Sound

In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as an acoustic wave through a transmission

medium such as a gas, liquid or solid. In human physiology and psychology, sound is the reception
of such waves and their perception by the brain.[1] Only acoustic waves that have frequencies lying
between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz, the audio frequency range, elicit an auditory percept in humans. In
air at atmospheric pressure, these represent sound waves with wavelengths of 17 meters (56 ft) to
1.7 centimeters (0.67 in). Sound waves above 20 kHz are known as ultrasound and are not audible
to humans. Sound waves below 20 Hz are known as infrasound. Different animal species have
varying hearing ranges.

A drum produces sound via a vibrating membrane.

Drum - Cadence A
Definition
1:33

Drum cadences performed by the

Sound is defined as "(a) Oscillation in pressure, United States Navy Band
stress, particle displacement, particle velocity, etc.,
propagated in a medium with internal forces (e.g., Problems playing this file? See media help.

elastic or viscous), or the superposition of such propagated oscillation. (b) Auditory sensation
evoked by the oscillation described in (a)."[2] Sound can be viewed as a wave motion in air or other
elastic media. In this case, sound is a stimulus. Sound can also be viewed as an excitation of the
hearing mechanism that results in the perception of sound. In this case, sound is a sensation.

Acoustics

Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gasses,
liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound, and infrasound. A scientist who works in
the field of acoustics is an acoustician, while someone working in the field of acoustical engineering
may be called an acoustical engineer.[3] An audio engineer, on the other hand, is concerned with the
recording, manipulation, mixing, and reproduction of sound.

Applications of acoustics are found in almost all aspects of modern society, subdisciplines include
aeroacoustics, audio signal processing, architectural acoustics, bioacoustics, electro-acoustics,
environmental noise, musical acoustics, noise control, psychoacoustics, speech, ultrasound,
underwater acoustics, and vibration.[4]

Physics

Experiment using two tuning forks oscillating

usually at the same frequency. One fork is hit
with a rubberized mallet, causing the second
fork to become visibly excited due to the
oscillation caused by the periodic change in
the pressure and density of the air. This is an
acoustic resonance. When an additional
piece of metal is attached to a prong, the
effect becomes less pronounced as
resonance is not achieved as effectively.

Sound can propagate through a medium such as air, water and solids as longitudinal waves and
also as a transverse wave in solids. The sound waves are generated by a sound source, such as the
vibrating diaphragm of a stereo speaker. The sound source creates vibrations in the surrounding
medium. As the source continues to vibrate the medium, the vibrations propagate away from the
source at the speed of sound, thus forming the sound wave. At a fixed distance from the source, the
pressure, velocity, and displacement of the medium vary in time. At an instant in time, the pressure,
velocity, and displacement vary in space. The particles of the medium do not travel with the sound
wave. This is intuitively obvious for a solid, and the same is true for liquids and gases (that is, the
vibrations of particles in the gas or liquid transport the vibrations, while the average position of the
particles over time does not change). During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or
attenuated by the medium.[5]

The behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three things:

A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This relationship,
affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium.

Motion of the medium itself. If the medium is moving, this movement may increase or decrease
the absolute speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the movement. For example,
sound moving through wind will have its speed of propagation increased by the speed of the wind
if the sound and wind are moving in the same direction. If the sound and wind are moving in
opposite directions, the speed of the sound wave will be decreased by the speed of the wind.

The viscosity of the medium. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is attenuated.
For many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible.

When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical properties, it may be
refracted (either dispersed or focused).[5]

Spherical compression (longitudinal)

waves

The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter:
gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium.
Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.[6][7]

Studies has shown that sound waves are able to carry a tiny amount of mass and is surrounded by a
weak gravitational field.[8]
Waves

Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called
compression waves. It requires a medium to propagate. Through solids, however, it can be
transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves
of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of
compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear
stress at right angle to the direction of propagation.

Sound waves may be viewed using parabolic mirrors and objects that produce sound.[9]

The energy carried by an oscillating sound wave converts back and forth between the potential
energy of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in
case of transverse waves) of the matter, and the kinetic energy of the displacement velocity of
particles of the medium.

Longitudinal plane wave Transverse plane wave

Longitudinal and transverse plane wave

A 'pressure over time' graph of a 20

ms recording of a clarinet tone
demonstrates the two fundamental
elements of sound: Pressure and
Time.
 Sounds can be represented as a
mixture of their component
Sinusoidal waves of different
frequencies. The bottom waves have
higher frequencies than those above.
The horizontal axis represents time.

Although there are many complexities relating to the transmission of sounds, at the point of
reception (i.e. the ears), sound is readily dividable into two simple elements: pressure and time.
These fundamental elements form the basis of all sound waves. They can be used to describe, in
absolute terms, every sound we hear.

In order to understand the sound more fully, a complex wave such as the one shown in a blue
background on the right of this text, is usually separated into its component parts, which are a
combination of various sound wave frequencies (and noise).[10][11][12]

Sound waves are often simplified to a description in terms of sinusoidal plane waves, which are
characterized by these generic properties:

Frequency, or its inverse, wavelength

Amplitude, sound pressure or Intensity

Speed of sound

Direction

Sound that is perceptible by humans has frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. In air at
standard temperature and pressure, the corresponding wavelengths of sound waves range from
17 m (56 ft) to 17 mm (0.67 in). Sometimes speed and direction are combined as a velocity vector;
wave number and direction are combined as a wave vector.

Transverse waves, also known as shear waves, have the additional property, polarization, which is
not a characteristic of longitudinal sound waves.[13]
Speed

U.S. Navy F/A-18 approaching the

speed of sound. The white halo is
formed by condensed water droplets
thought to result from a drop in air
pressure around the aircraft (see
Prandtl–Glauert singularity).[14]

The speed of sound depends on the medium the waves pass through, and is a fundamental
property of the material. The first significant effort towards measurement of the speed of sound
was made by Isaac Newton. He believed the speed of sound in a particular substance was equal to
the square root of the pressure acting on it divided by its density:

This was later proven wrong and the French mathematician Laplace corrected the formula by
deducing that the phenomenon of sound travelling is not isothermal, as believed by Newton, but

adiabatic. He added another factor to the equation—gamma—and multiplied by , thus

coming up with the equation . Since , the final equation came up to be

, which is also known as the Newton–Laplace equation. In this equation, K is the elastic

bulk modulus, c is the velocity of sound, and is the density. Thus, the speed of sound is
proportional to the square root of the ratio of the bulk modulus of the medium to its density.

Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient conditions. For example,
the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In 20 °C (68 °F) air at sea level, the speed of
sound is approximately 343 m/s (1,230 km/h; 767 mph) using the formula v [m/s] = 331 + 0.6 T [°C].
The speed of sound is also slightly sensitive, being subject to a second-order anharmonic effect, to
the sound amplitude, which means there are non-linear propagation effects, such as the production
of harmonics and mixed tones not present in the original sound (see parametric array). If relativistic
effects are important, the speed of sound is calculated from the relativistic Euler equations.
In fresh water the speed of sound is approximately 1,482 m/s (5,335 km/h; 3,315 mph). In steel, the
speed of sound is about 5,960 m/s (21,460 km/h; 13,330 mph). Sound moves the fastest in solid
atomic hydrogen at about 36,000 m/s (129,600 km/h; 80,530 mph).[15][16]

Sound pressure level

Sound pressure is the difference, in a given medium, between Sound measurements

average local pressure and the pressure in the sound wave. A
square of this difference (i.e., a square of the deviation from Characteristic Symbols

the equilibrium pressure) is usually averaged over time and/or

Sound p, SPL, LPA
space, and a square root of this average provides a root mean pressure
square (RMS) value. For example, 1 Pa RMS sound pressure
(94 dBSPL) in atmospheric air implies that the actual pressure Particle v, SVL
velocity
in the sound wave oscillates between (1 atm Pa) and (1
atm Pa), that is between 101323.6 and 101326.4 Pa. As Particle δ
the human ear can detect sounds with a wide range of displacement

amplitudes, sound pressure is often measured as a level on a

Sound I, SIL
logarithmic decibel scale. The sound pressure level (SPL) or Lp intensity
is defined as
Sound power P, SWL, LWA

Sound W
energy
where p is the root-mean-square sound pressure and is
a reference sound pressure. Commonly used reference Sound w
energy density
sound pressures, defined in the standard ANSI S1.1-1994,
are 20 μPa in air and 1 μPa in water. Without a specified Sound E, SEL
reference sound pressure, a value expressed in decibels exposure
cannot represent a sound pressure level.
Acoustic Z
Since the human ear does not have a flat spectral response, impedance
sound pressures are often frequency weighted so that the
Audio AF
measured level matches perceived levels more closely. The
frequency
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has defined
several weighting schemes. A-weighting attempts to match Transmission TL
the response of the human ear to noise and A-weighted sound loss

pressure levels are labeled dBA. C-weighting is used to

measure peak levels.
Perception

A distinct use of the term sound from its use in physics is that in physiology and psychology, where
the term refers to the subject of perception by the brain. The field of psychoacoustics is dedicated to
such studies. Webster's dictionary defined sound as: "1. The sensation of hearing, that which is
heard; specif.: a. Psychophysics. Sensation due to stimulation of the auditory nerves and auditory
centers of the brain, usually by vibrations transmitted in a material medium, commonly air, affecting
the organ of hearing. b. Physics. Vibrational energy which occasions such a sensation. Sound is
propagated by progressive longitudinal vibratory disturbances (sound waves)."[17] This means that
the correct response to the question: "if a tree falls in a forest and no one is around to hear it, does it
make a sound?" is "yes", and "no", dependent on whether being answered using the physical, or the
psychophysical definition, respectively.

The physical reception of sound in any hearing organism is limited to a range of frequencies.
Humans normally hear sound frequencies between approximately 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz
(20 kHz),[18]: 382 The upper limit decreases with age.[18]: 249 Sometimes sound refers to only those
vibrations with frequencies that are within the hearing range for humans[19] or sometimes it relates
to a particular animal. Other species have different ranges of hearing. For example, dogs can
perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz.

As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting
danger, navigation, predation, and communication. Earth's atmosphere, water, and virtually any
physical phenomenon, such as fire, rain, wind, surf, or earthquake, produces (and is characterized
by) its unique sounds. Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have
also developed special organs to produce sound. In some species, these produce song and speech.
Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such as music, telephone and radio)
that allows them to generate, record, transmit, and broadcast sound.

Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an
undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal. However, in sound perception it can often be
used to identify the source of a sound and is an important component of timbre perception (see
below).

Soundscape is the component of the acoustic environment that can be perceived by humans. The
acoustic environment is the combination of all sounds (whether audible to humans or not) within a
given area as modified by the environment and understood by people, in context of the surrounding
environment.
There are, historically, six experimentally separable ways in which sound waves are analysed. They
are: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location.[20] Some of these terms
have a standardised definition (for instance in the ANSI Acoustical Terminology ANSI/ASA S1.1-
2013). More recent approaches have also considered temporal envelope and temporal fine structure
as perceptually relevant analyses.[21][22][23]

Pitch

Pitch perception. During the listening

process, each sound is analysed for a
repeating pattern (orange arrows) and
the results forwarded to the auditory
cortex as a single pitch of a certain
height (octave) and chroma (note
name).

Pitch is perceived as how "low" or "high" a sound is and represents the cyclic, repetitive nature of the
vibrations that make up sound. For simple sounds, pitch relates to the frequency of the slowest
vibration in the sound (called the fundamental harmonic). In the case of complex sounds, pitch
perception can vary. Sometimes individuals identify different pitches for the same sound, based on
their personal experience of particular sound patterns. Selection of a particular pitch is determined
by pre-conscious examination of vibrations, including their frequencies and the balance between
them. Specific attention is given to recognising potential harmonics.[24][25] Every sound is placed on
a pitch continuum from low to high.

For example: white noise (random noise spread evenly across all frequencies) sounds higher in
pitch than pink noise (random noise spread evenly across octaves) as white noise has more high
frequency content.
Duration

Duration perception. When a new

sound is noticed (Green arrows), a
sound onset message is sent to the
auditory cortex. When the repeating
pattern is missed, a sound offset
messages is sent.

Duration is perceived as how "long" or "short" a sound is and relates to onset and offset signals
created by nerve responses to sounds. The duration of a sound usually lasts from the time the
sound is first noticed until the sound is identified as having changed or ceased.[26] Sometimes this
is not directly related to the physical duration of a sound. For example; in a noisy environment,
gapped sounds (sounds that stop and start) can sound as if they are continuous because the offset
messages are missed owing to disruptions from noises in the same general bandwidth.[27] This can
be of great benefit in understanding distorted messages such as radio signals that suffer from
interference, as (owing to this effect) the message is heard as if it was continuous.

Loudness

Loudness information is summed

over a period of about 200 ms before
being sent to the auditory cortex.
Louder signals create a greater 'push'
on the Basilar membrane and thus
stimulate more nerves, creating a
stronger loudness signal. A more
complex signal also creates more
nerve firings and so sounds louder
(for the same wave amplitude) than a
simpler sound, such as a sine wave.
Loudness is perceived as how "loud" or "soft" a sound is and relates to the totalled number of
auditory nerve stimulations over short cyclic time periods, most likely over the duration of theta
wave cycles.[28][29][30] This means that at short durations, a very short sound can sound softer than a
longer sound even though they are presented at the same intensity level. Past around 200 ms this is
no longer the case and the duration of the sound no longer affects the apparent loudness of the
sound.

Timbre

Timbre perception, showing how a

sound changes over time. Despite a
similar waveform, differences over
time are evident.

Timbre is perceived as the quality of different sounds (e.g. the thud of a fallen rock, the whir of a
drill, the tone of a musical instrument or the quality of a voice) and represents the pre-conscious
allocation of a sonic identity to a sound (e.g. "it's an oboe!"). This identity is based on information
gained from frequency transients, noisiness, unsteadiness, perceived pitch and the spread and
intensity of overtones in the sound over an extended time frame.[10][11][12] The way a sound changes
over time provides most of the information for timbre identification. Even though a small section of
the wave form from each instrument looks very similar, differences in changes over time between
the clarinet and the piano are evident in both loudness and harmonic content. Less noticeable are
the different noises heard, such as air hisses for the clarinet and hammer strikes for the piano.

Texture

Sonic texture relates to the number of sound sources and the interaction between them.[31][32] The
word texture, in this context, relates to the cognitive separation of auditory objects.[33] In music,
texture is often referred to as the difference between unison, polyphony and homophony, but it can
also relate (for example) to a busy cafe; a sound which might be referred to as cacophony.
Spatial location

Spatial location represents the cognitive placement of a sound in an environmental context;

including the placement of a sound on both the horizontal and vertical plane, the distance from the
sound source and the characteristics of the sonic environment.[33][34] In a thick texture, it is possible
to identify multiple sound sources using a combination of spatial location and timbre identification.

Frequency

Ultrasound

Approximate frequency ranges corresponding to

ultrasound, with rough guide of some applications

Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. Ultrasound is not different from
audible sound in its physical properties, but cannot be heard by humans. Ultrasound devices
operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertz.

Medical ultrasound is commonly used for diagnostics and treatment.

Infrasound

Infrasound is sound waves with frequencies lower than 20 Hz. Although sounds of such low
frequency are too low for humans to hear as a pitch, these sound are heard as discrete pulses (like
the 'popping' sound of an idling motorcycle). Whales, elephants and other animals can detect
infrasound and use it to communicate. It can be used to detect volcanic eruptions and is used in
some types of music.[35]

See also

Sound sources Sound box

Earphones Sound reproduction

Musical instrument Sound measurement

Acoustic impedance
Sonar
 Acoustic velocity Hz - unit of frequency
General
Characteristic impedance
Acoustic theory
Mel scale
Beat
Particle acceleration
Doppler effect
Particle amplitude
Echo
Particle displacement
Infrasound — sound at extremely low
Particle velocity
frequencies
Sound energy flux
List of unexplained sounds
Sound impedance
Musical tone
Sound intensity level
Resonance
Sound power
Reverberation
Sound power level
Sonic weaponry
Units
Sound synthesis
dB, decibel
Soundproofing
sone - perceived loudness
Structural acoustics
phon - subjective loudness

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External links

Eric Mack (20 May 2019). "Stanford scientists created a Library resources about
sound so loud it instantly boils water" (https://www.cnet.com/ Sound

news/stanford-scientists-created-a-sound-so-loud-it-instantly- Resources in your library (https://

boils-water/) . CNET. ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp
&su=Sound)
Sounds Amazing; a KS3/4 learning resource for sound and
waves (uses Flash) (http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/schools/index1.htm) Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20120313122023/http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/schools/index1.ht
m) 2012-03-13 at the Wayback Machine

HyperPhysics: Sound and Hearing (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/soucon.ht

ml)

Introduction to the Physics of Sound (http://podcomplex.com/guide/physics.html)

Hearing curves and on-line hearing test (http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/hearing.html)

Audio for the 21st Century (http://www.audiodesignline.com/howto/audioprocessing/19330324

1) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090123120804/http://www.audiodesignline.com/h
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Conversion of sound units and levels (http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-soundlevel.ht

m)

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Audio Check: a free collection of audio tests and test tones playable on-line (http://www.audioche
ck.net)

More Sounds Amazing; a sixth-form learning resource about sound waves (http://salfordacoustic
s.co.uk/sound-waves)