen

as a delimited (i.e. all political systems have precise boundaries) and fluid (changing) system of

steps in decision making (Amupitan, 2011: 56).

According to Easton (1957: 384), “if we hold the system of political actions as a unit before our

mind‟s eye, as it were, we can see that what keeps the system going are inputs of various kinds.

These inputs are converted by the processes of the system into outputs and these, in turn, have

consequences both for the system and for the environment in which the system exists.”

The System Theory is illustrated in table 2.1.

Step 1: Changes in the social or physical environment surrounding a political system produce

“demands” and “supports” for action or the status quo directed as “inputs” towards the political

system, through political behaviour.

Step 2: These demands and supporting groups stimulate competition in a political system leading

to decisions or “outputs” directed at some aspect of the surrounding social and physical

environment.

Step 3: After a decision or output is made (e.g. a specific policy), it interacts with its environment,

Step 4: When a new policy interacts with its environment, outcomes may generate new demands or

supports and groups in support or against the policy (“feedback”) or a new policy on some related

matter

Step 5: Feedback leads back to Step 1, forming a never-ending cycle (Amupitan, 2011: 57).
From the above, it can be submitted that a system is made up of elements or subsystems which are

interdependent and must function effectively to make the system sustainable. Redundancy in any of

the subsystems impinges on the ability of the whole (system) to operate effectively and efficiently.

Easton points out that every political system has an environment and responds to it. The elements or

sub-systems of the system are interrelated and the system can respond to forces in its environment,

and will do so to preserve it (Dye, 1978, cited in Amupitan, 2011: 57)

The systematic relationship among the major elements in the System Theory is quite apt. Inputs in

form of demands and supports are sent into the political system from the environment. Once an

input enters the political or conversion process, it undergoes transformation or refinement which

translates to output. What happens in the political system as well as the input determines the output.

The output is fed back into the environment and the feedback mechanism ensures that the system

endures (Amupitan, 2011:58).

2.2.3 Critiques of the System Theory

Easton‟s System Theory has the reputation of taking a non- and apolitical stance towards its own

object of analysis, narrowing down the practical tasks of political theory and science to a technical

question of how to enable politicians to make more rational democratic decisions and better control

their outcomes.

According to Blondel (1990), the System Theory reduces politics to the overall raison d`être of

government or, more specifically, the national political system or, in effect, the governmental

system (Bang 2012: 4).

Easton‟s System Theory has also been criticized for imposing the biological analogy to the analysis

of political life. In the words of Miller (1971), as cited in Bang (2012: 5), “(Is) systems analysis, as

a kind of political biology, concerned with questions that are, properly speaking, political in nature?

Political things must be understood by analogy with ethics rather than biology.” Arguing alone the

same line as Miller, Bang (2012: 7) submits that, “(Easton‟s System Theory) has been accused of

not only being a bad biological and technical model but also inherently elitist and inhumane.”

Notwithstanding these criticisms, the System Theory best explains the variables of this study, and

is, thus, employed in its analysis.

2.2.4 Applicability of the System theory to the Study

As aforementioned, the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) was established by the Federal

Government with a mandate to combat mass unemployment through skills acquisition.

In basic terms, the National Directorate of Employment equates to the “political system” or

“conversion process” which works on the unemployed persons (who form the “input”), and

ultimately turns them into empowered/employed persons or skillful entrepreneurs. The socio-

political cum economic environments serve as the “environment” that influences the system.

This situation is illustrated in table 2.2.

Figure 2.2 The System Theory as applied to this study:

Source: Adapted from Easton’s (1957: 384) An Approach to the Analysis of Political Systems.

Inputs: According to Easton (1957: 387), “inputs give a political system its dynamic character.

They furnish it both with raw material or information that the system is called upon to process and

with the energy to keep it going. The reason why a political system emerges at all – that is, why

men engage in political activity – is that demands are being made by persons or groups in the

society that cannot all be fully satisfied. In all societies, one fact dominates political life: scarcity

prevails with regard to most of the valued things.” The demands in this context are the demands

for jobs/employment for unemployed persons. Another aspect of inputs is support.

“Supportive behaviour may consist of actions promoting the goals, interests, and actions of another

or those internal forms of behaviour we call orientations or state of mind” (Easton, 1957: 391).

Support in the context of this study comes in the form of budgetary allocations to the NDE, taxes

paid by people, contributions made by institutions to support NDE programmes, praises for (and

encouragement of) NDE ventures.

Political System/Conversion Process: In the context of this study, the National Open

Apprenticeship Scheme (NOAS), the Basic Business Training (BBT) Scheme and the Start- Your-

Own-Business (SYOB) Scheme of the NDE; the administrative and technical managers of the

NDE; and the various trainers and craftsmen who are directly responsible for the training of the

trainees make up the conversion process.

Outputs: The NDE does not provide employment but creates employment through skills

acquisition. Thus, the outputs of the system constitute the “empowered” persons who were hitherto

unemployed but have acquired relevant skills and financial assistance needed for job creation

through NDE schemes and programmes. The Inputs and Conversion Process determine the quality

of the outputs (in this case, beneficiaries of NDE schemes). The importance of outputsis

pronounced with Easton‟s submission that, “without outputs, we cannot identify the work done by

the system” (Easton, 1957: 355-386).

Environment: In the context of this study, the environment includes the prevailing social,

economic, cultural and political realities in Nigeria as a whole and Oyo State in particular. The

polity, at present, is characterized by high unemployment rate, insurgency, high level of poverty,

burgeoning crime rate, unstable policies, high rate of inflation, inequality, political violence,
corruption, high population (growth rate), dominance of the primary sector of the economy, inadequate

infrastructures, etc.

Feedback: This is meant to serve as a mechanism of knowing how the “outputs” are faring. Through feedback

mechanism, the NDE gets informed about the effectiveness or otherwise of its schemes, the performance of

beneficiaries, the number of jobs created through its skills acquisition schemes as well as the areas of its

schemes and programmes that need to be improved upon. The feedback mechanism creates an avenue for the

NDE to keep track of its activities.

The sub-systems must operate smoothly for the system to maintain a steady and effective state, as an

obstruction in one of the sub-systems will impinge on the attainment of outputs.

2.3 Empirical Framework

Oboromeni (2011), in a study, assessment of the role of NDE in reducing graduate unemployment in Kaduna State,”

the study was aimed at analyzing the various policies and programmes being put in place by government in curbing

the danger of graduate unemployment, whether NDE is reducing graduate unemployment through its skills

acquisition schemes, problems hindering the effective performance and solutions to the problems being faced by the

NDE. Data for the research were collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data were

collected through the instruments of questionnaires and interviews, two local governments; Zaria and Kaduna South

were chosen for the study. A sample size of 150 respondents was derived from a total population of 1200 people

including both staff and beneficiaries of the NDE and data collected were analyzed using both quantitative and

descriptive statistical techniques. The average means score method was used for the data analysis.
 The study found that awareness from the grassroots levels to the top goes a long way in improving the

effectiveness of the National Directorate of Employment in Kaduna State, it was revealed that skills acquisition is an

effective tool in the reduction of graduate unemployment in Kaduna State as 94.4 percent of the respondents agreed

that self-employment is an alternative to salaried job. The study concluded that, the National Directorate of

Employment is creating employment through specific skills acquisition.

The average means score used for testing hypotheses which is descriptive, is not part of modern tools of

analysis that would be generalized for a study.

Ogunlela (2012), carried out a study on the impact of the programmes of the National Directorate of

Employment on graduate employment and unemployment in Kaduna State. The study was aimed at examining what

sort of programmes the NDE had set up to combat unemployment in Kaduna State.

Data for the study were collected through the Directorate’s operational documents such as the brochures,

annual reports, and handbook and other documentary sources were consulted and a total of ten (10) staff of the NDE

were interviewed and selected by means of a random sampling process. However, the study revealed that

employment generation to graduates by the NDE was still very low, level of job creation was achieved and the

mechanisms to ensure sustainability of jobs created had been put in place.

The study did not cover any local government area in Kaduna state, despite it was carried in Kaduna State, no

data presented and analyzed through the use of statistical tools such as tables and charts, this is because there was no

opinions of beneficiaries and the hypotheses were not tested through the use of statistical tools of analysis. Moreover,

beneficiaries were not interviewed or filled a single questionnaire and there is no theoretical framework that was used

for the study.

Adebisi and Oni (2012), carried out a research on the availability of vocational training facilities for the

National Directorate of Employment in Nigeria. The study aimed at finding out various vocations under which the
NDE train prospective trainees, assessing the training facilities available and finding out if graduated trainees were

given facilities to settle them in their respective trained vocations.

The study employed the ex-post facto research, the targeted population comprises all the trainees of the NDE

in Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo states and all the trainers whose services were employed by the

Directorate in the six states that constitute south western Nigeria. Multi – stage sampling technique was used to select

1,740 respondents. This comprised 1,200 trainees with 200 from each state. Each state was stratified based on the 3

senatorial districts; 10 local government councils were randomly picked from the senatorial districts and then a

sample of 20 trainees per local government was obtained. Also, 420 trainers were selected with 70 per state. One

hundred and twenty (120) ex-trainees (20 per state) were also selected. Snowballing sampling technique (that is one

ex-trainee directing the researcher to another ex-trainee) was used to select the ex-trainees.

Data for the study gathered or collected through the use of questionnaire instrument and data were analyzed

by the use of descriptive statistics, frequency distribution and percentages.

The study revealed that the trainees were trained for the following job categories: fashion designing, poultry

farming, “gari” (cassava powder) processing, entrepreneurial training, welding and iron fabricating, computer

training, candle making, fishing, drum manufacturing, typing and short-hand, shoemaking and leather works,

photography, catering, hair dressing, block (bricks) making, automobile (mechanical) engineering work, “pure”

(sachet) water production, vulcanizing, carpentry, weaving, plumbing and house painting among others. The study

further revealed that there was some equipment available, such as typing machines, computer systems, sewing

machines and many more for the successful implementation of the NDE training programmes in the training

locations. And finally, trainees said they would be given machines/equipment to establish them in their respective

jobs after their training. Likewise ex-trainees responded that they were given machines/equipment to establish them

in their respective jobs after training. However, the responses of the trainers negated those of the trainees and ex-
trainees as it revealed that there was inadequate equipment for the implementation of the NDE vocational training

programs respectively.

The study was comprehensive and wider in coverage within the specific area of study. However, the study did

not interview any of the respondents, no theoretical framework for the study and inferential statistical tools were not

used in the analysis of data.

Young and Ogbimi, (2014) carried out a study on the scientific evaluation of the performance of the

National Directorate of Employment (NDE). The study aimed at examining the appropriateness of the strategy

underlying the NDE programmes through the concept of self-employment or learning as the solution to mass

unemployment in Nigeria, as well as determined the suitability of the NDE training programmes by demonstrating

how technological learning promotes industrialization, growth and reduces mass unemployment. The study which

used both primary and secondary data sources was carried out in Ogun, Osun, Ondo, Oyo and the federal capital

territory. The study focused on graduates especially science and engineering students with the sophistry of theoretical

knowledge. One hundred and ten (110) beneficiaries of NDE were sampled. However, for the primary data, the

questionnaire instrument was used to solicit responses from the sampled respondents.

The study revealed that the principles and strategy of self-employment did not develop the technological

capability of the trainees. Hence, they did not promote industrialization, productivity and create job opportunities.

Education and training are the principal learning tools for increasing employment in quantity and quality, promoting

improved productivity and reducing inflation.

The study was more theoretical, because the target population was only the beneficiaries, the total number of

the study population was not known, the method of sampling technique also not ascertained, no staff of NDE was

ever interviewed in order to have their input in the study.

Vambe and Suleiman (2014), in a study, promoting youth employment in Benue State, Nigeria: a study of

open apprenticeship scheme of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE). The study aimed at interrogating the
open apprenticeship scheme as a deliberate state intervention to combat youth unemployment, in addition, the study

further interrogated the open apprenticeship scheme as a policy option to encourage skills acquisition towards

promoting youth employment in Benue state, identified and examined constraint(s) facing the National Directorate of

Employment towards realizing the foregoing through the apprenticeship scheme in Benue state and recommended

measures that could assist the National Directorate of Employment to achieve mandate of open apprenticeship

scheme in Benue state.

The study adopted a multiple perspective approach. These involved a range research methodology designed

to; elicit both primary and secondary data, sampled the population of the study, presented and analyzed the data. The

instruments of public and institutional questionnaire were employed to elicit primary data from the sampled

population of employees of NDE, trainers and members of the public. For the secondary data, the study relied on

official reports and a considerable amount of literature that reflects the informed opinion of scholars on similar

subject matter of the study. The random sampling technique was used to determine the number of target population

for the study. In the first stage, 20 (out of 38) employees of NDE in the state and 26 (out of 53) trainers making a

total of 46 were randomly selected. In the second stage, the study acknowledged the official population figure of 4,

219, 244 (2006, census) distributed among the 23 local government areas (LGAs) in Benue state. It then selected at

random, 3 LGAs namely; Gboko, Makurdi and Otukpo. The data collected were presented and analyzed using simple

percentage and chi-square statistical tools.

The study revealed that NDE through its open apprenticeship scheme has recorded considerable achievement

in skills acquisition and self-employment among a good number of youths in Benue state. It was discovered that

NDE has cumulatively supported over 1000 small and medium–scale enterprise (SMES) projects in the state through

the open apprenticeship schemes. Such projects included soap making, welding enterprises, tailoring, computer

centers, carpentry and motor mechanics. The study further revealed that the implementation of the NOAS in Benue

state was faced with many challenges. Those include; poor business environment, low interest of the youths in the
skills development programmes provided by the NDE through the NOAS, low level of education by the trainers,

absence of theory classes to complement practical training and so on. However, the major challenge of NOAS in

Benue state is funding, that is inadequate fund disbursement was responsible for most of the difficulties faced by

NDE in the implementation of the NOAS in the state. The prevailing business environment was not supportive of

small scale investment which graduates of the apprenticeship scheme usually under take upon graduation. However,

the study did not interview any of the respondents.

Ukoha, et al (2014), carried out a study on the analysis of the influence of the skills acquisition of the

National Directorate of Employment on job creation in Abia state. The study aimed at assessing the skills acquisition

programmes of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) in generating employment.

The study was divided into three agricultural zones; the respondents were mainly the households of

beneficiaries of NDE services in the area. Both primary and secondary data were used. The major instrument used

for primary data collection was the questionnaire, and a total of 120 questionnaires were administered to NDE

household beneficiaries from a sampling frame of 180 beneficiaries responded and returned valid responses. The

secondary data were collected through review of related literature such as text books, journals, bulletins, and seminar

and conference papers among others.

The study revealed that the Agricultural employment programme of the NDE created a total of 82 jobs to its

beneficiaries claiming the highest number of jobs created by any other skill acquisition programme making 40.79%

of jobs created. Special public works programme created 54 jobs making 26.89% and the second among the four

major skills acquisition programmes, while small scale enterprise programme generated 35 jobs making 17% of jobs

created and vocational skills development generated 30 jobs and making 14.92% and the last among the four major

skills acquisition programmes . It further implied that the Agricultural Employment (AEP) was better equipped with

necessary logistics and manpower to create jobs.

 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Methodology is one of the most critical aspects of a research study. It determines, to a large extent, the success

of the study and provides the basis for drawing conclusions. This study seeks to assess the impact of the

National Directorate of Employment on Youth Empowerment in Oyo State. In order to achieve this objective,

this chapter outlines and explains the methodology adopted in the study under the following captions: research

design; population and sample size of the study; sampling technique; sources of data; and method of

presentation and data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

This study adopted the survey research design for data collection, using a combination of structured

questionnaires and structured and unstructured interviews. Documentary research as well as observation were

also employed to complement the survey research.

3.3 Population of the Study

The population for the study is 650 (i.e. the population of the beneficiaries of the NOAS, MBSTS and ESDTS

in Oyo State between 2011 and 2014), constituting 310 questionnaire respondents and 10 interviewees. The

questionnaire respondents consist of 208 beneficiaries of the National Open Apprenticeship Scheme (NOAS),

57 beneficiaries of the Micro Business Skills Training Scheme (MBSTS) Scheme and 45 beneficiaries of the

Enterprise Start-up and Development Training Scheme (ESDTS) Scheme. Those interviewed were four NDE

officials and one beneficiary of each of the three schemes in each of Egbeda and Ibadan North Local

Government Areas.

3.4 Sample Size of the Study

The sample size of the study was reached using the Krejcie and Morgan template for determining sample

size of a study, it is very necessary for a clear understanding of the population in question.

Therefore, given the total population to be 100, the researcher adopted the Yamane Yaro formula for finite

population (Yamane, 1973:723). The formula is stated below as follows:

N
n= 2
1+ N (e)

Where

n = the required sample size

N = total population

e = error margin

I = constant

Therefore substituting in the formula

650
n= 2
1+650 (0.05)
 650
n=
1+650 (0.0025)

650
n=
1+1 . 625

650
n=
2 . 625

n = 248

3.4 Sampling Technique

Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were employed in the study. Specifically, the beneficiaries

were identified using the purposive sampling technique while the respondents were selected from amongst the

beneficiaries using the cluster sampling technique. This was in order to ensure fair representation of

beneficiaries.

Questionnaires were administered to 200 randomly selected beneficiaries of NOAS, 55 beneficiaries of the

MBSTS Scheme, and 45 beneficiaries of the ESDTS Scheme.

3.5 Sources of Data

Primary and secondary data were used in the study. The primary sources consist of questionnaires and

interviews. The use of questionnaire was justified on the basis of its reliability, convenience and anonymity.

The questionnaires were structured in closed-ended format for easy tabulation, coding and analysis. The

questionnaires were divided into sections A and B. Section A consists of questions relating to respondents‟

personal data while Section B of the questionnaire addressed questions relating to the research hypotheses. The
closed-ended questionnaires were designed using the Likert question format with multiple choice answers of:

strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree. The choice of the Likert question format

helped to determine how strongly respondents agree or disagree with a particular statement on the subject matter

under study. A total of 310 questionnaires were administered for the purpose of this study.

3.6 Administration of Instrument

310 questionnaires were administered to the sampled respondents in the course of the study as indicated in

table . The questions elicited responses from respondents on the contribution of the National Open

Apprenticeship, Micro Business Skills Training and the Enterprise Start-up and Development Training Schemes

of the NDE to unemployment reduction in Oyo State. The responses of respondents were measured using the

five-point Likert scale of: strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree.

3.8 Method of Data Presentation and Analysis

Data generated from the field were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Data generated

through interviews and secondary sources are analysed using content analysis while data generated from the

administered questionnaires are presented using tables, frequency counts and percentages.

For the purpose of testing the hypotheses, inferential statistical tool of analysis was used to draw inferences

from analysed data for further interpretation. The correlation coefficient was applied to explain the strength of

the relationship between the three NDE Schemes mentioned in the hypotheses of this research and how they

engender unemployment reduction in Oyo State. The Spearman Correlation was used because of the

measurement scale applied in assessing the opinions of respondents regarding their levels of agreement and

disagreement and because the data set is not continuous. The Spearman Correlation was run using the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

The Decision Rule used in hypotheses testing was that a correlation coefficient with value between – 0.1 to –

0.3 or 0.1 to 0.3 denotes weak coefficient between the variables; a correlation coefficient with value between –

0.4 to – 0.5 or 0.4 to 0.5 denotes moderate coefficient between the variables; a correlation coefficient with value

between – 0.6 to – 0.7 or 0.6 to 0.7 denotes high coefficient between the variables; a correlation coefficient with

value between – 0.7 and above denotes very strong coefficient between the variables; a correlation coefficient

with value of – 1 shows that there is perfectly negative correlation between the variables while a correlation

coefficient with value of „1‟ shows that there is perfectly positive correlation between the variables; a

correlation coefficient of „0‟ means that the two variables are not related. Furthermore, if the p-value is lesser

than the 0.05 level of significance, the null hypotheses is rejected; if the p-value is higher than the 0.05 level of

significance, the null hypotheses is accepted.

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