College English / ENGL 1020: Analyzing Short Stories

ENGLISH 1020
[George J. Wilkerson, Ph.D., Instructor]

ANALYZING SHORT STORIES

CHAPTER ONE
The Central Idea

[ God has no need to justify His actions to man. He

who built the universe can destroy it when He
chooses. It is arrogance it is perilously near
blasphemy; for us to say what He may or may not
do. This I could have accepted, hard though it is to
look upon whole worlds and peoples thrown into the
furnace. But there comes a point when even the
deepest faith must falter, and now, as I look at the
calculations lying before me, I know I have reached
that point at last.
        [from The Star, by Arthur C. Clarke]

Literature provides a concentrated, imaginative vision of the world. The type of

literature known as the short story deals with every conceivable subject. An author can
dramatize any aspect of human nature or the human condition: youth, happiness,
marriage, divorce, nonconformity, growing old, dying. The narrative gives life to the
idea, but what an author wants to convey about some aspect of life is what makes the
story significant and meaningful.

WHAT IS A CENTRAL IDEA

A story's central idea (sometimes called the theme) is the implied comment on the
subject of the story. It's what the story reveals about some aspect of existence as
perceived by the author. Many times a story simply asks a question about life (e.g. why
do bad things happen to good people?), rarely does a story provide an answer.

When we have finished reading the story, the attitude we feel toward the subject of the
story is derived from the central idea. It's through that central idea that the story may
give us insight into ourselves and increase our awareness of the part of our world
presented by the story.

Kate Chopin's Desiree's Baby is about hatred and love. The author's comment on those
conflicting human emotions gives the story significance: people who let hatred and
bigotry rather than love guide their lives can invite tragic, self-destructive
consequences. That central idea and the way it is conveyed causes this story to stick in
the reader's mind.

THE CENTRAL IDEA AND THE ELEMENTS OF FICTION

The central idea, or theme, of a story is the motivating force that influences the author's
choices. The writer chooses from a variety of techniques: character, conflict, point of

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College English / ENGL 1020: Analyzing Short Stories

view, setting, and language. An author may not have an articulated central idea in mind
when writing the story; he or she may not be consciously aware of the force behind it,
but the central idea is there nonetheless. It may form during the writing process, or it
may never be precisely conceived. In fact, a critical reader, in the process of analyzing a
story, may develop a clearer sense of the central idea than the author did. That
awareness results from the reader working after the fact with the story as a whole.

Analyzing fiction requires a thorough examination of how the elements of a story

contribute to the whole, how they work together to achieve the central idea, and how
they convey it. Each element influences the central idea and, in turn, is influenced by it.
And each element may communicate the theme, especially when some change occurs as
a result of (or within) one or more of the elements.

The only exception occurs when a particular element is so essential to the central idea
that it dictates the form of one or more of the other elements.

INTERPRETATION
Interpretation is the process of deriving a generalization from specifics. Because our
own experiences can give us a deeper understanding of ourselves, of other people, and
of life in general, we can also gain insights vicariously through literature. In a well-
written story, the central idea grows naturally out of the unique combination of narrative
elements and the idea is inseparable from the narrative that embodies it. The central idea
is an organic part of the story and grows naturally from it.

A literary interpretation makes a general statement about the meaning of a story based
on the specific evidence in it. That generalization is the statement of the story's central
idea or theme; the evidence consists of the specifics of each element (character, conflict,
point of view, setting, and language) as it reflects the central idea.

An essay analyzing a short story always contains an interpretation, a statement that

functions as the thesis. An analysis of a story should always state the interpretation in
the introductory paragraph. Furthermore, the introductory paragraph should include a
brief summary of the plot (what happens in the story) for the benefit of someone who
may not have read it. This summary should include only the events essential to
understanding what the story is about. Subsequent paragraphs, analyzing each of the
story's elements and the relationship between those elements and the central idea,
should include more details and provide support for the interpretation.

During the analysis, some evidence may be found that requires a modification or
revision of the central idea statement. Since a valid generalization must be supported by
all of the available evidence, an accurate statement of the central idea must
accommodate all elements of the story. There should be nothing out of place or
extraneous. The central idea should be consistent with all the evidence.

Consider John Steinbeck's The Chrysanthemums. If Steinbeck had been a scientist

interested in human behavior, he might have conducted experiments, isolating people
and misleading them to see how they respond. Eventually, he might report that nine out
of the ten people who lived in an isolated area for an extended period of time were more
apt to be misled than those who were given opportunities to mix with others. Then he
might have used this evidence to make the general observation that isolation creates
circumstances that make people vulnerable.

Instead, Steinbeck chose the literary method, an approach to the truth that is opposite
that of the scientist. He relied on emotion response and the human tendency to

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College English / ENGL 1020: Analyzing Short Stories

generalize from insufficient evidence. Knowing this, he created a story that seems real.
He created characters for whom we might feel emotions like those we feel toward real
people. Then he simply allows us to make inferences based on the fictitious experience
in the same way we make inferences based on real experiences.

So one way to determine the central idea of a story is to ask, "What is the story
submitting as evidence?" But we must also remember that the main purpose of the story
is to entertain us, and that's all that some stories do. They are simply meant to stir our
emotions, but not to direct the emotional response toward some kind of statement about
humanity. Most mystery stories are meant to arouse curiosity, adventure tales,
excitement, horror stories, fear, and humorous stories, smiles and laughter. And that's
all.

SOURCES FOR CENTRAL IDEAS

The central idea (or theme) of a story should be a general statement of the idea behind
it. There are some central ideas commonly found in many stories. They're common
because great writers deal with universal "truths." These are usually of the following
types.

Psychological
Some stories make a statement about human behavior, our psychological make-
up, and the way our minds work, "what makes us tick." These statements are not
value judgments; the writers usually aren't saying that the behavior we're seeing is
good or bad, right or wrong. They simply tell us that the behavior is part of the
human condition; it's just the way some of us are.

Sociological
The sociological nature of humanity concerns the behavior of humans in groups
(nationalities, small town folk, city dwellers, rural life, those in regions like the
American South or Northern Ireland, etc.) and is the domain of the sociological
central idea. The aim is to point out a truth of groups as opposed to that of
individuals.

Philosophical
Some stories point out the limitations of human perception, like our inability to
distinguish fantasy from reality. (Is it a dream or is it real?) Others deal with the
ultimate questions of existence: Why are we here? Is life worth living? Is there
life after death? Usually, the story simply raises that type of question; it does not
provide an answer.

Moral and Ethical

Some stories deal with moral and ethical issues. Those that take a clear position
on an issue (e.g., abortion is wrong, capital punishment is right) and try to change
the reader's view are called didactic (some might say "preachy.") Like the
philosophical type, other stories simply raise these ethical or moral questions
without proposing an answer: Does the end justify the means? When is it wrong
to tell the truth? What is our duty to one another? Or to our country? Another
way of looking at this matter of central idea, especially in relation to those central
ideas that deal with issues of morality, is to recognize that some stories may have
a persuasive aim. The writer may want the reader to accept a particular view of
the world and/or life as he or she represents it in the story. In such cases,
everything in the story is skewed toward promoting that view.

Escapsim

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College English / ENGL 1020: Analyzing Short Stories

Some writing is aimed solely at provinding the reader with an escape from his or
her everyday life. It's simply meant to be entertaining by generating an emotional
response laughter, sorrow, fear, anger, horror, repulsion, surprise, shock, unease
for its own sake. Many of us enjoy experiencing those responses, and some
stories exist to evoke such emotions. If some kind of meaning is inferred, it may
be that the reader feels the need for it, not that the story was designed for it. (As
children, we are often taught to look for the "moral" of a story, which can be a
hard habit to break.)

A good story always evokes an emotional response. For example, Edgar Allen
Poe's The Cask of Amontillado, is primarily a horror story. The central idea is to
entertain us by generating an emotional reaction: horror. If that's all a story does,
then the central idea of the story is "to entertain," and the only issue should be
what emotion the story arouses. But if, for example, the reader comes away from
a story like Steinbeck's The Chrysanthemums with a feeling of sadness about
Elisa's situation, that feeling goes beyond simple entertainment; it has been
aroused to support the story's theme: how loneliness and isolation often make
people easy prey for exploitation.

IF THE CENTRAL IDEA ISN'T A MORAL, WHAT IS IT?

There's a tendency on the part of many students to try to find a moral in the stories they
read. Learning the difference between a central idea and a moral is critical. A moral
tells us how to live (or not live) and it's often in the form of an "If...then..." statement.
"If you don't think before you act, you'll get into trouble." A central idea, on the other
hand, says "Insensitive people who act without thinking sometimes get into trouble."

What's the difference? First, a moral is absolute. The moral says, "If you don't think
before you act, (then) you will get into trouble, with no exceptions. But the central idea
says "Insensitive people who act before they think sometimes get into trouble." Second,
a moral tells us what to do: don't act without thinking while a central idea tells us
something about "insensitive people who act without thinking."

John Updike, author of A & P, may want us to see adolescence as an impulsive age. He
created Sammy, an adolescent, who seems very real and, perhaps, reminds us of
someone we know. He then lets us in on the way Sammy thinks and acts. He tells the
story in such a way that when we have finished reading it, we don't just say "That
adolescent sure acted foolishly." Instead, we say "Adolescents can be impulsive."

Notice the difference between the form of the word adolescent, which is a specific,
singular statement, and adolescents, which is general and plural. The central idea of A
& P lies in the general statement about adolescence: adolescents are often very
impulsive. Sammy is simply a specific example, a piece of evidence (albeit fictional), to
support the author's case.

SUMMARY AND CENTRAL IDEA

The basic method for introducing the central idea of a story is to use a brief summary, a
single paragraph of about one hundred words or less that tells the reader the major
details: the main characters, the setting, and the major events. This summary includes
only highlights; the details are saved for later.

Keep in mind that we're defining a "standard approach" to the analytical essay. In this
approach the central idea is usually a single sentence and it appears at the end of the
summary paragraph. When stating the central idea, a direct approach leaves no room for
doubt, so a safe way to be sure it's clear is to begin the idea statement this way: "The

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College English / ENGL 1020: Analyzing Short Stories

central idea of this story is that ______,"

SAMPLES
The following passages are examples of introductory paragraphs to analytical papers
written by students.

The Central Idea in A & P

"A & P," by John Updike, is the story of a significant event in the life of Sammy,
a nineteen-year-old grocery store checker. One summer day, three girls dressed in
bathing suits come into the store. Before Sammy can ring up their purchase,
Lengel, the store manager, sees the girls and informs them that their attire is
inappropriate and that they must be decently dressed the next time they come in.
Embarrassed for the girls, and in an attempt to impress them, Sammy tells Lengel
that he is quitting. Lengel, recognizing Sammy's resignation for what it is, gives
him an opportunity to change his mind, but Sammy is determined to follow
through with his gesture even though he realizes "how hard the world was going
to be to me hereafter." Updike suggests that youthfulness and immaturity
contribute to impulsive decisions, and that the consequences of such decisions
contribute to our growth.

The Central Idea in "I Want to Know Why"

"I Want to Know Why", by Sherwood Anderson is story about a young adolescent
who has a passion for race horses , and the dilemma he faces when confronted
with the shocking reality of his role-model horse trainer. The boy, who narrates
the stoory, takes a trip with three friends to Saratoga to see a horse race. Before
the race, the boy spots his fovorite horse, Sunstreak, and Sunstruck's trainer, Jerry
Tilford, whom the boy admires. The night after the race, the boy goes alone to
search for his hero and is enraged to find him in a house full of prostitutes,
leaving the boy to wonder how a man of such valor and beauty could be found
with "bad women." Anderson's story reveals how the actions and morals of role
models have a strong influence on those who admire them. It also touches on the
pain associated with the loss of innocence,

The Central Idea in "Like a Bad Dream"

Heinrich Boll's "Like a Bad Dream" is the story of a dutiful husband striving to
get ahead in the business world. The questionable ethics involved in negotiating a
contract, and the willingness of the participants (including his wife) to support
these practices, is somewhat shocking to the protagonist. When he sees how easily
he becomes a willing participant in the affair, it all seems like a bad dream to
him, leaving the reader and the protagonist wondering if the pursuit of material
gain is worth the agony of compromising one's moral convictions. Boll's theme is
that there is an inherent conflict between moral values and material success.

The Central Idea in "A Worn Path"

"A Worn Path" by Eudora Welty is the story of an aged black woman's difficult
cross-country journey from her rural home to a distant town where she must go to
get her grandson's medicine. In spite of her age and frailty, and because of her
determination and courage, she overcomes physical and human obstacles to
accomplish her task. Welty implies that dignity is its own reward and that, despite
indignities, suffering, and prejudice, the nobility of the human spirit can prevail.

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College English / ENGL 1020: Analyzing Short Stories

The Central Idea in "Miss Brill"

Katherine Mansfield's "Miss Brill" is the story of a shy schoolteacher who spends
her Sundays sitting in a public park imagining herself and others around as actors
in a stage play. A young couple's rude remarks shatter her illusion of belonging to
the group in the park and put an end to her satisfying self-deception. The story
reveals how lonely, shy people can be deeply hurt when their illusions of
"belonging" are shattered and they must face the lonely singularity of their lives.

You may have noticed in these examples that while most of the central idea statements
do not begin with the phrase "The central idea of the story is that..." you had no problem
understanding the student's interpretation. We recommend that you don't deviate from
the "formula" approach. Once you become comfortable with the central idea concept
you can begin to modify the way you state it. Notice in the following how each of these
central ideas could be phrased using the formula approach.

"Updike suggests that youthfulness and immaturity contribute to impulsive

decisions, and that the consequences of such decisions contribute to our growth."

The central idea of this story is that youthfulness and immaturity contribute to
impulsive decisions, and that the consequences of such decisions contribute to our
growth

"Anderson's story reveals how the actions and morals of role models have a
strong influence on those who admire them."

The central idea of this story is that the actions and morals of role models have a
strong influence on those who admire them.

"Boll's theme is that there is an inherent conflict between moral values and
material success.

The central idea of this story is that there is an inherent conflict between moral
values and material success.

"Welty implies that dignity is its own reward and that, despite indignities,
suffering, and prejudice, the nobility of the human spirit can prevail.

The central idea of this story is that dignity is its own reward and that, despite
indignities, suffering, and prejudice, the nobility of the human spirit can prevail.

"The story reveals how lonely, shy people can be deeply hurt when their illusions
of belonging are shattered and they must face the lonely singularity of their lives.

The central idea of this story is that lonely, shy people can be deeply hurt when
their illusions of "belonging" are shattered and they must face the lonely
singularity of their lives.

COMMON INTERPRETATION PITFALLS

Whether you read for pleasure or as part of an assignment, you should remain aware of
the guiding principles of interpretation. The goal is to identify the central idea and
explain how you determined it without falling into traps like believing there's only one
correct interpretation, or rejecting an obvious interpretation because it conflicts with
your own values. Interpretations differ from one reader to the next, some central ideas
are complex and some may conflict with your own view of the world. Those are some

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College English / ENGL 1020: Analyzing Short Stories

of the pitfalls you must face.

Differing Interpretations
Because everyone's experiences are unique, no two readers respond to and interpret a
story in exactly the same way. Likewise, there is no one way to express the central idea
of a story. There is only a range of ideas. The best stories have multiple levels of
meaning, so they are open to various interpretations. Serious readers know that most
stories require more than one reading before the central idea becomes clear.

Complex Ideas
Sometimes you may feel the central idea, but you're unable to explain it. Don't give up;
analysis involves finding the words to express the felt meaning of a story. In other
cases, the central idea may be too complex to reduce to a single-sentence statement, so
you may need to use the entire analysis to elaborate and clarify your interpretation.

Ideas That Conflict with Your Own

You can't ignore or deny the theme of a story merely because you don't agree with it.
And you can't bend the story to fit your own perspective. A story is the expression of an
author's vision or experience. While that vision or experience may differ from yours, it
cannot be ignored. After all, a major function of literature is to entertain, and one way
an author may entertain us is to challenge our way of looking at life, at other people, or
even at ourselves.

Finding Meaning Beyond the Story

Because a story's theme is a generalization about people and life, you must not limit
your interpretation to the specific characters and situations of the story. They represent
something larger. Because a story's theme is rarely explicit, you must probe beneath the
surface to discover what the story has to reveal. To interpret a story correctly, focus on
what the action means, rather than on the action itself.

All material on this and subsequent pages

is the property of George J. Wilkerson ©. Unless otherwise specified, you may not
reproduce the contents in any form without permission.

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