Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:IM-ENGGEO-2NDSEM-2020-2021

College of Engineering
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE PROGRAM BSCE COURSE NO. N100/N177/N198/N217

SPECIALIZATION CEM/SE/TE/WRE COURSE TITLE Geology for Civil Engineers
YEAR LEVEL 2nd TIME FRAME WK NO. 12-15 IM NO. 5

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Structural Geology and Rock Mechanics

II. LESSON TITLE

Structural Geology and Rock Mechanics

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

1. Structural Geology
a. Outcrops
b. Geological maps
c. Folds, Faults and joints
d. Wave Theory
e. Grouting
2. Rock Mechanics
a. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Determine the importance of Structural Geology

• Determine the basic properties of rocks and soils
• Introduce the calculation for the properties of soils and rocks.

V. LESSON CONTENT

Outcrop

When weathering and erosion expose part of a

rock layer or formation, an outcrop appears. An
outcrop is the exposed rock, so named because the
exposed rock "crops out." Outcrops provide
opportunities for field geologists to sample the local
geology—photograph it, hold, touch, climb, hammer,
map, sniff, lick, chew, and carry it home.

An outcrop consists of bedrock exposed at Earth’s

surface. Geologists often seek out outcrops to learn
about the geology of an area, and geology students
visit outcrops as illustrations of the principles of
geology.

Mountainous regions, where any loosened Earth material is quickly removed by erosion or mass wasting,
contain some of the best outcrops because a greater proportion of bedrock is exposed. Rocks crop out
especially well across steep slopes, above the tree line (elevation above which trees cannot grow), and
on land scraped free of soil by glaciers. Sediment collects and plants grow in flatter areas, obscuring
rocks and making outcrops rare in lowlands except where they have been incised by streams.
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Geological Maps

Geologic maps are uniquely suited to solving problems involving Earth resources, hazards, and
environments. Geologic maps represent the distribution of different types of rock and surficial deposits,
as well as locations of geologic structures such as faults and folds. Geologic maps are the primary
source of information for various aspects of land-use planning, including the siting of buildings and
transportation systems. Such maps help identify ground-water aquifers, aid in locating water-supply
wells, and assist in locating potential polluting operations, such as landfills, safely away from the
aquifers.

Folds, Faults, and Joints

Folds

Rocks deforming plastically under compressive stresses crumple into folds. They do not return to their
original shape. If the rocks experience more stress, they may undergo more folding or even fracture.
There are three major types of rock folding: monoclines, synclines, and anticlines. A monocline is a
simple bend in the rock layers so that they are no longer horizontal.

Anticlines are folded rocks that arch upward and dip away from the center of the fold. The oldest rocks
are at the center of an anticline and the youngest are draped over them. When rocks arch upward to form
a circular structure, that structure is called an adome. A syncline is a fold that bends downward, causing
the youngest rocks are to be at the center and the oldest are on the outside. When rocks bend downward
in a circular structure, that structure is called abasin. If the rocks are exposed at the surface, where are
the oldest rocks located

Faults

A fault is a boundary between two bodies of rock along which there has been relative motion. Some
large faults, like the San Andreas fault in California or the Tintina fault, extending from northern British
Columbia through central Yukon and into Alaska, show evidence of hundreds of kilometers of motion.
Other faults show only centimeters of movement. In order to estimate the amount of motion on a fault, it
is necessary to find a feature that shows up on both sides of the fault, and has been offset by the fault.
This could be the edge of a bed or dike, or it could be a landscape feature, such as a fence or a stream.

Types of Fault:

1. Dip-Slip Fault 2. Strike-Slip Fault

a. Normal Fault
b. Reverse Fault

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Joints

A rock under enough stress will eventually

fracture. If there is no movement on either
side of a fracture, the fracture is called
a joint. Most joints form when the overall
stress regime is one of tension (pulling apart)
rather than compression. The tension can be
from a rock contracting, such as during the
cooling of volcanic rock. It can also be from a
body of rock expanding.

Wave Theory

At all distances from the focus, mechanical properties of the rocks, such as incompressibility, rigidity,
and density, play a role in the speed with which the waves travel and the shape and duration of the
wave trains. The layering of the rocks and the physical properties of surface soil also affect wave
characteristics. In most cases, elastic behavior occurs in earthquakes, but strong shaking of surface
soils from the incident seismic waves sometimes results in nonelastic behavior, including slumping (that
is, the downward and outward movement of unconsolidated material) and the liquefaction of sandy soil.

Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an
explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.

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Types of Seismic Waves

There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two main
types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through the earth's inner
layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water.
Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves.

Body Waves

1. P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to
'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the
liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push
and pull the air. P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and
pulling they do. Subjected to a P wave, particles move in the same direction that the wave is moving
in, which is the direction that the energy is traveling in, and is sometimes called the 'direction of wave
propagation.

2. S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is
slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. It is this
property of S waves that led seismologists to conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves
move rock particles up and down, or side-to-side--perpendicular to the direction that the wave is
traveling in (the direction of wave propagation).

Surface Waves

1. Love wave, It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to the
surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.

2. Rayleigh wave, A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an
ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that
the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which
can be much larger than the other waves.

Factors influencing Wave Velocity

The Speed of the wave is affected by the following:

1. Wavelength
2. Frequency
3. Medium – the density of the surface, the higher the density the slower the wave. And Elasticity, waves
travel faster through materials that are more elastic.
4. Temperature – the speed of waves increases as the temperature increases. This is due to the
increased kinetic energy of the air molecules and decrease in density

The dynamic moduli of rock are those calculated from the elastic wave velocity and density. The static
moduli are those directly measured in a deformational experiment.

The static and dynamic moduli of the same rock may significantly differ from each other. The main reason
is likely to be the difference in the deformation (strain) amplitude between the dynamic and static
experiments.

Static moduli are often used in wellbore stability and in-situ stress applications to evaluate the possibility
of breakouts, elevated pore pressure, and tectonic stress distribution.

Grouting

Grouting in civil engineering refers to the injection of pumpable materials into a soil or rock formation to
change its physical characteristics. It is one of the ways ground water can be controlled during civil
engineering works.
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Grouting is suitable where soil permeability would create a heavy demand on pumping or where ground
conditions mean it may be economically inefficient to bore wells. Grout may also be used in the formation
of pile foundations, ground anchors, under-reaming, underpinning, in road construction, dam
construction, and other applications.

Different materials may be used for grouting depending upon factors such as the soil or rock type and
the area to be grouted. However, the basic process is the same: the soil or rock is injected with fluid
grout which sets and reduces or acts as a sealant on the material’s permeability.

Typically, grouting is carried out by driving pipes or boring holes into the ground, and then pumping
the grout solution at high pressure through inserted tubes.

The extent of grouting required for a particular area is determined by investigation of ground
conditions and calculation of a drilling pattern. This considers the size, spacing and depth of the holes
required. The type of grout and the particular ground conditions will influence the spacing of the holes.

Site conditions will influence the tools used for the boring process, but pneumatic tools, diamond drills or
wash-boring are the most common. Alluvial soils are prone to collapse and so holes are usually cased.
The grout injection pressure is dependent on soil conditions, and in-situ testing may be carried out before
the correct pressure is determined. Pressures usually range from 1 N/mm^2 for sands to 7 N/mm^2
for rock.

Grouting Methods and its Materials

1. Cement grouting - A mixture of cement and water.

2. Bentonite grouting – A mixture of clay with additives to create a highly water-resistant gel which can
create a permanent barrier to water flow. Most commonly used in the foundation of dams or other
water-bound structures.
3. Chemical grouting – A mixture of Sodium silicate and Calcium chloride in liquid form and solidified
into a gel. It is used in soils with medium-coarse grade.
4. Resin grouting – Relatively have a very low viscosity and are able to penetrate fine sands. Opposite
of Chemical grouting.
5. Bituminous grouting – Using a Bitumen emulsion that can be injected into fine sand as an
impermeable barrier to water. Soil strength doesn’t increase.

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Rock Mechanics

Rock mechanics is not only limited to rocks/stones but also soils. Soil is defined as the un-cemented
aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty
spaces between soil particles. Soil is used as a construction material in various engineering projects, and
it supports structural foundations. Thus, civil engineers must study the properties of the rock and soil.
Such as the origin, grain-size, ability to drain water, compressibility, shear strength, and load-bearing
capacity. This sub-topic will be fully explained in your upcoming subject, Geotechnical Engineering.

Weight-Volume Relationships

Figure 3.1a shows an element of a soil of given any volume (V) and weight (W) as it would exist in
NATURAL STATE. To develop the said relationships, we must separate the three phases as shown in
the figure. Thus, the total volume of a given soil sample can be expressed as:

V = Vs + Vv = Vs + (Vw + Va)

Where; Vs - Volume of Soil Solids, Vv – Volume of Voids, Vw – Volume of water in the voids, Va – Volume
of air in the voids.

Assuming that the weight of air is negligible (almost equal to zero), we can express the total weight of
the sample as:

W = Ws + Ww

Where: Ws – Weight of soil solids, Ww – Weight of Water

There are three phases in a soil element, these are void ratio (e), porosity (n), and degree of saturation
(s).

Void Ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids, thus:

Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume, it is the quality of being porous.

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Note that porosity has a range from 0 to 1.

The degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids, or

It is commonly expressed as a PERCENTAGE.

The special relationship between Void Ratio and Porosity.

The common terms used for weight relationships are moisture content (w) and unit weight (γ, gamma).

Moisture content refers to the water content and defined as the ratio of the weight of the water to the
weight of solids in a given volume of soil.

Unit Weight is the weight of soil per unit volume. Thus,

The unit weight can be expressed in terms of the weight of soil solids, the moisture content and total
volume as follows;

Dry Unit Weight, refers to the soil that has zero moisture content.

In SI (Système International), the standard unit for UNIT WEIGHT is kilo Newtons per cubic meter
(kN/m^3). For English Units (Imperial Units), the standard unit is pounds per cubic foot (lb./ft^3).

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Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content and Specific Gravity

To obtain a relationship among unit weight, void ratio,

and moisture content, let us consider a volume of soil
in which the volume of the soil solids is one, as shown
in the figure below. IF the volume of the soil solids is
1, then the volume of voids is numerically equal to
the void ratio e. The weights of soil solids and water
can be given as:

Specific Gravity of Soil Solids (Gs):

Now, using the definitions of unit weight and dry unit weight, we can write the formulas:

If the soil sample is saturated, that the void spaces are completely filled with water, this will be the formula
to be used:

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Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content

The relationship among unit weight, porosity, and moisture content can be developed in a manner similar
to that presented in the preceding section. Consider a soil has a total volume equal to 1.

If V is equal to 1, then Vv is equal to n, so Vs = 1 – n. The weight of soil solids Ws and the weight of water
can then be expressed as follows:

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Density

Density varies significantly among different rock types because of differences in mineralogy and porosity.
Knowledge of the distribution of underground rock densities can assist in interpreting subsurface geologic
structure and rock type.

In strict usage, density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume; however, in common
usage, it is taken to be the weight in air of a unit volume of a sample at a specific temperature.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙/𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝜌=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙/𝑅𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Density has a unit of the ff: g/cm^3, kg/m^3

Accordingly, three types of density may be distinguished in soil/rocks. They are:

1. Dry density: It is the weight per unit volume of an absolutely dried rock specimen, it includes the
volume of the pore spaces present in the rock.

2. Bulk density: It is the weight per unit volume of a rock sample with natural moisture content where
pores are only partially filled with water.

3. Saturated density: It is the density of the saturated rocks or weight per unit volume of a rock in which
all the pores are completely filled with water.

The fourth type is also recognized as true density. It is the weight per unit volume of the mineral matter
(without pores and water) of which a rock made up. The most engineering calculations, it is the bulk
density which is used frequently. Bulk density values in gram/cubic cm for some common building stones
are granite-2.7, basalt-2.9, sandstone-2.6, and limestone-2.2 to 2.6

Permeability

Permeability is another intrinsic property of all materials and is closely related to porosity. Permeability
refers to how connected pore spaces are to one another. If the material has high permeability than pore
spaces are connected to one another allowing water to flow from one to another, however, if there is low
permeability then the pore spaces are isolated and water is trapped within them. For example, in a gravel
all of the pores well connected one another allowing water to flow through it, however, in a clay most of
the pore spaces are blocked, meaning water cannot flow through it easily.

Strength

Rock hardness is a term used in geology to denote the cohesiveness of a rock and is usually expressed
as its compressive fracture strength. Terms such as hard rock and soft rock are used by geologists to
distinguishing between igneous/metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, respectively. For example, a hard
rock needs to be mined with explosives and a soft rock can be mined with hand tools, such as pick and
shovel.

Rocks can be tested for their unconfined fracture strength by using ASTM standard tests. These involve
loading a small rock core at a rate of 0.7 MPa/s until it fails brittlely. The fracture strength is given as the
maximum stress necessary to induce failure of the rock core. This value gives an indication of the
cohesiveness and density of a rock. As seen in Table 1 igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
can be classified from very weak to very strong with regards to their unconfined fracture strengths
(Attewell & Farmer 1976). Generally, sedimentary rocks can range from weak to medium (10-80 MPa),
and igneous rocks range from medium to very strong (40-320 MPa). The highest unconfined compressive
strength observed in a rock is on the order of 400 MPa (e.g. nephritic jade). (1MPa = 1N/mm^2 =
1MN/m^2 = 1x10^6 N/m^2)

Note: ASTM – American Society for Testing and Materials

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Elasticity

Elasticity is the property of matter that causes it to resist deformation in volume or shape. Hooke’s law
describes the behavior of elastic materials and states that for small deformations, the resulting strain is
proportional to the applied stress.

• Young’s modulus, E, is the ratio of uniaxial compressive (tensile) stress to the resultant strain
• Bulk modulus, K, is the change in volume under hydrostatic pressure (i.e., the ratio of stress to strain)
(K is the reciprocal of compressibility.)
• Shear modulus, μ, is the ratio of shearing (torsional) stress to shearing strain.
• An additional parameter, Poisson’s ratio, σ, is a measure of the geometric change of shape under
uniaxial stress.

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Plasticity

It is the ability of certain solids to flow or to change shape permanently when subjected to stresses of
intermediate magnitude between those producing temporary deformation, or elastic behavior, and those
causing failure of the material, or rupture (yield point).

Plasticity enables a solid under the action of external forces to undergo permanent deformation without
rupture. Elasticity, in comparison, enables a solid to return to its original shape after the load is
removed. Plastic deformation occurs in many metal-forming processes (rolling, pressing, forging) and in
geologic processes (rock folding and rock flow within the earth under extremely high pressures and at
elevated temperatures).

Sample Problem 1:

In its natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 9.34x10^-3 m^3 and weights 177.6x10^-3 kN. The over-
dried weight of the soil is 153.6x10^-3 kN. If Gs = 2.67, calculate the following:

a. Moisture Content d. Void Ratio

b. Moist Unit Weight e. Porosity
c. Dry Unit Weight f. Degree of Saturation

Solution: Always take note the condition of the soil.

a. Moisture Content b. Moist Unit Weight

c. Dry Unit Weight

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d. Void Ratio e. Porosity

Unit weight of water is 9.81 KN/m^3

f. Degree of Saturation

Sample Problem 2

The mass of a moist soil sample collected from the field is 465 grams, and its oven-dry mass is 405.76
grams. The specific gravity of the soil solids was determined in the laboratory to be 2.68. If the void ratio
of the soil in the natural state is 0.83, find the following:

a. The moist density of the soil in the field.

b. The dry density of the soil in the field.

Solution:
a. The moist density of the soil in the field.

Note: Unit Weight is equal to the product of gravity and the density of the soil. Therefore, the formula for
the density is near equal to the unit weight, excluding the gravity. The density of water is 1000kg/m^3.

b. The dry density of the soil in the field.

Note: The density of water is 1000kg/m^3.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. What is the difference between a crest and a trough?

2. Explain the importance of determining the Geological Map of an Area?
3. The moist unit weight of a soil is 19.2 KN/m^3. Given that Gs = 2.69 and w = 9.8%. Determine: Void
Ratio, Dry Unit Weight, and the Degree of Saturation
4. A soil sample has a unit weight of 105.7 pcf (Pounds per Cubic Foot) and a saturation of 50%. When
the saturation is increased to 75%, its unit weight raises to 112.7 pcf. Determine the void ratio and
the specific gravity of the soil.
5. A saturated soil sample has a unit weight of 24.5 Kn/m^3 and Gs = 2.70. Find Dry Unit weight, e, n,
and w.
6. For a given soil, the following are known: Gs = 2.74, moist unit weight = 20.6 KN/m^3, and moisture
content of 16.6%. Determine the following: Dry Unit weight, Void Ratio, Porosity, Degree of
Saturation.

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VII. ASSIGNMENT

1. What can be the Engineering Considerations in Folds, Faults, and Joints.

2. Explain why grouting is important and give any possible practical applications of grouting.
3. The moist weight of 0.1 cubic feet of soil is 12.5 lbs. If the moisture content is 14% and the specific
gravity of soil solids is 2.71. Determine the following: Moist Unit Weight, Dry Unit Weight, Void Ratio,
Porosity, Degree of Saturation, and the Volume occupied by water.
4. An engineer ordered that the compacted base course for the construction of a new highway must
have a void ratio of less than or equal to 0.80. You, the contractor, tested the compacted base course
to have a mean value of moisture content of 14.6%, Gs = 2.81, and the moist unit weight of 18.2
kN/m^3. Does the compacted base course comply with the specification?
5. The moist unit weight of a soil is 173.4 pcf. Given that the moisture content to be 30% and Specific
Gravity of 2.69. Find the following in SI Units: Dry Unit weight, Porosity, Degree of Saturation.
6. A saturated soil sample has a unit weight of 132.5 pcf and Gs = 2.80. Find Dry Unit Weight, e, n and
w.

VIII. REFERENCES

1. Parbin Singh, “Engineering and General Geology”

2. P.C. Varghese, “Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers”
3. Legget, “Geology and Engineering”
4. Das, Braja M., “Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 8 th ed.” 2014.

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