ALLOYING OF STEEL

SHARAD VALVI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
SardarPatel College of Engineering Department of
Mechanical Engineering, MunshiNagar,Andheri(w),Mumbai
-400058
• Classification of materials:
 Non-Ferrous
Property Ferrous Materials
Materials

Iron content Contains iron No significant iron

Magnetic Usually magnetic Non-magnetic

Corrosion resistance Prone to rust Resistant to rust

Lighter
Weight Heavier

Electrical, aerospace,
Applications Construction, tools
automotive, packaging
FERROUS MATERIALS

In engineering applications, lion’s

share is served by ferrous materials.
Factors account for it
availability of abundant raw materials
economical extraction
ease of forming
versatile mechanical and physical
properties.
FERROUS MATERIALS

Drawbacks of ferrous materials:

poor corrosion resistance
high density & low specific strength
low thermal and electrical conductivities
Classification
steels and cast irons – categorized based
on carbon content.
Steels: %C is upto 2.0%
Cast irons: %C is above 2.0%
FERROUS ALLOYS

Cast irons are called because they are

usually manufactured through casting
technique owing to their brittle nature
due to presence of iron carbide.
Steels are serving major part of present
engineering applications.
However, cast irons mostly serve as
structural components.
eg: automobile motor casings, lathe bed,
sliding guides in machinery
STEEL

An alloy whose major component is iron,

with carbon being the primary alloying
material.
Carbon acts as a hardening agent,
preventing iron atoms from sliding past one
another.
Carbon atoms occupy interstitial sites of Fe.
Varying the amount of carbon and its
distribution in the alloy controls the
qualities of the resulting steel.
STEEL
Steel with increased carbon content can
be made harder and stronger than iron,
but is also more brittle.
Currently there are several classes of
steels in which carbon is replaced with
other alloying materials, and carbon, if
present, is undesired.
A more recent definition is that steels
are iron-based alloys that can be
plastically formed
• Steels:
– Steel is a alloy of iron and carbon

A. Plain carbon steel:

• A plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon
and it is malleable.
• Carbon steels are different from cast iron as
regards the percentage of carbon.
• Carbon steels contain from 0.05to 2.0% carbon
whereas cast iron possesses from above 2.0 %
carbon.
• Caron steels can be classified as
1. Low carbon steel
2. Medium carbon steel
3. High carbon steel.
1. MILD STEEL:
– Mild steel or low carbon steels and contains up to 0.30%
carbon. it may classified as follows.

i. Dead mild steel – C 0.05 to 0.15%

– It is used for making steel wire, sheets, rivets, screws, pipe
nail and chain
– It has tensile strength of 390 N/mm2 and a hardness of
about 115 BHN.

ii. Mild steel containing 0.15 to 0.20% carbon has a tensile strength
of 420 N/mm2 and hardness 125 BHN.
it is used for making camshafts, sheets and strips for fan blades,
welded tubing, forging, drag lines etc.

iii. Mild steel containing 0.20 to 0.30% carbon has a tensile strength
of 555 N/mm2 and a hardness of 140 BHN.
it is used for making valves, gears, crank shafts, connecting rods,
railway axles, fish plates, small forgings etc.
2. MEDIUM CARBON STEEL:
– Medium carbon steel contain carbon from 0.30 to 0.70%
– Steel that containing 0.35 to 0.45% carbon have a tensile strength of
about 750 N/mm2 . They are use for making.
1. Connecting 2. Wire and rods 3. Spring 4. Gear shaft
rods clips
5. Key stock 6. Shift and brake 7. Axles 8. forging. etc
levers
– Steel that containing 0.45 to 0.55% carbon have a tensile strength of
about 1000 N/mm2 and are used for making parts those are to be
subjected to shock and heavy reversals of stress such as
1. Railway coach axles 2. Axles 3. Crank
shafts
4. Crank pins on heavy 5. Spline shafts. etc
machines
– Steels containing 0.6 to 0.7% carbon have a tensile strength of 1230
N/mm2 and a hardness of 400-450 BHN. Such steels are used for
making.
1. Drop forgings 2. Set screws 3. Die blocks 4. Clutch disc
die
5. Plate punches 6. Valve spring 7. Cushion 8. Thrust washer
rings etc
3. HIGH CARBON STEEL:
– High carbon steels contain carbon from 0.7 to 1.5 %
– Steel containing 0.7 to 0.8% carbon have a tensile strength of about
600 N/mm² to 1000 N/mm² and a hardness of 450-500 BHN.
These steels are used for making.
1. Cold chisels 2. Pneumatic drill bits 3. Wheels for railway
service
4. Wrenches 5. Jaws for vises 6. Wire for structural work
7. Shear 8. Hacksaws 9. Automatic clutch disc
blades etc.
– Steels containing 0.8 to 0.9 % carbon have a tensile strength of
about 700 N/mm² to 1200 N/mm² and a hardness of 500 to 600
BHN. Such steels are used for making.
1. Rock drills 2. Punch and 3. Railway rails 4. Clutch discs
dies
5. Circular saws 6. Leaf spring 7. Machine 8. Music wires
chisels etc.
– Steels that containing 0.90 to 1.00% carbon (high carbon tool steels)
have a tensile strength of 800 N/mm² to 1300 N/mm² and a hardness
of 550-600 BHN. Such steels are used for making.
1. Punches and dies 2. Seed disc 3. Spring (leaf and
coil)
4. Pins 5. Keys 6. Shear blades etc.
– Steel that containing 1.0 to 1.1% carbon are used for
making.
1. Railway springs 2. Mandrels
3. Machine tools 4. Taps etc.
– Steel that containing 1.1 to 1.2% carbon are used for
making.
1. Taps 2. Twist drills
3. Thread metal dies 4. Knives etc.

– Steel that containing 1.2 to 1.3% carbon are used for

making.
1. Files 2. Reamers
3. Metal cutting tools etc.

– Steel that containing 1.3 to 1.5% carbon are used for

making.
1. Wire drawing dies 2. Paper knives
3. Metal cutting saws 4. Tools for turning chilled iron
etc.
• Alloy steels:
– Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the maximum of the range
given for the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of the
follower limits
Mn 1.65 % Si 0.60% Cu 0.60%
– In which a definite rang or a definite maximum quantity of any of the
following elements is specified or required within the recognized field of
constructional alloy steels. Al, B, Cr, Up to 3.99% Co, Mo, Ni, Ti, W, V or
any other alloying elements aided to obtain a desired alloying effect.
– Given below is the composition of a typical alloy steel.
C 0.2 – Mn 0.5 –
0.4% 1.0%
Si 0.3 – Ni 0.4 – 0.7%
0.6% Mo 0.15 –
Cr 0.4 – 0.3%
0.6%
Fe Balance
– Alloying elements after the properties of steel and put in to a slightly
different class from carbon steel.
• Advantage Disadvantage of alloy steel:
– The important advantages and disadvantages in the choice of alloy steel
from the general point of view in relation to plain carbon steel are listed in
the following.

Advantage:
– Greater hardenability.
– Less distortion and cracking
– Greater stress relief at given hardness
– Less grain growth
– Higher elastic and endurance strength
– Greater high temperature strength
– Better machinability at high hardness
– Greater ductility at high strength.

Disadvantage:
That may be encountered:
– Cost
– Special handling
– Tendency toward austenite retention
– Temper brittleness in certain grades.
• Purpose of alloying:
• The purpose of alloying steels are:
– Strengthening of the ferrite.
– Improved corrosion resistance.
– Better hardenability
– Grain size control
– Greater strength
– Improved machinability
– Improved high or low temperature stability.
– Improved ductility
– Improved toughness
– Better wear resistance.
ALLOY STEELS
Limitations of plain carbon steel are
overcome by adding alloying elements
The alloying elements improve various
properties
HSLA steel
Tool steels
Stainless steel
HSLA STEEL

High strength low alloy steel is a type

of steel alloy that provides many benefits over
regular steel alloys.
HSLA alloys are much stronger and tougher
than ordinary plain carbon steels.
They are used in cars, trucks, cranes, support
columns, pressure vessels, bridges and other
structures that are designed to handle a lot of
stress.
HSLA STEEL
A typical HSLA steel may contain 0.15% carbon,
1.65% manganese and low levels (under
0.035%) of phosphorous and sulphur.
It may also contain small amounts of Cu, Ni, V,
Cr, Mo, Si or Zi.
HSLAs are therefore also referred to as
'microalloyed', as they are indeed alloyed in
extremely small amounts in comparison to other
main commercial alloy steels.
HSLA steels are also more resistant to rust than
most carbon steels.
STAINLESS STEEL

An iron-carbon alloy with a minimum of

12% chromium along with other alloying elements
Highly corrosion resistant owing to presence of
chromium oxide.
The name originates from the fact that stainless
steel does not stain, corrode or rust as easily as
ordinary steel
It is "stains less", but is not actually stain proof.
Stainless steel is 100% recyclable.
• Effect of alloying elements:
• Carbon: Carbon content in steel affects:
– Hardness
– Tensile strength
– Machinability
– Melting point

• Nickel:
– Increases toughness and resistance to impact
– Lessens distortion in quenching
– Lowers the critical temperature of steel and widens the range of
successful heat treatment
– Strengthens steels.
– Renders high – chromium iron alloy austenitic.
– Does not unite with carbon.
• Chromium:
– Joint with carbon to form chromium carbide, thus adds to depth
hardenability with improved resistance to abrasion and wear.
• Silicon:
– Improves oxidation resistance
– Strengthens low alloy steels
– Acts as a deoxidizes.
• Titanium:
– Prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steels
during long heating.
– Prevent formation of austenite in high chromium steels.
– Reduces martensitic hardness and harden ability in medium chromium
steels.

• Molybdenum:
– Promotes hardenability of steels
– Makes steel fine grained.
– Makes steel unusually tough at various level.
 – Counteracts tendency towards temper brittleness
– Raises tensile and creep strength at high temperatures.
– Enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steel
– Forms abrasion resisting particles.

• Vanadium:
– Promotes fine grains in steel
– Increases hardenability
– Imparts strength and toughness to heat-treated steel
– It is a powerful carbide former
– Stabilizes cementite
• Tungsten:
– Increases hardness (and also red hardness)
– Promotes fine grain
– Resists heat
– Promotes strength at elevated temperature.
• Manganese:
– Contributes markedly to strength and hardness
– Counteracts brittleness from sulphur.
– Lowers both ductility and weldability if it is presents in high percentage
with high carbon content in steel.

• Copper:
– Increases resistance to atmospheric corrosion
– Acts as a strengthening agent.

• Boron:
– Increases hardenability or depth to which steel will harden when
quenched.

• Aluminum:
– Acts as a de-oxidizer
– Produced fine austenitic grain size
– If present in an amount of about 1% it helps promoting nitriding.
• Cobalt:
– Contributes to red-hardness by hardening Ferrite.
– Improves mechanical properties such as tensile strength, fatigue
strength and hardness.
– Refines the graphite and pearlite.
– Is a mild stabilizer of carbides.
– Improves heat resistance.
– Retard the transformation of austenite and thus increase
hardenability and freedom from cracking and distortion.
Alloying element Range of Important functions
percentage

Sulphur < 0.33 Improves machinability, reduces weldability and ductility

Phosphorus <0.12 Improves machinability, reduces impact strength at low temperature.

Silicon 1.5 to 2.5 Removes oxygen from molten metal, improves strength and toughness, increas
hardenability, magnetic permeability

Manganese 0.5 to 2.0 Increases hardenability, reduces adverse effects of sulphur.

Nickel 1.0 to 5.0 Increases toughness, increases impact strength at low temperatures

Chromium 0.5 to 4.0 Improves resistance to oxidation and corrosion. Increases high temperature
strength

Molybdenum 0.1 to 0.4 Improves hardenability, enhances the effect of other alloying elements, eliminat temper
brittleness, improves red hardness and wear resistance.

Tungsten 2.0 to 3.0 Improves hardenability, enhances the effect of other alloying elements, eliminat temper
brittleness, improves red hardness and wear resistance.

Vanadium 0.1 to 0.3 Improves hardenability, increases wear and fatigue resistance, elastic limit.

Titanium < 1.0 Improves strength and corrosion resistance.

Copper 0.15 to 0.25 Improves corrosion resistance, increases strength and hardness

Aluminium 0.01 to 0.06 Removes oxygen from molten metal

Boron 0.001 to 0.05 Increases hardenability

Lead < 0.35 Improves machinability

• STAINLESS STEELS:
• Concept:
– When 11.5% or more chromium is added to iron a fine film of chromium oxide
forms spontaneously on the surfaces exposed to air. The film acts as a barrier to
retard further oxidation rust or corrosion. As this steel cannot be stained easily
it is called strain less steel.
– All stainless steels can be grouped in to three metallurgical classes.
(a) Austenitic (b) Ferritc (c) Martensitc
– Based on their microstructures. Each of the classes has different welding
requirements.
• Austenitic stainless steels:
1. They possess austenitic structure at room temperature.
2. They possesses the highest corrosion resistance of all the stainless steels.
3. They possess greatest strength and scale resistance at high temperature.
4. They retain ductility at temperatures approaching absolute zero.
5. They are non – magnetic so that they can be easily identified with a magnet.
6. They have the following composition.

C Below 0.08% Mn 2 to 10%

Si 1 to 2% Cr 16 to 26%
Ni 3.5 to 22% P and S
Mo and Ti in some Normal.
cases
 7. They may find uses in
• Aircraft industry
• Chemical processing
• Food processing
• Household items
• Dairy industry
• Ferritic stainless steels:
1. They possess a micro-structure which is primarily ferritic.
2. Ferritic Stainless steels have a low carbon to chromium
ratio. This eliminates the effect of thermal transformation
and prevents hardening by heat treatment.
3. These steels are magnetic and have good ductility
4. Such steels do not work harden to any appreciable degree.
5. Ferritic steels are more corrosion resistance than martensitc
steels.
6. Ferritic steels develop their maximum softness ductility and
corrosion resistance.
7. Ferritic stainless steels have the following chemical
composition. C 0.08 to 0.20% Si 1%
Mn 1 to 1.5% Cr 11 to 27%
• Martensitic stainless steels:
1. Martensitic stainless steels are identified by their martensitic
microstructure in the hardened condition.
2. Because of the higher carbon – Chromium ratio martensitic stainless
steels are the only types hardenable by heat treatment.
3. These steels are magnetic in all conditions and possess the best
thermal conductivity of the stainless types.
4. Hardness, ductility and ability to held on edge are
characteristics of martensitic steels.
5. Martensitic stainless steels can be cold worked without difficulty
especially with low carbon content, can be machined satisfactory have
good toughness, show good corrosion resistance to weather and to
some chemicals and are easily hot worked.
6. Martensitic stainless steels have the following composition.

C 0.15 to 1.2% Si 1%
Mn 1% Cr 11.5 to 18%
– The structure condition known as austenite is favorable to the
production of a tough and ductile weld, capable of with standing
considerable stress without fracture. Hence, fore corrosion resistance
and for a high degree of heat resistance austenitic stainless steels are
used in welded assemblies in preference to ferritic or martensitic
stainless steels.
TOOL STEELS
A variety of alloy steels that are particularly
well-suited to be made into tools.
Their suitability comes from their
distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion, their
ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their
resistance to deformation at elevated
temperatures (red-hardness).
Tool steel is generally used in a heat-
treated state.
Carbon content between 0.7% and 1.4%,
TOOL STEELS - TYPES
Water-hardening grades
Air-hardening grades
Cold-working grades
Shock resisting grades
High speed grades
Hot-working grades
• Tool steel:
– Tool and die steels may be defined as special steels
which have been developed to form, cut or otherwise
change the shape of material into a finished or semi -
finished products.
– Properties of tool steels:
• Slight change of form during hardning.
• Little risk of cracking during hardning.
• Good toughness
• Good wear resistance
• Very good machinability
• A definite cooling rate during hardning
• A definite hardning temperature.
• Resistance to softening on heating (red hardness)

– Red hardness:
In reference to high-speed steel and other cutting tool materials,
the property of being hard enough to cut metals even when heated
to a dull- red color.
• Application of tool steels:
– Taps, drills, reamers, etc.
– General tool and die application
– Die work
– Tools for hot forging machine, hot trimming tools.
– Pneumatic tools, punches.
• Molybdenum steel:
– Molybdenum steel contains
C 0.26% Mo 0.76%
– Molybdenum steel, when heat-treated, produces a structure
steel which has increased elastic limit without
correspondingly decreased ductility.
– Molybdenum improve hot hardness and strength of steel.
– Molybdenum steels are less effected by temper brittleness.
– It is use for making:
1. Air craft landing gear
2. Fuselege
3. Coil and leaf spring
4. Pressure vessels
5. Transmission gear. etc
• Chromium steel:
– Chrome steel contains
C 0.36% Cr 0.57%
– Chromium intensifies the effect of rapid cooling on steel.
Therefore chromium is used only in steels which are to be
heat- treated.
– Chromium forms carbide and thus gives high hardness
and good wear resistance. In addition, chromium
increases tensile strength and corrosion resistance of low
alloy steels.
% of Cr in steel uses
8% electrical purposes
15% springs, ball and roller bearings.
• Manganese steel:
– Manganese low alloy steels are
characterized by:
Mn 1.6 to 1.9%
C 0.18 to 0.48%
Si 0.2 to S and P <= 0.040%
0.35% each.
– Manganese increase hardness and tensile strength. A
secondary effect is an increased resistance to abrasion.
The steels also withstands the shock test excellently.
– Manganese steels are used for making.
• Power shovel buckets
• Grinding and crushing machinery
• Railway tracks, etc.