BCAI-302: Computer Networks

Unit 2
Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical devices that
allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another.

For example

1) NIC
2) Repeater 2) Hub 3) Bridge 4) Switch 5) Routers 6 ) Gateway 7) Brouter

NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to the
network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique id that is written on the chip,
and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an interface between the computer and
the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which means that it works on both the physical and data
link layers of the network model.

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a crucial component in computer networking, acting as the interface
between a computer and a network. Here’s an overview of its functions and how to install one:

Functions of a NIC:

1. Data Transmission and Reception:

o NICs manage the transmission and reception of data packets over the network. They
convert data from the computer into a format suitable for transmission over the network
and vice versa.

2. Physical Connection to the Network:

o A NIC provides the physical connection to the network, often through an Ethernet cable
or wireless connection. It enables the device to connect to local area networks (LAN) or
the internet.

3. MAC Address Management:

 o Each NIC has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address, which is used to identify the
device on the network. This address plays a crucial role in ensuring that data packets are
delivered to the correct device.

4. Error Detection and Handling:

o NICs include mechanisms to detect errors in the transmitted data and, in some cases, can
request retransmission of corrupted data packets.

5. Data Buffering:

o NICs buffer incoming data packets before passing them to the computer, ensuring efficient
data handling and reducing data loss.

6. Data Encoding and Decoding:

o NICs encode data into signals suitable for the network medium (e.g., electrical signals for
Ethernet) and decode incoming signals into data the computer can process.

Installing a NIC:

1. Internal NIC Installation (for desktop computers):

1. Power Off the Computer: Ensure the computer is turned off and unplugged from the
power source.

2. Open the Computer Case: Carefully remove the case cover to access the motherboard.

3. Locate the PCI/PCIe Slot: Find an available PCI or PCIe slot on the motherboard,
depending on the type of NIC you have.

4. Insert the NIC: Gently insert the NIC into the slot, ensuring it is firmly seated.

5. Secure the NIC: Use a screw to secure the NIC to the case if necessary.

6. Close the Case and Power On: Replace the case cover, plug in the power, and turn on the
computer.

7. Install Drivers: Once the computer boots, the operating system may automatically detect
the NIC. If not, install the necessary drivers from the manufacturer's website or the
provided CD.

2. External NIC Installation (for laptops or additional network connections):

1. Connect the NIC: Plug the external NIC into an available USB port.

2. Install Drivers: The operating system may automatically recognize the device and install
drivers. If not, you may need to install drivers manually.

3. Configure Network Settings: Once the NIC is installed, you may need to configure network
settings based on your network's requirements.
After installing the NIC, ensure it is functioning correctly by checking the network connections and
verifying that the device is recognized in the operating system’s network settings.

Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter
data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts
connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for
data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub

• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the
signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are
used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.

• Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the active
hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be
used to extend the distance between nodes.

• Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities. They
also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets
that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch
divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.

Types of Switch

1. Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not offer
advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as an expansion
to a larger network.

2. Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as VLANs, QoS, and
link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks and allow for centralized
management.

3. Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are typically easier
to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.

4. Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and are
responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.

5. Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can route
data between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2 switches and are
often used in larger, more complex networks.

6. PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows them to supply
power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.

7. Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster than
traditional Ethernet speeds.

8. Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack and are
suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.

9. Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small office
environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.

10. Modular switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for easy expansion or
customization. They are suitable for large networks and data centers.

Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router
is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically
updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides
the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus
making it a 2 port device.

Types of Bridges

• Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of
the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.

• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source station
and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a special
frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all possible
paths to the destination.

Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work
upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can
operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switches or routers.
 Brouter – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge and
router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is capable of
routing packets across networks and working as the bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network
traffic.

Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to amplifies (i.e., regenerates) the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which
the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by
bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-
port device.

CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit):

• CSU/DSU is a hardware device used in telecommunications to connect a digital circuit (like a T1
line) to a router or other network device.

• CSU (Channel Service Unit): It provides signal timing and line conditioning for the digital circuit,
ensuring the signal is suitable for transmission over the telecommunications network.
 • DSU (Data Service Unit): It handles the data framing and synchronization between the network
and the connected device.

• Together, the CSU/DSU converts the digital data from a router into a format suitable for
transmission over the digital circuit, and vice versa.

Modem (Modulator-Demodulator):
• A Modem is a device that modulates digital data from a computer or network into analog signals
for transmission over analog communication lines, such as telephone lines. It also demodulates
incoming analog signals back into digital data.

• Functionality: Modems are typically used for connecting to the internet over traditional phone
lines (dial-up) or for broadband connections like DSL (Digital Subscriber Line).

• Types:

o Dial-up Modems: Convert digital data into sound frequencies for transmission over phone
lines.

o DSL Modems: Use higher frequencies to transmit data over phone lines without
interfering with voice communication.

Ethernet Standards
 • Ethernet is a widely used networking technology for local area networks (LANs). It defines how
data is transmitted over a network, including aspects like speed, cabling, and signaling.

• Common Ethernet Standards:

o 10BASE-T: Operates at 10 Mbps over twisted-pair copper cables.

o 100BASE-TX (Fast Ethernet): Operates at 100 Mbps over twisted-pair copper cables.

o 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet): Operates at 1 Gbps over twisted-pair copper cables.

o 10GBASE-T: Operates at 10 Gbps over twisted-pair copper cables.

o 100GBASE-T: Operates at 100 Gbps, typically used in data centers.

Ethernet Components:

• Network Interface Card (NIC): The hardware component that connects a computer to an Ethernet
network.

• Ethernet Cable: Twisted-pair copper or fiber optic cables used to physically connect devices on
the network.

o Cat5e, Cat6, Cat6a, Cat7: Different categories of twisted-pair cables supporting various
speeds and distances.

• Switch: A device that connects multiple devices on a LAN and uses MAC addresses to forward data
to the correct device.

• Router: Routes data between different networks and manages traffic between them.

• Hub: An older device that broadcasts data to all devices in a network segment .

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):

• ARP is a network protocol used to map an IP address to a physical MAC address in a local area
network (LAN). It enables devices on the same network to communicate with each other.

• Functionality: When a device wants to communicate with another device on the same network,
it uses ARP to find the MAC address associated with the IP address of the target device.

ARP Message Format:

• An ARP message typically contains the following fields:

o Hardware Type: Specifies the type of hardware used (e.g., Ethernet).

o Protocol Type: Specifies the protocol for which the ARP request is intended (e.g., IPv4).

o Hardware Address Length: The length of the hardware address (e.g., 6 bytes for MAC
addresses).
 o Protocol Address Length: The length of the protocol address (e.g., 4 bytes for IPv4
addresses).

o Operation: Indicates whether the message is a request (1) or a reply (2).

o Sender Hardware Address: The MAC address of the device sending the ARP message.

o Sender Protocol Address: The IP address of the device sending the ARP message.

o Target Hardware Address: The MAC address of the target device (set to zero in requests).

o Target Protocol Address: The IP address of the target device.

ARP Transactions:

• ARP Request: A broadcast message sent by a device to all devices on the network, asking for the
MAC address associated with a specific IP address.

• ARP Reply: A unicast message sent by the target device to the requesting device, providing its
MAC address.

Benefits of Wireless Technology:

• Mobility: Wireless technology allows users to move freely within the coverage area while staying
connected.

• Cost-Effective: Reduces the need for physical cabling, which can be expensive to install and
maintain.

• Scalability: Easy to add or remove devices from the network without significant changes to
infrastructure.

• Flexibility: Supports a variety of devices, including smartphones, laptops, tablets, and IoT devices.

• Remote Access: Enables users to access the network from remote locations, facilitating remote
work and connectivity.

Types of Wireless Networks:

• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): Connects devices within a limited area, such as a home,
office, or campus, using Wi-Fi technology.

• Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN): Connects devices within a very short range, such as
Bluetooth connections between a smartphone and a headset.

• Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN): Covers a larger area, such as a city or campus,
often using WiMAX technology.

• Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN): Provides wireless coverage over large geographical areas,
typically using cellular technologies like 4G, 5G, or LTE.

Wireless Network Components:

 • Access Point (AP): A device that connects wireless devices to a wired network, providing Wi-Fi
coverage within a specific area.

• Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC): A hardware component that allows devices to connect
to a wireless network.

• Router: Directs data traffic between different networks and manages IP addressing in a wireless
network.

• Antenna: Enhances the range and strength of wireless signals.

• Repeater/Extender: Amplifies the wireless signal to extend the coverage area.

Wireless LAN Standards:

• IEEE 802.11a: Operates at 5 GHz with a maximum speed of 54 Mbps.

• IEEE 802.11b: Operates at 2.4 GHz with a maximum speed of 11 Mbps.

• IEEE 802.11g: Operates at 2.4 GHz with a maximum speed of 54 Mbps.

• IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4): Operates at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz with a maximum speed of 600 Mbps.

• IEEE 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5): Operates at 5 GHz with a maximum speed of 3.5 Gbps.

• IEEE 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6/6E): Operates at 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 6 GHz with speeds up to 9.6 Gbps,
offering improved efficiency and capacity.

Wireless Security Protocols:

• WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy): An older security protocol that provides basic encryption but is
now considered insecure due to vulnerabilities.

• WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access): Improves on WEP by using TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol)
for better encryption.

• WPA2: The most common security protocol, using AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) for strong
encryption and security.

• WPA3: The latest security standard, offering stronger encryption, protection against brute-force
attacks, and forward secrecy.

• 802.1X: Provides an authentication framework for devices connecting to a network, often used in
conjunction with WPA/WPA2/WPA3.