Fundamental of Machining

1- The Machine Tool selected to perform the process

2- The Cutting Tool selected (Geometry & Material)
3- Properties and Parameters of the workpiece
4-The Cutting Parameters selected:
(Speed, Feed, Depth of Cut)

Example: In Turning Operation

*Speed (V) = The speed of the cutting tool relative to
workpiece meter/ min
*Feed (fr) = The amount of material removed per
revolution mm/rev
*Depth of Cut (d) = The distance of the Tool is plunged
into the workpiece surface
d = (D1-D2)/2
V = π (D N)/1000
Material Removal Rate
MRR = 1000*V*fr*d = mm3/min

Volume of Metal Removed = MRR*Tm mm 3

Machining Time = Tm = (L + Allowance)/fr*N

Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining:

• The geometry of most practical machining operations is

complex.
• A simplified model of machining is available that
neglects many of the geometric complexities. It is called
the orthogonal cutting model.
• Actual machining process is three-dimensional; the
orthogonal model has only two dimensions that play
active roles in the analysis.

The Orthogonal Cutting Model:

• Orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped.

• The cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of
cutting speed.
• As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is
formed by shear deformation along a plane called the
shear plane, which is oriented at an angle (ø) with the
surface of the work.
• Only use sharp edges.
• Along the shear plane, where the bulk of the mechanical
energy is consumed in machining, the material is
plastically deformed.
• The tool in orthogonal cutting has only two elements of
geometry: (1) Rake angle (2) Clearance angle.
• During cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is positioned
a certain distance below the original work surface. This
corresponds to the thickness of the chip prior to chip
formation, (to).
• As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its
thickness increases to (tc).
• The ratio of (to) to (tc) is called the chip thickness ratio
(or simply the chip ratio) r:

r = to / tc
The geometry of the orthogonal cutting model allows us to
establish an important relationship between:

the chip thickness ratio, the rake angle, and the shear plane
angle.
• Let (ls) be the length of the shear plane.
• We can make the substitutions:
to= ls sin ø, and tc =ls cos (ø - α)

r = ls sin ø / ls cos (ø - α) = sin ø /cos (ø - α)

r = (sin ø) / (cos ø cos α + sin ø sin α)

Divide by sin ø

r / sin ø = 1/ (cos ø cos α + sin ø sin α)

sin ø = r (cos ø cos α + sin ø sin α)

1 = r [ (cos ø cos α /sin ø) + (sin ø sin α/ sin ø)]

1= r [ (cos α / tan ø) + sin α ]

1 = [r cos α / tan ø] + [r sin α]

r (cos α / tan ø) = 1- r sin α

• This can be rearranged to determine (ø) as follows:

tan ø = r cos α / (1- r sin α)
 • The shear strain that occurs along the shear plane can
be estimated by examining Figure 21.7.

FIGURE 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation:

(a) Chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other;
(b) One of the plates isolated to illustrate the definition of shear strain based on this parallel plate model.
(c) Shear strain triangle used to derive Eq. (21.4).

Shear strain Ɣ = AC /BD = (AD+DC)/ BD

Ɣ= tan (ø - α) + cot ø
Example:

In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal

cutting, the cutting tool has a rake angle =10◦. The chip

thickness before the cut to = 0.50 mm and the chip thickness

after the cut tc =1.125 mm. Calculate the shear plane angle

and the shear strain in the operation.

Solution:

The chip thickness ratio r = 0.5/ 1.125 =0.444

The shear angle tan ø = 0.444 cos10/ (1- 0.444 sin10)=0.4738

Ø = 25.4◦

Shear strain Ɣ =tan (25.4-10) + cot 25.4

Ɣ = 0.275 +2.111= 2.386

Actual Chip Formation:

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than shear
plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool–chip friction
 Chip Formation Theories

Thin Zone Theory Thick Zone Theory

Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

2- Model Forces 3-Model Forces

Input
Output
α
to r = to / tc

tc tan ø = r cos α / (1- r sin α)

W
Ɣ= tan (ø - α) + cot ø
Chip formation in metal cutting could
be categorized into three types:

1- Discontinuous chip

2- Continuous chip

3- Continuous chip with BUE

Discontinuous Chip

• When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the

deformed material gets fractured very easily

• The chips produced is in the form of

discontinuous segments

• The cutting forces become unstable

Continuous Chip
• Continuous chips are normally produced when
machining steel or ductile metals at high cutting
speeds

• Some ideal conditions that promote continuous

chips in metal cutting:
- Sharp cutting edge
- Small chip thickness (fine feed)
-Large rake angle
-Ductile work material
 Advantages
- Good surface finish
- Higher tool life
- Lower power consumption

Continuous chip with BUE

When the friction between tool and chip is high while
machining ductile materials, some particles of chips
adhere to the tool rake face near the tool tip. It acts as a
cutting edge in place of the actual cutting edges.
- This termed as built up edge.
-BUE is harder than the parent material.
- This causes the finished surface to be rough
- The life of the cutting tool increases
Orthogonal Cutting
The edge of Cutting Tool is straight and parallel to the
workpiece surface and perpendicular to the direction of
cutting

Oblique Cutting
The edge of Cutting Tool is straight and parallel to the
original plane surface of the workpiece and inclined
angle(e)with perpendicular to the direction of cutting
 Energy and Power in Machining
Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

Two Model Forces Three Model Forces

1- Fc = Primary Cutting Force acting in the

direction of the Cutting Velocity
2- Ff = Feed Force acting in the direction of
the Tool feed
3- Fr = Radial or thrust force acting
perpendicular to the machined surface
*Power Required = P= FV
*Power Required at Spindle
Pc=Fc*V/60 Watt = (N. m/S)
*Specific Power (Ps)= Pc*60000/MRR (N/mm2)
*Motor Power (Pm) = (Ps*MRR*CF) / (E*60000)
Where: E= Efficiency of the machine = 80%
CF = Correction factor =1.25 used for dull tool
Merchant’s Model
• Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting As has been
mentioned previously, there are two schools of
thoughts with regard to plastic deformation at the
cutting zone.
• The thin zone model is more useful for analytical
purposes. The current analysis is based on Merchant s
thin shear plane model which considers the minimum
energy principle. This model is applicable at very high
cutting speeds which are generally practiced in
production.

The assumptions with regard to this model

are:
1- The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact
along the clearance face.
2. The surface where the shear occurs is a plane.
3. The cutting edge is a straight line which extends
perpendicular to the direction of motion and generates
a plane surface as are work moves past it.
4. The chip does not flow to either side, or there is no
side spread.
5. Uncut chip thickness is constant.
6. Width of the tool is greater than the width of the
work.
7. A continuous chip is produced without any BUE.
8. Work moves with a uniform velocity
9. The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly
distributed.
Force Relationships and Merchant Equation:
• Several forces can be defined relative to the orthogonal
cutting model. Based on these forces, shear stress,
coefficient of friction, and certain other relationships can
be defined.

Forces in Cutting:

Forces in metal cutting: (a) Forces acting on the chip in orthogonal

cutting (b) Forces acting on the tool can be measured

• Consider the forces acting on the chip during orthogonal

cutting in the above Figure.
• The forces applied against the chip by the tool can be
separated into two mutually perpendicular components:
Friction force (F) and Normal force to friction (N)
• The friction force F is the frictional force resisting the
flow of the chip along the rake face of the tool.
• The normal force to friction N is perpendicular to the
friction force.
• These two components can be used to define the
coefficient of friction between the tool and the chip:

µ = F/ N (21.5)

• The friction force and its normal force can be added

vectorially to form a resultant force R, which is oriented
at angle β, called the friction angle.
• The friction angle is related to the coefficient of friction
as:
µ= tan β (21.6)

• In addition to the tool forces acting on the chip, there

are two force components applied by the workpiece on
the chip:
Shear force and Normal force to shear
• The shear force Fs is the force that causes shear
deformation to occur in the shear plane.
• The normal force to shear Fn is perpendicular to the
shear force.
 • Based on the shear force, we can define the shear
stress that acts along the shear plane between the work
and the chip:
Ʈ = FS/As (21.7)
Where As = area of the shear plane.

This shear plane area can be calculated as:

As = (to w) / Sinø (21.8)

• The shear stress in Eq. (21.7) represents the level of

stress required to perform the machining operation.
• Therefore, this stress is equal to the shear strength of the
work material (Ʈ= S) under the conditions at which
cutting occurs.
• Vector addition of the two force components Fs and Fn
yields the resultant force R’.
• In order for the forces acting on the chip to be in balance,
this resultant R’ must be equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction, and collinear with the resultant R.

• The four force components F, N, Fs, and Fn can NOT be

directly measured in a machining operation, because the
directions in which they are applied vary with different
 tool geometries and cutting conditions. However, it is
possible for the cutting tool to be instrumented using a
force measuring device called a dynamometer.

• So that two additional force components acting against

the tool can be directly measured: Cutting force (Fc) and
Thrust force (Ft).

• The cutting force Fc is in the direction of cutting, the same

direction as the cutting speed v, and the thrust force Ft is
perpendicular to the cutting force and is associated with
the chip thickness before the cut to. The cutting force and
thrust force are shown in below Figure together with their
resultant force R’’

Forces acting on the tool that can be measured

• The respective directions of these forces are known, so
the force transducers in the dynamometer can be
aligned accordingly.
• Equations can be derived to relate the four force
components that cannot be measured to the two forces
that can be measured. Using the force diagram in below
Figure.

Force diagram showing geometric relationships between

F, N, Fs, Fn, Fc, and Ft

• The following trigonometric relationships can be

derived:
 F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α (21.9)
N = Fc cos α - Ft sin α (21.10)

Fs = Fc cos ø - Ft sin ø (21.11)

Fn = Fc sin ø + Ft cos ø (21.12)

• If cutting force and thrust force are known, these four

equations can be used to calculate estimates of shear
force, friction force, and normal force to friction.

• Based on these force estimates, shear stress and

coefficient of friction can be determined.

• Note that in the special case of orthogonal cutting when

the rake angle α = 0, Eqs. (21.9) and (21.10) reduce to F =
Ft and N= Fc

• Thus, in this special case, friction force and its normal

force could be directly measured by the dynamometer.
Example:

In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal

cutting, the cutting tool has a rake angle =10◦. The chip
thickness before the cut to = 0.50 mm and the chip thickness
after the cut tc =1.125 mm. If the cutting force and thrust force
are measured during this operation:

Fc = 1559 N and Ft =1271 N. The width of the orthogonal cutting

operation w = 3.0 mm. Based on these data, determine the
shear strain and shear strength of the work material.

Solution:

The chip thickness ratio r = to / tc = r = 0.5/ 1.125 =0.444

The shear angle tan ø = 0.444 cos10/ (1- 0.444 sin10) =0.4738

Ø = 25.4◦

Shear strain Ɣ =tan (25.4-10) + cot 25.4

Ɣ = 0.275 +2.111= 2.386

Fs = 1559 cos 25.4 -1271 sin 25.4 = 863 N

The shear plane area is given by: As = (to w) / Sinø

As = (0.5) (3.0) / sin 25.4 = 3.497mm2

Thus the shear stress, which equals the Shear Strength of
the work material, is Ʈ = S= FS / AS = 863/ 3.497 = 247 N/mm2

Ʈ = S = 247 MPa

• This example demonstrates that cutting force and thrust

force are related to the shear strength of the work
material.
• The relationships can be established in a more direct
way.
• Recalling from Eq. (21.7) that the shear force Fs = S*As,
the force diagram of Figure 21.11 can be used to derive
the following equations:

Fc = S*to w* cos (β - α) / sin ø cos (ø + β - α) (21.13)

Fc = Fs cos (β - α) / cos (ø + β - α)

and Ft = S*to w* sin (β - α) / sin ø cos (ø + β - α)

(21.14)

Ft = Fs sin (β - α) / cos (ø + β - α)
 • These equations allow one to estimate cutting force and
thrust force in an orthogonal cutting operation if the
shear strength of the work material is known.

The Merchant Equation:

• One of the important relationships in metal cutting was

derived by Merchant.
• Its derivation was based on the assumption of
orthogonal cutting, machining operations. Merchant
started with the definition of shear stress expressed in
the form of the following relationship derived by
combining Eqs. (21.7), (21.8), and (21.11):

Ʈ= (Fc cos ø - Ft sin ø) / (tow/sin ø) (21.15)

This angle can be determined by taking the derivative of the

shear stress S in Eq. (21.15) with respect to f and setting the
derivative to zero. Solving for Ø, we get the relationship
named after Merchant:

Ø = 45+ (α/2) - (β/2) (21.16)

Example:

Using the data and results from our previous

examples, Determine:
(a) The friction angle

(b) The coefficient of friction.

Solution:

(a) From Example 21.1, α = 10◦, and Ø = 25.4◦.

Rearranging Eq. (21.16), the friction angle can be

estimated:

β = 2 (45) +10 - 2 (25.4) = 49.2◦

(b) The coefficient of friction is given by Eq. (21.6):

µ = tan 49.2 = 1.16

 Forces Groups

Cutting Forces Shear Forces Friction Forces

Fc and Ft Fs and Fn F and N

Fs = Fc cos ø - Ft sin ø F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α

Fn = Fc sin ø + Ft cos ø N = Fc cos α - Ft sin α

As = (to w) / Sinø μ = F/ N
Ʈ = S= FS / AS μ= tan β