Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-ENGGEO-2NDSEM-2020-2021

College of Engineering
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE PROGRAM BSCE COURSE NO. N100/N177/N198/N217

SPECIALIZATION CEM/SE/TE/WRE COURSE TITLE Geology for Civil Engineers
YEAR LEVEL 2nd TIME FRAME WK NO. 3 IM NO. 2

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Geology

II. LESSON TITLE

Introduction to Geology and Concepts

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

1. General Geology
e. Rivers, Wind, and the Seas
f. Weathering
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Introduce the subject and its application to Civil Engineering.

V. LESSON CONTENT

Introduction

Rivers, Wind, and the Seas

Geological Work by Rivers

During the life while flowing from head to mouth, the rivers are capable of exerting greatly modifying
influence over the topography of the region through which they flow. The geological work by river may be
broadly divided into three well-defined phases: erosion, transport
and deposition.

1. River Erosion

By erosion is meant disintegration and decomposition of the

rocks and soil material by a natural agent through mechanical,
chemical, and other physicochemical processes accompanied
by removal of the disintegrated or decomposed product to far
off places by the same agent. Stream and rivers are the most
powerful sub aerial agents of erosion. Others are wind and ice

Prolonged erosion by a river and the associated streams

produces many interesting and important surface
features along their channels directly and in the
drainage basis in an indirect manner some of these
features develop, with the passage of time to major
geomorphological landforms.

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-ENGGEO-2NDSEM-2020-2021

2. Potholes – These are various shaped depressions of different

dimensions that are developed in the river bed by excessive
localized erosion by the streams. The pot holes are generally
cylindrical or bowl-shaped outline these are commonly formed
in the softer rocks occurring at critical location in the bedrock of
a stream. The formation process for a pothole may be initiated
by a simple plucking out of a protruding or outstanding rock
projection at the river bed by hydraulic action

3. River Valleys – A valley may be defined as a low land

surrounded on sides by inclined hill slopes and mountain. Every
major river is associated with a valley of its own. In fact, rivers
are responsible for the origin, development, and modification of
their valleys through well-understood process of river erosion.

a. Origin – a river valley may have a modest origin when

traced backward in the geological history of the area.
On a gentle sloping surface, river water gets collected
along lower level and flows as small streamlets. In a
short time, small gullies are produced where rainwater
gets naturally collected from adjoining slopes, further
erosion deepens and widens an original gully that can
accommodate bigger volumes of water.
b. Valley deepening – It is achieved by cooperative action
of all the processes involved in erosion. Deepening is
obviously caused due to cutting down of the river bed.
c. Lengthening of River Valley – A peculiar type of process
called headword erosion is generally held responsible
for lengthening of river valleys.
d. River Capture (Piracy) – A peculiar phenomenon of
capture of draining basin of one river by another river
fast eroding its channel in headword direction has been
seen at many places.
e. Stream achieved valley widening – the stream cut down more their channels and also remove
away the loose soil and rocks from the banks thereby widening the valley directly.

4. Georges and Canyons – The process of valley

deepening often gives rise to magnificent surface
features known as Georges and Canyons.

Georges – are very deep and narrow valley with very

steep and high walls on either side.
Canyon – a specific type of George where the layers cut
down by a river are essentially stratified and horizontal in
attitude.

5. Waterfalls – These are defined as magnificent jumps made by stream or river water at certain specific
parts of their course where there is a sudden and considerable drop in the gradient of the channel.
Many falls are easily attributed to unequal erosion of the channel rocks within a short distance due to
the inherent nature of the rocks.

6. Stream Terraces – These are bench like ledges or flat surfaces that occur on the sides of many river
valleys. From a distance they may appear as successions of several steps of a big natural staircase
rising up the river bed.

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-ENGGEO-2NDSEM-2020-2021

Sediment Transport by Rivers

Every river receives enormous amount of material during its flow form head to mouth. This material
includes the rock and soul particles that the river acquires by its own work of erosion along the channel.
Heterogenous type of materials compromising of branches and trunks of trees washed down by rills and
material contributed from processes of mass washing such as rock falls, soil creep, rain wash and
landslides from another distinct category of material that are transported by river.

The load as all the material being transported in running water of a stream or river, may thus be
distinguished into following categories.
a. Suspended Load – Made up of fine sand, silt and clay sediments that are light enough to be
transported in the stream water in a state of suspension.
b. Bed Load – This fraction of the river loads comprises the heavier particles of sand, pebbles,
gravels, and cobbles, and other type of materials which are moved along the other side of the
roads.
c. Dissolved Load – It includes particles of material soluble in water, which the river may gain
due to its solvent action on the rock of the channel. Rivers from the land part carry calcium
carbonate, calcium sulphate, and sodium chloride and other soluble salts from limestones,
gypsums, anhydrites and rock salts.

Deposition by Rivers

The entire load of a stream or a river will normally remain in

transport unless there is a change in one or other factor
responsible for its transport. The process of dropping down of
its loads by any moving natural agent is technically called
deposition. Wind river, glaciers and marine water are important
natural agent that make typical deposits.

1. Alluvial fans and cones – these are cone shaped

accumulation of stream deposits that are commonly found
at places where small intermittent streamlets coming down
from hill slopes enter the low lands.
2. Natural Levees – these are essentially riverbank deposits
made by a river along its bank during floods.

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only and not for commercial distribution,”
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-ENGGEO-2NDSEM-2020-2021

Geological Works by Winds

Air in motion is called Wind. Wind is one of the three major agents of change on the surface of the earth,
other two being rivers and glaciers. Wind act as an agent of erosion, as a carrier for transporting particles
and grains so eroded from one place and also for depositing huge quantities of such wind-blown material
at different places. There are three modes of activities i.e. erosion, transportation and deposition by wind.

Wind Erosion

Wind perform the work erosion by at least three different methods:

1. Deflation – Wind posses not much erosive power over rocks the
ground covered with vegetation. But moving with sufficient
velocity over dry and loose sand it can remove or swept away
huge quantity of loose material from the surface. This process
of removal of particle of dust and sand by strong wind is called
Deflation.
2. Wind Abrasion – Wind becomes a powerful agent for rubbing
and abrading the rock surface when naturally loaded with sand
and dust particles. This type of erosion involving rubbing,
grinding, polishing the rock surface by any natural agent.
3. Attrition by wind – The sand particles and the like, lifted by the
wind from different places are carried away to considerable
distances. The wear and tear of load particles suffered by them
due to mutual impacts during the transportation process is
termed as attrition.

Sedimentation Transport by Wind

• Sources of sediments – Materials of fine particle such as clay, silts and sand occurring on the
earth are transported in huge volumes from one place to another in different regions of the world.
(Ex. Sahara Desert sands to Europe; Gobi Desert sands to Urban Cities in China, etc.)
• Methods of Transport – The wind transport is carried out mainly by two distinctly different process:
o Suspension
o Siltation
• Transport power of the wind – the transporting power of the wind depends on its velocity as also
on the size, shape and density of the particles. The amount of load already present in the wind at
a given point of time also determines its capacity to take up further load.

Deposition by Wind Aeolian Deposits

Sediments and particles once picked up by the wind from any source on the surface are carried forward
for varying distances depending on the carrying capacity of the wind. Wherever and whenever the velocity
of wind suffers a check from one reason or another a part of whole of the wind load is deposited at that
place. These winds made deposits may ultimately take the shape of landform that are commonly referred
as Aeolian Deposits. These are, of two main types of deposits: Dunes and Loess.

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-ENGGEO-2NDSEM-2020-2021

1. Dunes – These are variously shaped deposits of sand-grade particles accumulated by wind. A typical
sand dune is defined as broad conical heap. A dune is normally developed when a sand laden wind
comes across some obstruction. The obstruction causes some check in the velocity of the wind, which
is compelled to drop some load over, against or along the obstruction when the process if continued
for a long time, the accumulated sand takes the shape of a mound or ridge. A typical dune is
characterized with a gentle windward side and a steep leeward slope.

2. Loess – is used for wind blown deposits of silt and clay

grade particles. Typically, Loess is unconsolidated,
unstratified and porous accumulation of the particles.
Strong winds blowing over very extensive area of
deserts, outwash plains and soil loosened by plough pick
up vast amount of fine grade particles for transportation
in suspension, when such dust laden winds passing over
steppes and other flat surfaces are intercepted by
precipitation, they drop their entire loads on the surface
below. This process is repeated for years. Accumulations
of such sediments over years have resulted in the
present loess deposits

Geological Work of Groundwater

Ground water like surface water, is also a very

powerful natural agent responsible not only for
modifying the existing features but also for creating
many other geological features on/and below the
surface of the earth.

Water is a great solvent. Groundwater becomes an

active agent of dissolution of many rocks like
limestone, dolomites, gypsums, rock salts, etc.,
which it comes into contact during its downward
journey below the surface.

The dissolution of soluble rocks by groundwater is controlled by a number of factors such as:
a. Climate e. Flow Velocity
b. Geological Structure f. Temperature
c. Composition of Rocks g. Pressure
d. Composition of Groundwater h. Depth

1. Dolines – These are also termed as Swallow holes or sink holes. A typical doline is circular or an oval
depression, which when followed in depth becomes a bowl-shaped or cylindrical in cross section.

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-ENGGEO-2NDSEM-2020-2021

2. Caves – These may be defined as naturally

carved out underground cavities of various
dimensions that always have horizontal
opening on the surface. They are similar to
tunnels with the exception that a cave does
not normally have an exit on the other end.
3. Blind valley – a bind valley is a valley like
feature where a stream flowing through it in
the upper reaches suddenly disappear in
the lower reaches.

Deposits are typically found to occur in caves

and other underground openings and also
fissures and crakes in the form of mineral
bands, mineral streak, or even as distinct
mineral layer.

The most commonly known cave deposits are

Stalactites and Stalagmites.

Geological Work of Oceans and Seas

Marine water is spread over more than 2/3 of the earth’s surface and is classed among the most powerful
geological agents operating on the earth. Like other geological agencies, seawater also acts as an agent
of erosion, transport and deposition. Since seawater is almost confined within boundaries and broadly
standing in nature unlike river that flows downwards, the mechanism, of geological work of sea differ in
detail from that of river. All the geological work performed by marine water is due to regular and irregular
disturbances taking place in the body of water. Mostly in the surface layer and distinguished as waves
and currents.

Marine Erosion

Marine Water erodes the rocks at the shore and elsewhere with which it comes in contact in a manner
broadly similar to that of stream water. The work of erosion is accomplished in three ways. Hydraulic
Action, Abrasion and Corrosion.

1. Hydraulic Action – This is the process of erosion by water involving breaking, loosening and plucking
out of loose, disjointed blocks of rocks from their original places by the strong forces created by the
impact of sea waves and currents.
2. Marine Abrasion – This involves the rubbing and grinding action of seawater on the rocks of the shore
with the help of sand particles and other small fragments that are hurdled up again these rocks.
3. Corrosion – it is the solvent action of seawater which is particularly strong in environment where the
shore is of vulnerable chemical composition.

Some very common features of marine

erosion are headlands, bays, sea cliffs and
wave-cut terraces.

1. Headlands and Bays

Originally Uniform sloping shoreline
composed of materials of unequal
hardness, the softer rocks get eroded
easily and quickly. Seawater enters the
inland spaces so created along the
shore, these from the bays. The
stronger rocks, however, resist erosion
to a great extent and stand for a
considerable time. These may get smoothened and variously modified but still stand as projecting
parts of original as headlands.
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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-ENGGEO-2NDSEM-2020-2021

2. Sea Cliffs – A sea cliff is a seaward facing steep front of a moderately high shoreline and indicates
the first stage of the work of waves on the shore rocks. There may be a number of sea cliffs seen on
a shore line. They are outstanding rock projection having smoothened seaward sloping surface.

3. Wave-Cut Terraces – it is a shallow shelf type structure, carved out from the shore rocks by the
advancing sea waves. The waves first of all cut a notch where they strike against the cliff rock again
and again. The notch is gradually extended backward to such a depth below the overlying rock that
the latter becomes unsupported from below. The cliff eventually falls down along the notch. A platform
or bench is thus created over which the seawater may rush temporarily and periodically. The resulting
structure is called a wave curt terrace.

Weathering

It is the process where rock is dissolved, worn away or broken down into smaller and smaller pieces via
mechanical, chemical, or organic weathering.

Types of Weathering
1. Organic Weathering (Decomposition) – plants break up the rocks with their growing roots or plant
acids help dissolve rocks
2. Mechanical Weathering (Disintegration) – physically breaking up rocks. Example is frost action or
frost shattering, Water gets into cracks and joints in the bedrock. When the water freezes it expands
and cracks are opened a little wider. Over time pieces of rock can split of a rock face and big boulders
are broken into smaller rocks and gravel.
3. Chemical Weathering (Denudation)– it is the decomposition or decay of rocks and minerals. Example,
Water and limestone, where limestone dissolves.

Engineering importance of rock weathering:

As engineer is directly or indirectly interested in rock weathering specially when he has to select a suitable
quarry for the extraction of stones for structural and decorative purposes. The process of weathering
always causes a loss in the strength of the rocks or soil.

For the construction engineer it is always necessary to see that:

1. To what extent the area under consideration for a proposed project has been affected by weathering;
and
2. What may be possible effects of weathering processes typical of the area on the construction
materials

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Answer the following questions:
1. Explain why the Oceans and Seas are the most powerful geological agents on the Earth.
2. Where can you find large deposits of dunes in the Philippines (Name at least 3).
3. “To what extent the area under consideration for a proposed project has been affected by weathering”
Explain this in your own words.

VII. ASSIGNMENT
Answer the following questions:
1. Explain the Manila Bay Rehabilitation that occurred in 2020. Do you agree/disagree to the project,
explain?
2. What is the difference between Stalagmites and Stalactites?
3. “What may be possible effects of weathering processes typical of the area on the construction
materials” Explain this in your own words.

VIII. REFERENCES

1. Parbin Singh, “Engineering and General Geology”

2. P.C. Varghese, “Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers”
3. Legget, “Geology and Engineering”
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only and not for commercial distribution,”
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