Lecture 1: Integration & Miniaturization

EECS 170A/LA

Electronic 1
 Diffusion Current

Carrier t0
concentrations

t1
t2

Distance

• Particles diffuse from a higher-concentration location to a lower-concentration

location.
• Electrons and holes are created in pairs
• Piece of Si remains neutral
• No drift component to the transport
 Diffusion: Quantitative Picture

Consider a linear one-dimensional electrons/holes distribution

Concentration, n (cm-3) Flux

!"
A #$%&'()(
!*
B

x0 Position, x (cm)

• Divide up the profile in slabs of carriers such as A and B

• The electrons/holes in all slabs will spread

v Flux ( #carriers/cm2.s ): number of careers flowing through a unit area per unit time.

Ø The flux of electrons/holes to the right is proportional to the concentration gradient:

!" !%
F = - Dn,p (Or )
D: Diffusion coefficient or Diffusivity, !$ !$
a material dependent parameter!
 Diffusion Current Density

Current density
• Current density is given by the flux times the charge: J = qF

!" !%
We also know: F = - Dn,p !$ (Or !$
)
+

p(cm-3)
F
!"
<! JP
Holes: "! !#
# ! = $%Jp== !
-qD
$&p!
"D Distance

n(cm-3)
"! F
# ! = !$%
Electrons: Jn==qD
$&n! !"
"D <! Jn
!#
Distance

!# !#
& # !!D(()*D+# = $%# & & # !!D(()*D+, = !$% #
!" !"
Total Current – All Four Current Components

JTOTAL = Jn + Jp

!#
Jn = Jn,drift + Jn,diffusion = qnµnE + $%#
!"

!#
Jp = Jp,drift + Jp,diffusion = qpµpE – $% #
!"
 A few very important equations to remember again (we used them
before)
Divergence of the electric field
1. Gauss's law & Poisson’s equations
r : the volume charge density= p - n "! "! "! !
+ ND -NA # $" = + + = Gauss's law
"# "$ "% " ! " !
E: electric filed

dE ρ q
= = ( p − n + ND − N A)
dx K sε o K sε o

(energy) dV
since, E = −
2. dx
E E − Ei
V =− = F = potential
q q
d 2V q
2
= (n − p + N A − N D ) Poisson’s Equation
dx K sε o
*Negative sign is multiplied
 Relation Between the Energy Diagram and V, E
• What happens to EF when a voltage (V) is applied ?
dV
• Fields and forces picture e =-
I dx
n-type V= 0 e- h+ +
n-type

• Energy band picture (Completely equivalent)

Electrons
Ekinetic

E=
Energy electrons Energy electrons

x Holes
x
• And we know the electric filed is equal to the voltage drop across the length of x , this
equation:
dV dV
e =and
-
• Fields dxforces picture e =: electric
- field
h+ E EF − Ei I E: energydx
V +=V−
We also
n-type know:
n-type q
=
q
= potential
e- V: voltage h+
n-type +V
 #$%&'

Relation Between the Energy Diagram and V, E

E
Note: The conduction (or valance) band edge Ec (or Ev) will lower in energy near the positively
! "
charged side (anode) and rise near the negatively charged side (cathode)()

+V>
0.7eV 0 #####*-+

&*!+
I
x +V
+
h+ N-
N type Si e- –
$%&'

dV #!
e =- $
I dx *.+
e- h+ E EF − Ei
n-type +V V =− = = potential
!Eq q
#, "#*!+
Ø E
c and EElectrons
uivalent)
v vary in the opposite direction from dV "$*!+
• Fields
the and forces
voltage. Ekinetic picture Ee = - E c (x)
Ø That is, Ec and Ev are higher where the voltage I dx -

is lower. n-type
E = qV e- h+ E f *(x)
+
Energy electrons n-type +"V
%!

$%&'
dV !& % !#E % !#' #! E v (x)
- ! band =
eE(x)=
•=Energy =
picture (Completely
Holes
equivalent)
dx !"x $ !" $ !" !
Electrons
+ #
###*/+
0.7V
E= qV
h+ +V x
Ekinetic
n-type
E = qV
 !%3#4

Einstein Relationship !between

$ D and µ
!"3#4
Consider a piece of non-uniformly doped semiconductor.

! & %' ! % E $ # !"

!!!!!"#$%&'!(')*+,-./+$,0
!!!!!"#$%&D!(D)*+,"-.+$,/ + = * ')
!E ' ) !, #) ! # - + * %& !#)
0D+/D1(*"2!-,",/!+,"+D"$/1$*," =! $
!" %& !"
Ec(x) & !#'
=!
$% !"
Ef
n
=- qℰ
Ev(x)
kT
 Einstein Relationship between D and µ

dn n
From the previous page: =- qℰ
dx kT

dn = at equilibrium.
J n = qnµ nℰ + qDn 0
dx
qDn
=
0 qnµ nℰ qn - ℰ
kT
#$ kT
%! = µ! Similarly, Dp = µp
" q
These are known as the Einstein relationship.
 Electron-Hole Recombination: important points:
• The equilibrium carrier concentrations are denoted with n0 and p0.
• The total electron and hole concentrations can be different from n0 and p0 .
• The differences are called the excess carrier concentrations n’ and p’.

- Ec

hυ ! ! !" + !!
! ! !" + ! !
Ev

+
*** Charge Neutrality ***
• Charge neutrality is satisfied at equilibrium (n’= p’= 0).
• When a non-zero n’ is present, an equal p’ may be assumed to be present to
maintain charge equality and vice-versa.
• If charge neutrality is not satisfied, the net charge will attract or repel the
(majority) carriers through the drift current until neutrality is restored.

#! = "!
 Recombination Lifetime

Rate of recombination (s-1cm-3)

• Assume light generates n’ and p’. If the light is
suddenly turned off, n’ and p’ decay with time until they
become zero. - Ec

• The process of decay is called recombination. hυ

• The time constant of decay is the recombination Ev

time or carrier lifetime, t (t ranges from 1ns to 1ms +
in Si ).

• Recombination is nature’s way of restoring equilibrium

(n’= p’= 0).

"!" !"
=# !$! $! #! !#!
"# ! =" =" =
!" # # !"
"! = !!
 Quasi-equilibrium and Quasi-Fermi Levels
• Whenever n’ = p’ ¹ 0, np ¹ ni2. We would like to preserve and use the
simple relations: ! # #$ ! # % " ! !"
E = '$&
! # # % ! #$ " ! !"
E = '$&

• But these equations lead to np = ni2 !!! XXX

• The solution is to introduce two quasi-Fermi levels: Efn and Efp such that
! # #$ ! # %& " ! !"
& = E$' EC
FN EF
Quasi Fermi Levels Ei
! # # %& ! #$ " ! !" FP
& = E$'
EV
• Electrons and holes will not be in thermal equilibrium with each other
• Electrons and holes, each described by its own Fermi level, termed "quasi-Fermi
levels.
• Each type of carrier (electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band)
behaves as if it were in thermal equilibrium within its own band.
• Each type of carrier can be described by a separate Fermi level – one quasi-Fermi
level for electrons (Efn) and one for holes (Efp).
 Quasi-Fermi Levels & Low Level Injection Condition:
• As said earlier, under the disturbance, the generation of excess carriers will alter the Fermi
level for both carriers!
• In practice we have the low-level injection condition which states that variance on majority
carrier concentration is negligible.
• n’ and p’ are much less than the majority carrier concentration. This condition is called
low-level injection.
• Fluctuation will alter the Fermi level for minority carriers!
E.g: Adding 1011 excess carriers to an n type semiconductor with ND = 1016cm-3 will have negligible impact on electron
density (1016+1011~1016) but it will have a deep impact on hole density (104+1011~1011).

𝑛 ≅ 𝑛! in a n−type semiconductor
! Low level injection condition
p ≅ p! in a p−type semiconductor

• We are “not” at thermal equilibrium anymore, and we can NOT expect n.p=ni2 equality,
as we mentioned before, we define Quasi Fermi Levels (Efn = FN & Efp = FP).

EC
FN EF
Quasi Fermi Levels Ei
FP
EV
 Quasi-Fermi Levels Quantitative Analysis
• The quasi Fermi levels for non-equilibrium condition can be calculated in a way we did
for equilibrium condition.
• For equilibrium condition we already know that:
(" )(! 𝑛&
𝑛& = 𝑛' 𝑒 *+ ⇒ 𝐸, − 𝐸' = 𝑘𝑇 ⋅ ln( )
𝑛'
(! )(" 𝑝&
𝑝& = 𝑛' 𝑒 *+ ⇒ 𝐸' − 𝐸, = 𝑘𝑇 ⋅ ln( )
𝑛'
ü We can use the same formulation to calculate quasi Fermi levels as:

𝑛
𝐹! − 𝐸" = 𝑘𝑇 ⋅ ln( ) where n=n# + Δ𝑛
𝑛"
𝑝
𝐸" − 𝐹$ = 𝑘𝑇 ⋅ ln( ) where p=p# + Δ𝑝
𝑛"
EC
FN EF
Quasi Fermi Levels Ei
FP
EV