[une vi) Algebraic Structures Igebraic Structure Q.1 Define binary operation. FSISPPU : Dec. Aus. : Binary operation : I) Let A be any non empty set. A function f: AXA-—A is called the binary operation on the set A. ‘s' is a binary operation on the set A iff a* be A V a,be A and a* bis unique. I) An n-ary operation on a set A¥ 6, is a function f: AXAx...xA(ntimes) 9A ie. f: A7 3A The n-ary operation is defined for each n-tuple (a,,a,...a,)€A for areA Ifn = I then fis called unary operation Ifn = 2 then fis called binary operation If n = 3 then fis called ternary operation Examples 1) A function f : RR such that f(x) = x ; VxeN then f is a unary operation. 2) A function f : Rx R— R such that fx, y) = x + y then f is a binary operation. 3) A function f : Zx Zx Z— Z such that f(x, y, z) =x +y +z. then f is a ternary operation. Properties of binary operations 1) Commutative property A binary operation "*' on A is said to be commutative if a*b = b*a, for allabeA. eg.x+y= y+xandx xy =y x x for all x, yeR a el 6-Be: pete Mathematics 6-2 Algebraic Structures _ytand 'x' are commutative binary operations on R° gut'—' is not commutative on R ») associative property : binary operation '*' on set A is said to be associative if ye(bee)= @*b)¥C; Vab,ce A eg.‘ and 'x' are associative on the set of real numbers ‘is not ssociative on R I) Idempotent * A binary operation '*' on set A is said to be idempotent if a*a = a ; for alacA eg. 1) 1 is idempotent element in Xw.r.t. binary operation 'X'. 2) 0 is idempotent element in Rw.rt. +. 3) 1 is not idempotent element in R wart. '+'. Q2 For each of the following, determine whether * is a binary operation. i) R is the set of real numbers and a *b = ab ii) z* is the set of positive integers and a *b = a/b. iti) On z* where a *b=a—b. iv) On R, where a *b = min {a, b} v) On R, where a *b = ax|b| vi) On z, where a*b= a>, Ans.: i) Yes, since f : R? +R defined as f{a, b) = ab is a function, withabeR ii) No, since (a,b) €z* x z* does not imply that a*b = 3 € z (i, 2)eztx zt, but 12 €2z* ili) No, since (1, 2) € 2" x z* but iv) Yes, since, * is a function with min {a, b}eR v) Yes, since * is a function with ax |b|eR Vi) No, since 2*(I)= 2 = Fez * it following operati Q.3 Determine whether or not tolow! ions on the set integers Z are associative. i) Division ii) Exponentiation mis SS Isppu ; Dec.-05, Marks 3] A Guide for En, igineering Stud, i lents4 i Discrete Mathematics 6-3 : e Algebraic Sy rctures Ans. : i) Division on the set of integers is not associative as . (aye # al(ble) ii) Exponentiation on the set o} (a®ye # ae) f integers is not associative as Q.4 Consider the binary operation * defined on the set A = {a, b, c, d} by the following table. Find i) cxd and d*c il) b+d and d*b iii) a*(b* 0) and (a*b)*c iv) Is * commutative, associative ? Ans. : ) cxd =a dec=a ii) bed = deb=b ii) bec = b ax(bc)=ab=c axb=c Hence (a*b)*c = cc =a iv) « is not commutative, since b¥d # d*b % is also not associative, since a*(b*c)#(a*b)*c Q.5 Define groupoid, semigroup, monoid with examples. ES |SPPU : Dec.-06, 13] Ans. : 1. Groupoid : A non empty set k with binary operation "*' is called groupoid if the binary operation " satisfies Va,be G,a*b € G In other words, every algebraic structure is groupoid. eg. (B+) (8 (Z, +), (Z, x) are groupoids. 2. Semigroup : A non empty set G with bin: eta ts da semigroup if it satisfies the following propeities 4 Saal aa a*(b¥c) = (a*b)*c; Va, b, ceG jie. '*" is associative in G A Guide for Engineering Studentsa . Mathematics 6-4 Algebraic Structures i enigrUP is said to be commutative if * i: on * is commutati sn 4 i lative. at y ), (N, +), (Z, +) are commutative semigroups. ii) (4 *), (Z, *) are commutative semigroup: , x 8. iii) (Z, —) is not a semigroup as ‘~" is not associati a sol ‘ive. 1G be a non empty set and i called monoid if. * be a binary operation on G. G, *)is j) associative property : a*(b¥c)= (axb)*e ; Va, b, ceG ii) Existence of identity : 4 i — ity an element e€ G such that exa =axe= a; The element 'e’ is called the identity element. eg 1) (R +) isa monoid as atbe® Va,b eR ie. +) is closed ndardbtozeathte vaeX Rw. +. ndotazatore (is the identity element in (C,x) (Zt) x)s a monoid but N, +) i a6 Show that the algebrait +) is a monoid, where A is the set of integers am 14! is a binary operation giving addition of two integers: SS[SPPU : Dec.-06, Marks 4) defined on A. a+b is an integer. Example 1: (C, +)» (Q, +) are monoids. Example 2 : W,”% is s not monoid as 0 € N ic system (Ay e the set of, ali integers and ‘+ Ans. ¢ Let Ab patbeAs VabeAs i) Closure property erty * aby res Va dcer ii) Associative prop at ( le iii) Existence of identity element : aoeA such that For any © atom otaza +) is a monoid. gnerefore A| = Discrete Mathematics 6-5 Algebraic. Struct es 6.2 : Group and Abelian Group Q.7 Define group and abelian group. 1[SPPU : Dec.-08,09,10,12, May-14, Marks 4 Ans. : Let G be a non empty set equipped with a binary operation 14: (G, *) is called a group if it satisfies the following postulates or axioms, i) Associativity : a*(b *c)= (a*b)*c; V a,b,c EG ii) Existence of the identity : For anyae G, J eeG sit. axe = eta =a; ‘An element e is called the identity element in (G, * ) iii) Existence of the inverse : For all ac G,3 b eG such that © a*b = bea=e Then b is called the inverse of a:in (G, * ) b=al Abellan Group or Commutative Group : A group (G, *) is called an Abelian group if a*b = bea 3 VabeG i.e.* is commutative in (G, +) Q.8 Explain properties of group with proof. US [SPPU : Dec.10, Marks 2] Ans. : 1) The identity clement in a group is unique. ed + Suppose e, and e, are two identity elements in group G. We have, ¢, e, = e, ; if e, is identity element in G. we ®2 3 Ife, is identity element in G. 1&2" © = e. Hence the identi a is uni 1) The inverse of each clement in mice see ae unique, and ge = = Let a be any element of a "SISPPU : Dec.-10, Marks 4] Soup G and let ¢ be identity element in grouP A Guide for Engineering Studerpierce Mathematios 6-6 Algebraic Structures yehave, b = be=b (ac) b = (ba)c b= ec bee Hence, the inverse of each element is unique. [The inverse of an inverse of the element is the original element. ie. If the inverse of a is a” then (ay! = a. Proof : Let e € G be the identity element of the group G. Let ae G. We have, ata=e ('y' @'a = @yte .. (Multiplying by (@'y") @y @1a=e@y a. (¢ Associativity of e identity) ea= @y! > a= (a'y' Hence, the proof TV)Prove that the inverse of the product of two elements of a group G is the product of the inverses taken in reverse order. i.e. (aby? = bt at, Vas beG. Proof : Let a? and b” be the inverses of a and b in a group G respectively. Let ¢ be the identity in G. Then da = aa! =e and bib =b'b=e Consider, (ab) @' #7) = 2G) (+ Associativity) a(eat cms = (ae) a = ad =e a Similarly, 7a") @b) = bt @tab=b@d =bowe - From equation (1) and equation (2), (ab) (bay = (gt yan bo! a is the inverse of ab (aby! = bt at tion laws hold ii : we that the cancella Wold In'a'sciche.'f ren ab = aC =? b=cand ba=ca= b=, ip. abeeG at i F; proof : Let ‘be any element in G and ¢ be the identity element of a group G- Now we haveoN Discrete Mathematics 6-7 Aeebrate Strict 7 get, a (ac) @'a)e we Associativity) Similarly, ba = ca = (baa! = (ca) a => b=c Hence, the proof VD If a, b are any elements of a group G then equation ax = b and ya = b have unique solutions in G. Proof: LetaeG +. 3a? © G such that aa? = aa'eGandbeGoabeG, Now substituting ab for'x in the L.H.S. given equation, we get, ax = a (ab) = (aa) b= eb =b Thus, x = a'b is the solution of ax = b Let us suppose that x, and X, are two solutions of ax = b. a ax, = band ax, =b = b = ax, = ax) > x, = x, Hence solution is unique, ' = be =ce = Similarly prove for ya = b, Q.9 If set Q, of all rational n umbers oth i *b =a+D— ab. Show that (G, +) is st ceaneg * ETOUP-E=ISPPU : Dec.-09, Marks 4] ~ab, Va beG, »PEQa#1, bel abe. wre at Pm abel anda t beg H Q is closed wart, * Gi) Associativity : Let @*he abceQ. @+b~ abe u + ators be — abe oO) ire +eor = e eae eee A Guide for Engineering Studenseee got MatEMEBES GH Alpebrsic Srauccires From equation (1) and equation (2) i @thtc= a*(b*o) . # js associative ii Existence of the identity : Let e be the identity element in Q, a*e=a 5 ate = ae=a 2 e-ae=0 = e(l-a) =0 @uw 2-1) 2 e=0 +, Ois the identity element. iv) Existence of the inverse : Let ac Q.ael Suppose b € Q, is the inverse of a. ‘ a*b=e > at+b-—ab=0 > atb(l-a)=0 b(l-a) =-a > b= oa ysl and be, +. The inverse exist for all a in Q. Thus, (Q,, *) is a group. Q40 If S = {(a,b)|a #0, a, b, © I and (a, b) * (c, d) = (ac, be + a) then show that G is a group but not abelian group w.r.t.* Ans, : (i) Closure property : Let (a, b) (© de Ssar0;c=0 2 ac #0. * = (ac, be + de S oo ae : Let (@, b), © d) and (© Des ae (c, a] * (= [a be + d) * (¢, f) = ([ac] e, [be + dye = 9 a So eiactip, ~ Q10.1) 1 = (a, b)* Lee, de + £] =[ace, b (ce) « * a* ef. anata, ») * (o> 9 (ace, bee + de + fy de+qSage, ™_ Q.10.2) * is associative Operation ion ( From equation (Q.10.1) and equatio! Let (a, b) € S and (% YIES, x x9 (iit) Existence of the identity * = (a, b) | Consider, (a,b) *@%y) = & » | (ax, bx + y) = (@, = ax =a and bey = => x= andb+y => = -_ Similarly, (x, y)* @ b) = @ ») i identity element in S. (1, 0) is the identity e! os (iv) Existence of the inverse : Let (a, b) and (c, d) (ad) * (ad) = (1, 0) (ac, be + d) = (1, 0) = ac = 1 and be+d=0 1 c=a a b co d = ~be=-— and c #0 Thus | cee lis the inverse of (a, b) in S. a a) Thus (S, *) is a group, Consider, (a, b) * (c, d) = (ac, bo + d) and (c, d) * (a,b) = (ca, da + b) = B®)" Cd) *e Gd ap Thus, (S, *) is ie an abelian Broup. ” O41 IG = |]* x] / x |/*#8 non zero real number}. Show that 6 * rt, an abelian roup w, Ans, ; (i) Closure Prop matrix multiplication, erty : Let - As x kh smn | a yy /yr 2xy 2x Ble x xX|ly Yio a, Yleg tbe x x y. xy 2xy o Associativity + ‘We know that any matrix multiplication is associative. i . aye e . a) Existence of the identity : Let E -|; ‘| such that ApsAS> x x]fe e|_ |e ‘} x xfle e ee ‘Qxe 2xe|_[e ‘| 2xe 2xe] Le © 2 2 2dxe =e - 2 x=1 ee = 2 a 2 2 Eee is the identity element of G. 22 (iv) Existence of the inverse : Let A = [: ‘| Gand x xX a-P 3 [=o sucht AB=E y. Y oxy Oxy] _ = |oxy 2xy] pie NIP i 2 L 2fi Balen IK (¥) Commutative property : 2 xy xy] We have, AB = BA 7 - xy 25) Thus G is an abelian group Ws. matrix multiplication. Q42 Let & be the set of all non-zero real numbers and let a*be= Show that (G, *) is an abelisn group, ES [Seu ? Dec.-08, Marks) Ans. : @ Closure property : Let 2. b = G. abl eG alah G@ Associativity : Let a,b cog Consider 2 * (bc) = arf Bc)_ 20d) _ abe @*b*c =/ = * is associative in G. Gil) Existence of the identity : Ler ae . =e such ¢ ate uke Such thar 2 => ae = 22 = c=2 -. 2 is the identity element in G. (iv) Existence mene CoC =2 Wh theta = 4 18 = 2Algebraic Structures 2 bet 3. The inverse of a is 2 ,VaeG. 0) Commutativity : Let a, be G ane and bta= =_* is commutative Thus, (G, *) is an abelian group. Q.13 Show that the set G = {l, wy w} where w is the cube root of unity is a group with respect to multiplication. ISP[SPPU : Dec.-12, Marks 6] ‘Ans. : Consider the following composition table of G. () Closure property : From table all elements belong to G. +. Gis closed wart. multiplication. (i) Associativity : As all elements of G are complex numbers and multiplication of complex. numbers is associative. + G, 8) is associative. (ii) Existence of the identity : From the composition table AM = 1,1 @)=1,1 w= + 1 is multiplicative identity in G. ©) Existence of the inverse : From table, the inverses of 1, w, w are 1, + W respectively. Thus (G, x) is a group. wae *) be a group. Show that (A, *) is abelian group a [@PISPPU ; Dec.-12, Marks 4] ‘A Guide for Engineering Students os”Algeb Discrete Mathemuties aM Bebra Strucy,, Ans. Let (A, *) be an abelian group, atbe bra | Consider, a? # b? = (a # a)" (b * b) mat (arb) tb. (1 is 4Ss0ciative) = at (b ta) *b= (4% b)* (a%b) wep? = (at by Conversely suppose vty = @* by (Q.141) LS, = a? * b= (a% a) 4% (bb) =a% (a%b)* db RHS, = (a by =(a* b)* (a b)=a*% (b*% a) 4b Equation (1) => a*(a*b)*b=a*(b*a)*b By cancellation laws, atb=bta = (A, *) is an abelian group, Q.15 Show that the set of-all idem potents in a commutative monoid S is a submonoid of S. : E@ISPPU : Dec.-12, Marks 4] Ans. : We know that an clement xe § is called an idempotent if x*x= x. Let T be the set of all idempotents in §, i) For any x, yeT, Consider Cory )e (xny) = ((xty exjey = (¥4 (x#x))ey = (yex)ay = (X#Y)RY = xe (yey) = yu on “YET forall x, yeT ae T is closed wart, ‘«? ii) Asset, Let x, W2ET CS Sie Ut) ™ Oy) 82in T Ss associative in T iil) Existence of the identity ; Let ¢ be the identi tity element j . ¢ is the identity clement in a 55 a iei crete Mathematics Gold pis Algebrate Structures :. T is a monoid Thus T is a submonoid of S. a6 Prove that the set Z of all integers with binary operation « defined by @ xb = a+b + 1 such that V a,b¢ Z is an abelian group = (Gr[SPPU : May-14, Marks 4] Ans. We havea*b=at+b+1 , VabeZ i) Closure property For abeZ=atbt+leZ>a*beZ +. Zis closed w.r.t. * ii) Associative : Let a,b,c eZ (axbyze = (at b +1) ¥e =atb+lt+et+l=atbt+cet+2 2 (Q.16.1) and ax(b*c) = a%(b +c+1) , =atb+co+1t+1=atbt+cr+2 w+ (Q.16.2) From equation (Q.16.1) and equation (Q.16.2) (a * b) *¢=a* (bc) ». # is associative in Z iii) Existence of the identity : ~ te be the identity in Zz “. ForanyaeZ, axe=e*a =a =atet+l=a setl=a = e =~-1 is the identity element in Z iv) Existence of the inverse : Let a S (z4, 0) is groupoid, monoid, semigroup and abelian group ? ! USP[SPPU : Dec.-11} Ams. : We have z4=({0, 1, 2, 3}Discrete Mathematics Table of z4 is i) From table, for any a, b € zy, 29D € Z4 < (Z4, 0) is a groupoid and 0 is a binary operation in zyi.e. 0 is closed in 24. ii) Semigroup : By table for any a, b, c, € Zz a9(b0c) = (a0b)Oc 2. 0 is associative in 24 OR Let adber and boc=t . ab = 4p+r and be = 4/+t (a0b)0c = ces where to=4q+s a0(b0c) =adt=k where at=4m+k Prove that s=k a(be) = 4altat=4al+amek wae (Q19.1) (ab)e = (p+re= dpe +40 = dpe + aq + 5 was (Q192) Equations (Q.19.1) and equation (Q.19.2) are equal % Aaltdmtk = 4pe+dq +5 =>k=s Hence (a0b)0c =a (b0c) Thus (24, 0) is a semigroup iii) Monoid ; 2 ae the first row and the at 4 9 = O+ 95 “O's the ident ae ity clement in Z SSrete Mathematics 6-18 = Algebrate Structures thus from (i), (ii) and Gi), (24, +) is a monoid, iv) Existence of the inverse From table, identify the identity elements. x is the inverse of 3 in 24 A x03 = 0 and x03=4if3x=4m+r 3x-4m = 0 2 3x = 4m 2 x= * which is an integer For m = 1,2, x is not an integer For m= 3 x = 4 which is an integer But x = 4€24 Thus 3 does not have inverse in 24 1. (24,0) is not a group Hence (24, 0) is not an abelian group. Q.20 Define permutation group. Ans. : I) Let S = {1, 2, 3, ..., n} be a finite set with n distinct elements. If f; SS is a bijective function then f is called a permutation of degree n. Let fay) = by, faz )=b2, fas )= bs, vw flay ) = bg Then the permutation is denoted by -(h ay a3 we ha econ by by b3 we Dn — Elements in Co -domain 11) The permutation corresponding to the identity fimetion is called the identity permutation pa(l 42 43 ee An by by byw. bp migg, = (21 #2 83 ~~ 8 Jang fy = by by bz «bp by by bz wu. bp 2 lec: 63 mm Cn Then the product of two permutations is given byON Algeby Discrete Mathematics 6-19 gel ale Struct, . ay a2 a3 fifp = c Cy eg” C3 =a, 2 ¢} and so on) ‘0 write product use ay > by 9¢)=41 7° ) PI 1 6.3 : Subgroup Q.21 Define complexes and subgroups. Ans. : 1) Complex of a group : Let (G,*) be a group. Any nop empty subset of a group G is called a complex of the group. eg. Hy = (1,2, 3,4, 5}, Hp = (1, 2,3, »-}, H; =Z are complexes of a group (K, 4) 2. Subgroup Let (G, *) be a group. A non empty subset H of a group G, is said to be subgroup of G if (H, *) itself is a group. Examples 1) (Z, +) is a subgroup of (R +) 2) (R +) is a subgroup of (¢, +) 3) (N, +) is not a subgroup of (Z, +) 4) (Ro, -) is a subgroup of (Zy, ) 5) (Uh, -)is a subgroup of (Q5, +), (Ny, +), (CZ, +) 6) (% +) is a subgroup of (St, +) Note : 1) {e} aid {G} are sub; improper subgroups, 2) Subgroups which are not i Q.22 Explain properties of eroups of group G : These subgroups are called mproper are called proper subgroups. Subgroup with proof, Ans. : Theorem 1) : , 8 that of the group Let H be a subgroup of the Stoup G. Prove thet the identity of a subgroup is the same [+e is identity of GI A Guide for Engineering Stuel™ae pret Matemates 6-20 Algebraic Structures ea = ea », in G we have, : bo [by right cancellation law in G] Theorem Il) : Prove that the inverse of any element of a subgroup is the same as the inverse of the same regarded as an element of the group. Let H be a subgroup of the group G. Let ¢ be the identity of G as well as of H. Let a € H, suppose b is the inverse of a in H and c is the inverse of a in G, Then we have, ba and ca=e in G we have, ba = ca= b= Theorem Ill) : Prove that the order of any element of a subgroup is the same as the order of the element regarded as a member of the group. Let H be a subgroup of the group G. Let ae H, But ae G and a"=e in G, Pe a" = ¢ in H also, Hence the proof. Theorem IV) : A necessary and sufficient condition for a non-empty subset H of a group G to be a subgroup is that a € H, b H= ab“ H where b™ is the inverse of b in G. Suppose H is a subgroup of G. Let a€ H, b € H, Now each element of H must possess inverse because H itself is a group. beH=>b'eH, Further H must be closed with respect to multiplication i, the composition in G, 96H, bi eH= abeH ; () The condition is sufficient. Now it is given that a € H, beH= ab eH, We have to prove that H is a subgroup of G. (i) Existence of identity : Wehave ae H,acH= aa eH .» By given condition >ecH Thus the identity ¢ is an element of H. ‘A Guide for Engineering Students(iii) Existence of inverse + Let a be any clement of H. Then by eeHacH=cateH=>a eH. Thus each element of H possesses inverse. (iv) Closure property : Let a, b € H. Then as shown above be H = b'¢ H. Therefore applying the given condition we have, 2cH, bi cH=a(by'eH=> abeH. (v) Associativity : The elements of H are also the elements of G. The composition in G is associative. Therefore, it must also be associative in H. Hence H itself is a group for the composition in G. Therefore, H is a subgroup of G. Theorem V) : If H, and H, are two subgroups of a group G, then H, OH, is also a subgroup of G. Let H, and H, be any two subgroups of G. Then H, 7 H, #9 Since at least the identity element e is common to both H, and H,. the given condition, we have, In order to prove that H, © H, is a subgroup it is sufficient to prove that 2H, 0H,,beEH, AH, = ab" HAH, Now, a¢H, OH, = a€H, andae H, 2¢H, OH, = be H, and be H, But H,, H, are subgroups, is aH, beH, = able H, 46H, be H, = ab? ; 5 Ly = abe Finally abl eH, i eo a lenan Thus, we hav my . "shown that, a6 Hy WH, be H OH, = able HO Hence fi 1, is a subgroup of G, : ' Theo: : Mie cae 4 Show that the union of two : One is contained in the other, ‘Uppose Hy and H, are two Subgri ¢ me (eee hcH, HOH = Ht or, Sa Subgroups is a subgroup if Cups of a group G,les 6-22 je Mathematl pel Algebrale Structures H, are subgroups and therefore, H, ot By He ; » Hy U Hy, is also a subj Powel) suppose H, U H2 is a subgroup. To prove that H, ¢ H, o ve 6 Br . : et us assume that H, is not a subset of H, and H, is also not a subset of Hy Now H, is not a subset of H, > 3 a¢H, and a¢H, we (Q.22.1) and H, is not a subset of H, > 3b € H, and Be H, see (Q.22.2) From equation (9.22.1) and (Q.22.2) We have, 2 € Hy UH, and be H, UH since H, U H, is a subgroup, therefore :ab = c (say) is also an element of H, UH . ; But ab = ce H, UH = ab=ceH, or Hy Suppose ab = CE y, Then b=a'ceH, .. FH, is a subgroup. “a € Hy > ate H] But from (2), we have b € H,. Thus we get the contradiction. Again suppose ab = c € Hy Then, a = cb'eH, wa [2 Hy is a subgroup, therefore b € Hy, = bi eH) But from (1), we have a ¢ H,, Thus here also we get a contradiction. Hence either H; C H, or Hy © Hy Q.23 Is union of two subgroups is a subgroup? If not, give example. Ans. : The union of two subgroups is, not necessarily a subgroup. va Hy 4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6 on} Hy = (0-6, -3, 0, 3, 6 »-} are subgroup of (Z, +) a Hy UH) = (-6, -4, -3, -2, 0, 2,3, 4, 6 any © Hy UH, but 2 +3 =5¢ Hy UH2 “+ + is not binaty operation on Hy UH ©. H) UH) is not a subgroup of G. oa ae cosets with example. + Let (G,*) be a group and H be any subgroup of G- a = ‘A Guide for Engineering StudentsAls ic Discrete Mathematics 6-23 igebraic ‘Structures Let a € Gbe any element, then the set Hea = {h#a}/Vhe H} is called a right coset of H in G, and a®H = {axh/Whe H)is called a left coset of H in G, Note : 1) H*a and a*H are subsets of G. 2) If (G, *) is an abelian group then H*a = a* Hin G. eg. 1) Let (Z, +) is a group and H = (..., -10, -5, 0, 5, 10, ....} is a subgroup of G = 7 “For le Z, H+1 9, 4,1, 6 Uy sed} 3eZ, {ony “7, 2p 3, 8, 13, osu SEZ, H+5 = (..,-5,0, 5, 10,...) =H are right cosets of H in G. " Q.25 Order of an element of a group. Ans. : Let (G,-) be a group. The smallest positive integer is called the order of an element a€ Gif a" = e(identity element in G) If is denoted by o(a) = n. If no such positive number exists, then we say that a is of infinite order or zero order. Note : 1) For the order of the group is the 2) The order of the identity element 3) Ina group G, o(a) = ofa! 4) Ina group G, ofa) < o(G) Q.26 Define cyclic group, number of distinct elements in G. tis 1 ie. o(e) = 1 3 VaeG Aus. : A group G such that every ele integer. is called a cycti 7 ment xe G peas froup if 5 at least one element a€G © Written as x = gm Where m is some A Guide for Engineering Students6-24 1, +l, i, 4} @izi @= we bave b GH, a4 yay iis the generator of G=> Gis a cyclic group. ae loeover, C= Gi? =H, Gi)? =i, Ga =1 dis also generator of G 7 G== q27 Define normal subgroups, ‘ns, 1 A subgroup H of a group (G, *) is said to be a {ro if forall geG and for all he H fence gebeg eH (We may write gh gleH) Every group G possesses at least two normal subgroups namely {e} and G. These groups are called improper normal subgroups. Simple Group : A group G is said to be simple group if it has only two normal subgroups, {e} and G. Notes : 1) Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal. 2) The intersection of normal subgroups is 2 normal subgroup, 28 Define quotient groups. FS ISPPU : Decw-t4, 15, May-18] al subgroup of G. Let GIN Ans. : Let (G, *) be a group and N be a nom: be the collection of all cosets of N in G. ) GN = Nea/aeG) (GIN, #) is called the quotient group or factor sTOHP- Q29 Prove that (G/N, #) is a group. [SE ISPPU : Dect, May-15] mal subgroup at G Ans: Let (G, *) be a group and N is the no GIN = {Nea/YaeG} Theorem : 1) Closure Property : Let a, b € G,¥:N* (Neay (Neb) = Ne(a#N)*d = Ne (Nea)ed = (NeN)*@*D) = Nee “Guide for Enginering SodenDiscrete Mathematics 6-25 Algebraic Structig .. (N*a)*(Nxb)E G/N" «. GN is closed wart. * 2) Associativity : Let a, b,c € G and N*a, N*b and N*ce G/N 2 (Nea)¥[(N#)# (Nee)] = Nea[Ne(O°0)] by ay = Nea*(b¥c) . by (1) ” = Ne(a*b)*c) (* is associative in G) (N# (a b))* (Nec) = [(N¥a)# (Nt b)]* (re) (Nea) (Ne D)}* (NC) Thus * is associative in G/N 3) Existence of the identity : Ne (Neays(Nee) = Ne(ae) by (1) = N*a Nee = Nis the identity element in G/N. We have N*ee G/N and for any N*aeG/N 4) Existence of the inverse : Let ae G, N*ae G/N .3a7le Gand N*a7! G/N such that (Nea) (Nea“!) = Ne@#a7l)=Nxe=N Hence N«a“! is the inverse of N*a in G/N Thus (G/N, *) is a group, known as quotient group. Q.30 Prove lagranges theorem : The order of each subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the group. Ane cas G te 4 group of finite order n, Let H be a subgroup of G and Lisee i luppose hy, hy... h,, are the m members of H. - Then Ha is a right coset of H in G and we have Ha bas m dng get m+ Be 8) fa has m distinct members, = . » since hia = hjashy =hy. Therefore each right coset of H in G has cenmon. Since G is a fini int i.e, they have. no element 2 i ‘1 finit Hing will be finite, © group, the number of distinct right cosets of mr say : fH in G is equal tony © &: The union of these K distinct ri" A Guide for Engineering Stude"®piscrete Mathematics 6-26 Algebraic Structures Thus, if Hay Hay... Ha, are the K distinct right cosets of H in G, th G = Ha; VUHa2uU see OHay ss = The number of elements in G = The number of e number of elements in Ha, + .., lements in Ha, + Thi ~- + The number of elements in Ha, ji +» [+ two distinct right cosets are mutually disjoint] > o(@G) Km>n= Km W n P = K = — = misa divisor of n m = O @) is a divisor of O (G). Q.31 Prove the order of every element of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the group. Ans. : Suppose G is a finite group of order n. Let a € G and O (a) = m. Prove that m is a divisor of n. Let H= { ws a3,a@,a},a9, al, a?, a3, G consisting of all integral powers of a. We know. that H is a subgroup of G. We have to show that H contains only m distinct elements and that they are aa, a7, a> ,a™ =e a ase } be the subset of Letis. then ak =aS => ata-§ =aSa~$ sat S >a? mal S =e Thus there exists a positive integer r — s less than m such that a*~* = e. m is the least positive integer such that a™ = e. : az as a,a?,a3,..,a™=a% =e are all distinct elements of H. Now suppose at is any element of H where t is any integer. By division algorithm, Wehave, t = mp + q.... [p and q are some integers, 0 [SPPU : Dec.-14, Marks 3) Ans. : Let G = {a} be a cyclic group generated by a. Let x, y be any two elements of G. Then there exist integers r and s such thatx =a! ,y=a’, Now, xy = ataS att$ = ast = Sara yx Thus, we have, xy = yx Vx,yeG. Therefore G is abelian. 0.34 Prove that If a is a generator of a cyclic group G, then a7! is | also a generator of G. Let G = {a} be a cyclic group generated by a, | Let a! be any element of G, where t is some integer. as aay “. — F is-also some integer, | + Each element of G, is generated by a”! Thus, a” is also.a generator of G. Q.35 Prove that every group of order 3 is cyclic, Ams. : Suppose G is a fini then to prove that G ig 5 Dee uP Whose order is a prime number P, - 7 cyclic group. A, « 7 4 a prime numb P. As an integer P is said to be erifP #0, P #1, and if the only divisors ofP ret 1,2P. A Guide for Engineering Students; ematics 7 Discrete Math 6-28 Algebraic Structures 1G is 8 group of prime order, therefore G must contain at least 2 elemenits: : As 2 is the least positive prime integer. There must exist an element a € G such that a + t, the identity element e. since a is not the identity element, therefore O (a) is definitely > 2. Let O (a) =m, If H is the cyclic subgroup of G generated by a then O@® = O@-=m. By Lagrange's theorem m must be divisor of P. But P is prime and m 2 2. Hence m = P 1, H= G. Since H is cyclic. Therefore G is cyclic and a is a generator of G. Q.36 Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. ‘Ans. : Suppose G = {a} is a cyclic group generated by a. If H = G or {e}, then obviously H is cyclic. So let H be'a proper subgroup of G. The elements of H are integral powers of a. If a < H, then the inverse of a’. ie. a eH. . H contains elements which are positive as well as negative integral powers of a. Let m be the least positive integer such that a” € H. Then we shall prove that H = {a™} ie. H is cyclic and is generated by a™. Let a! be any arbitrary element H. By division algorithm, there exist integers q and r such that t= mq +1, 0 a™MecHsa(a™y'eH >a EH Also, 8c H a™MeH = a&q™MeH >a “eH=>aeH. Now m is the least positive integer such that a" ¢ H and 0 ° aobteH Therefore H is a subgroup of group G. | Lethe Hand ge Gand any x in G. | Consider, (ohog)ox=(gog"oh)ox | = @ohox = hox=xoh | = xo(hogog™) = gohog eH foray g eG +. His a normal subgroup of G, Q.38 Show that the four on four symbols a,b the multiplication, Permutations 1, (ab), (c d), (@ b) @ 6 d form a finite abelian group with respect Ans. : Let fer=(4 bed tbeg f=@y=(2 be d bacg Sr@qefAbed wba A Guide for Engineering S#™™Discrete Mathematics 6-30 ap ebecued| bade Let G = (hh, f) Consider the multiplication table Algebrate Structures f, = (ab) (¢ d) Wl f h fy h fi f fs fy f fi f fy f f f @ Closure property : All elements of table belong to G. (G, x) is closed wat. X. . (i) Multiplication of permutations is associative. (ii) £, = 1 is the identity element in’ G. @nG, f= 4,1 = 8,65) =f and fia (¥) Multiplication table is symmetric about main diagonal -. (G, x) is commutative. Hence (G, x) is an ablein group of order 4. - ) 6.5 : Homomorphism and isomorphism Q39 Define homomorphism of groups with properties. ISISPPU : Dec.-15, 14, 12, 11, May-15] Ans. : Let (G,,*) and (Gz ,0) be two groups. A function £: (G,,*) > (Gp,0) is said to be homomorphism. If f (@*b) = f(a) 0 f(b) for all a, b © Gy. ie. a*b in G, > f(a) o f(b) in G2 A homomorphism from G to itself is called as endomorphism. Properties of group homomorphism. Let £ : Gy Gp be group homomorphism and ((G1,~ )and (Gy*0) are groups then ~~ 310 for Engineering Studentsoa tebe Sag Dee Neem i) f(e)= (ey) i) fe) = (ter Proof: 1) Letae G, and fla)é Gy and ey is the identity’ element jy (i, flor: = f= fared F(aloey = faoter) =f) =e 2) LetaeG, thena!eG and ay = f@)= fare!) (Lis homomorphisy) = f@of(a) = fa) = (tar Q.40 Define isomorphism of groups. FSP[SPPU : Doc.-13, 12, 11, 10, May-06, 10) Ans, : Let (G,.*) and (G), 0) be two groups. A function £:(G.*) A (Gz,0) is said to be isomorphism. If i) fis a homomorphism from G; > G>, ii) f is bijective function, If f: G, > Gy is an isomorphism of groups then G, and Gy are called as isomorphic groups and denoted by Gy =G3, An isomorphism ffom G to itself is called as automorphism of group G. pat Tet G be a group with identity e show that a function i G > G defined by f (a) V = eaeG is a homomorphism (Endomorphism, KS[SPPU : May-08, 10, Marke 3] Ans. : We have f: GG and f(a) = ° e VaeG, lt abeG =f@,fQ)eg farb) =e - ; (as ax beG) . _——o= * “ fisa homomorphism, ® 0) Q42 Explain hy . examples ™OrPhism and antomorphism of groups with Ans. : Reg SSISPPU ; 4 fer Q.39 and Q40 for definition, ne Linen ©. 1) The homomorphism f 1Z, ZZ 4) such that A Guide for Engineering Suetserele Mathematics 6-32 Algebraic Structures Dis f (n) = — nis an antomorphism of group. ‘The homomorphism f : (Ry ,0)— (Ro ,0) such that f(x) = x; Vx EQ, is an antomorphism of groups, 43 Let % be the additive group of real numbers and X+ be the multiplicative group of positive real numbers. Prove that the mapping tf: @, +) 2 Oy X defined by f =e, Vxe Nis an jsomorphism of tonto St, IGP|SPPU : Dec.-10, Marks 4] If x is any real number, then e* is always positive real number 2 Ans. ¢ and e* is unique. Therefore, f : N— R, is a function such that f(x) = on Let XX © Rthen f(x,) = f (%,) > eXl = eX2 > x, =X) . fis one to one mapping. For any y € 9, then log y € R such that f(logy) =e = y «. fis onto. Now for any x1, x2 € % . Consider, f (x, +X) = ex1tX2 = eX1™%2 = £ (x,) x £(%,) <. f preserves compositions in Rand It +. fis an isomorphism of Konto I. Hence = RE H 6. gs Q.44 Define rings, integral domains and fields. ES ISPPU : Dec.-08, 10, 11, 12, 13, 44, May-14] Ans. : 1, Rings . 1 SPPU : Dec.-13, May-14 Let R be a non empty set equipped with two binary operations called addition and multiplication and denoted by 4" and ! respectively. _An algebraic structure (R,+, ) is called a ring if it satisfies following axioms, 1) ®, 4) is an abelian group i.e. i) Closure property : for a, be R,a+beER “A Guide for Engineering Students| Discrete Mathematics 6-33 Algebraic Structy, res. i ii) Associativity : for a,b,c €R,at(b+o=@tbte ili) Existence of the identity : For any a €R, 3 0€ Rs.t, at+O0=O+a=a. -. 0 is called as the additive identity element of ring. iv) Existence of the inverse : for each ae R, 3 —ae R Such that a + (- a) =-a+a=0 —a is called the additive inverse of a y) Commutative property : For a, b€ R at+b=bta (R, )) is semigroup i.e. i) Closure property : Va, be R,a-beR ii) Associativity : for a, b,c ER, a-(b-c) = (a-b)-c Multiplication distributes over addition Va,b,ceR i) a-(b+c) = a-bta-c (Right distributive law) ii) (a+b)-c = a-ct+b-c (Left distributive law) 2) 3 2. Commutative Ring : A ring (R, +, ) is said to be commutative ring if¥ beR,a-b=b-a 3. Ring with Unity : A ring (R, +, ») is said to be ring with unity if vaeéR, 3, lER such thata-1=1-a=a. Examples : 1) (Z, +, ) is a commutative ring with unity. 2) (2Z, +, ) is a commutative ring without unity where 2Z = set of even integers, matrices over real numbers with respect to usual matri eg ene a it ara addition and multiplication is a non commutative ring with ity. 3) The set of nxn 4. Properties of a Ring: clement 1 then following are i) 4-0 =0a= 0 If (R, +, ) is a ring with identity 0 and unit true for all a, b, ce R, ii), a-(-b) = (-a):b = — (a:b) SSSpiscrete Mathematics 6-34 Algebrate Structures (-a)-(-b) = a-b iv) Unit element is unique 5, Subring : Let (R, +, ) be a ring. A non empty subset S of R is said to be subring of R if (S;+, ) is a ring. eg. (Z+, ) is a subring of GH i 6. Zero Divisors : Let (R, +, .) be a commutative ring. An element a¥0in R is said to be zero divisor if 3 b #0 in R such that a-b = 0. A ting (R, +, ) is said to be without zero divisors. ifa-b=O0=a=Oorb=0,VabeR e.g. 1) 2is a zero divisor in (Z4,+,-) as 2-2 = 4 =0 2) (Max2 K), +, +) is a ring with zero divisors. 1 0]fo 0]_fo o ‘Be = = 0 but A #0andB+0 as AB (3 0] [° | [° 0] " 3) (Z, +,-) is a ring without zero divisors ic. a-b = 0 = a= 0 or b=0. 7. Integral Domain BS [SPPU : Dec.-13, 11, 10, May-14] A commutative ring with zero divisors is called an integral domain. eg. 1) (R+,-), (Z,+,-), (Z, +, -) are integral domains. 2) (Z4, +, +) is a ring with zero divisors ~. It is not integral domain. 8. Fleld IS[SPPU : Dec.-13, 12, 11, 10, May-14] A commutative ring wit! c th unity in which every non zero element possesses their mulplicative inverse, is called as field. A fi eld is an integral domain. : £& 1) (R4+,-, (E, 4,9, (Q4,- ) ate fields, 2) (Z, +, -) is integral domain but not field. 98. Ring Homomorphism Let (R,+,*) and ($,+,E#’) be two rings. A function 6: R — § is called a If for any a, be R » 9@+D) = O(a)+ G0) ~. ring homomorphism uCoDES A Guide for Engineering StudentsDiscrete Mathematics 6-38 Algerie ii) — ga*b)= o@r" 00) ; If dis bijective then itis called as 4 ring isomorphism, The kemal of ring homomorphism is defined as the set {ae RI ben) | It is denoted by ker (9) or ker 45 Let R = 2 soe f is the mapping that tae, a b fl i toa-b. ba i) Show that fis a homomorphism. ii) Find Kernel of f GS |SPPU : Dec.-08) amt) f -{ iE jee radeon 7 b aj [d ¢ d = (@-b)+(0- . He ‘} : ae wl (acta}-ed +8) Also ‘fh tet ba toe ie I (bd-ad)= (a-b)(c-4) 7 a) | y weep ed | isa 46 Show that $ = {a+bi2;a,bez} for the operations 4x | integral domain but not a field. epygpPU : Dee cr | ‘Ans. : We have, | (a+by2)+(c+dy) = @ ++ +02 (a+b)+(ctdvi = (a + 26d) + be + af) 2 Clearly $ is commutative ring with unit element 1. ‘We have to prove $ is an integral domain, | (a+b? Let ( )(c+4v2) =0 ‘ ———— a —— syle _—~s yrpiscreté Mathematics 6-36 on lc Structures ac+2bd = 0 ne and be+ad = 0 ae suppose a= 0; then bd = be=0 - sither b = 0 or both d= 0 = 0 Hence, ifa=0, atbv2 =0 or ct+d2=0 assume 00, Multiplying equation (Q.46:1) by d ae a ate «+ (Q.46.3) From equation (Q.46.2) ad = —be Hence substituting this value in equation (Q.46.3) We have, -be? +2bd? = 0 = b(2d2-c?)=0 .b = 0 or 2 = 242, ie. c= V2.4 Since c is an integer, ¢2 =2d? is true only if ¢ = d=0 Hence if c? #242, b = 0. But b = 0 implies a = 0 Hence, in any case either a+b V2 =Oore+dV2=0 Hence, $ is an integral domain. To show that § is not a field consider the element 2+42. Its multiplicative inverse does not exit in 8, for (2+42) (c+av2)=1 = e+2 = laetd=3 Absurd, since ¢, d € z. Q47 Let 2g = {0, 12, 3,4, 5 6, 7}. Let Ris 2 relation under the operations addition modulo 7 and multiplication modulo 7. Does this system form a ring ? It is a commutative ring? [&[SPPU : Dec.-11] “A Guide for Engineering StudentsDiscrete Mathematics 6-37 Algebraic Structure, Ans. : Consider the following tables, Table 1: x 0 1 2 3 4 5.6 7 0 7 eG 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 2 o 2 4 6 sree one 3 0 3 6 2 5 1 4.0 7 0 4 1 5 2 6 3 0 5 0 5 3 1 6 4 2. 0 6 0 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 Table 2: + 0 1 2 3 4 ‘5 6 7 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 § 7 |o 1 2 3 4 5 6 o J) S.T. (Zg,+7) is an abelian group. d From table 2, all clement are in zg «. zg is closed w.rt. 7 ii) Associativity : for all a,b ce zg at7(b+7c) = (a+7b)+7¢ iii) By observing th iy Zg. g the first row of table 2, 0 is the additive identity : cssBe Mathematles 6-38 gue OR ere * | 6.7: Group Codes a8 Explain group code, + Let S, be the set of all binary words As atio rds of length n. L binary operation on Sp such that for all x, y eS, where et ® bea x2 (KD dV FV 20-In 1B y201 YI 2 OY2---¥n Yn) Where the operation ® denotes the addition modulo 2 on {0, 1} and is given by the following table. The algebraic structure (S, ,®) forms a group in which n tuple of 0's (0, 0, 0, - 0) is the identity and each element is its own inverse. In general, any code which is @ group under the operation © is called a group code. Group code was first introduced by Hamming and it is very iseful in binary encoding techniques. eg. if x = (10101) andy=(01100) then ° x@y = (11001) Q49 Define hamming distance. [@|SPPU : Dec.-11, Dec.-15] Ans: Let x be a word is Sy. The weight of x is denoted by w(x) and defined as, w(x) = Number of one's in x eg w00101) = 2 w0)=4w=C Let x = (4x9 phy) Y= paren) be (S,,). The Hamming distance between x and y 11-4 any two elements in js denoted by d(xy) and defined as 4 (% y) = The number of co-ordinates at which X; andy; are different. &g. If x = (101101) y= (011119) Ld id different Gxcones “1 uid for Engineering StudentsDiscrete Mathematics 6-39 Algebraic ‘Struct, res «d(x, y) = 4, as x and y have first second, fifth, sixth positions Aiterens Now x@®y =(11 001 1) w(x@ y) = 4=d (x, y) Thus for any x, ye S, , d(x, y) = wK® y) Properties of Hamming Distance : Let x,y, z € (S, ,®) then i) d(x, y)20 ii) d(x, y) = 0 iffx=y iii) d (x, y) = d (y, x) iv) d (x, z) $d (x, y) +d (y, 2) The minimum distance of a code is the minimum of all the distances between district pair of code words. ° eg. Letx(110110),y=(0011 11),z=(101010) d@wy) = 44,2) =3,d(% 2) =3 Out of 4, 3, 3, minimum is 3. Therefore the minimum distance between the words x, y, z is 3 By .ugiag the weight and minimum distance, a combination of errors can be detected and corrected. Q.50 Explain generation of codes by using parity checks. Ans. : In 1950, Hamming developed the first complete error detecting and error correcting encoding procedure. This procedure has been frequently used in computer systems, Hamming constructed the codes, called Hamming codes by introducing redundant digit called parity digits. In a message, that is n digits long, m digits (m k=1 This code can correct only one error. Therefore this is a single error correcting code. Q54 Find the number of code words generated by the parity check fl. 10 i900 matrix H given by H= [0 1 1 0 1 0} find all the code words 109100 a : Seperated: IG [SPPU : Dec.-12, Marks 5} Ans, : The parity check matrix is 110100 H=]o 11010 10100 Iv H is of order 3x6 Hence the length of the code word is 6 in which last three digits are parity check bits. The information digits are M = n-k=6-3=3 “at Guide for Engineering StudentsDiscrete Mathematics 6-43 Algebraic Siructnes <. The matrix H will generate. 2" = 8 code words. 0. They are the solution of x-H' 1 01 10 11 [x1 x23 X84 X5,X6] 00 =[0 0 0 10 01 Clotete.— = XtxQ + +X4t =0 Xy + x34 +x5+ =0 Xt +x 4+ 4x6 =0 Ng =X tx) => X= Xp + X3 Xp= Xt +23 By giving djfferent combinations of 0 and 1-to X1,X2,X3, we get the following code words. 2 xq “0 0 END... &SOLVED MODEL QUESTION PAPER (In Sem) Discrete Mathematics SE. (IT) Semester - III [As Per 2019 Pattern] Time : 1 Hour] [Maximum Marks : 30 NB. : i) Attempt Q.1 or Q.2 and Q.3 or Q.4. ii) Neat diagrams must be drawn wherever necessary. iti) Figures to the right side indicate full marks. iv) Assume suitable data, if necessary. .1 a) Draw Venn diagram and prove the expression. Also write the dual of each of the given. statements. ) AUBUOS = (4U0% A(AUB)S i) UNAU (BO A) =A Refer Q.6 of Chapter - 1) [5] b) Prove by mathematical induction for n > 1. 124.2034 3-44...¢n (nt 1) niet Refer Q.19 of Chapter - 1) [5] ©) Let p denote the statement, "The material is interesting’. q denote the statement, "The exercises are challenging", and r denote the Statement, "The course is enjoyable”. . Write the following statements in symbolic form : i) The material is interesting and exercises are challenging. ii) The material is interesting means the exercises are challenging and conversely, iii) Either the material is interesting or the exercises are not challenging but not both. : iv) If the material is not interesting and exercises are not challenging, then the course is not enjoyable. v) The material is uninteresting, the exercises are not challenging and the course is not enjoyable. (Refer Q.33 of Chapter - 1) (5)Solved Model Question Paper Discrete Mathematics M-2 OR Q.2 2) State and prove the principle of inclusion and exclusion for sets. (Refer Q.11 of Chapter - 1) [5] b) Show that n4 4 n? is divisible by 3 for all n 2 2. (Refer Q.25 of Chapter - 1) [5] ©) Prove by truth table p > (OV R)=(P 7 Dv (P >B). 7 (Qefer Q.40 of Chapter - 1) . Q.3 a) How many 4 digits numbers can be formed by using the digits 2, 4, 6, 8 when repetition of digits are allowed ? (Refer Q.12 of Chapter - 2) (5) b) A committee of 5 people is to be formed from a group of 4 men and 7 women. How many possible committees can be formed if at least 3 women are on the committee ? (Refer Q.25 of Chapter - 2) [5] ©) Three students A, B and C are swimming in the race A and B have same probability of winning and each each is twice as likely to win as C. Find the probability that : i) Bwins ii) C wins iii) B or C wins (Refer Q.60 of Chapter - 2) [5] OR Q.4 a) Determine the number of ways in which 5 software engineers and 6 electronics engineers can be sitted at a round table so that no two software engineers can sit together, (Refer Q.19 of Chapter - 2) 15] b) A bag contains 3 red i and 5 black balls and a 2"4 bag contains om ee balls. A ball is drawn from each bag. Find the one is red and other is black. 2 3) both arre black. (Refer Q.48 of Chapter - 2) a Peat! 15] ©) The contents 15 I white, 2 Black Ea vee 1, IN are as follows respectively. 1 2 white, I black 1 e, ; 1 red ball M4 white, 5 black, 3 red bes Ine urn is chosen at be white and rear” "40m and two balls are drawn. They happen ! What is the probabiti ity that Refer Q.55 of Chapter — aad come Brom urn LL or I? 5] E 4JUNE - 2022 tenn sem (5869)-28 Course 2019 1 Time : 25 Hours] [Max, Marks : 70 Instructions to the candidates : 1) Answer Q.1 or Q.2, @3 or 0.4, 0.5 or 0.6, Q.7 or 2.8. 2) Figures to the right indicate full marks. 3) Draw neat diagrams wherever necessary. 4) Use of scientific calculators is allowed. P 5) Assume suitable data if necessary. Q1 a) What are various operations on graph ? Explain it in detail ? [4] Ans.: A) Intersection of two graphs : The intersection of two graphs G, (Vj, E,) and G, (Vp, E, ) is a graph G (V, E) whose vertex set is V = V, OV, and edge set is E= E, NE,. The intersection of G, and G, is denoted by G, A Gy. eg. e, V3 23 fe V3 V4 e es) M3 e @5 v2 v4 yo M4 G, GS Fig. 1 V= (4, V9, V3, V4} Vz = {Vp Var V3. V5} Y30 E, = {ey,€2,€3,€4} Ey = (ey &5,&6} : Th e. Vv. erefore G = G, MG, (v, E) where v2 1 M4 V_= VV, = {¥y, Va, V3} E= Ey OE2 = 1} 6, NG: Solved Ur Discrete Mathematles S-2 nee Unlversity Queston Png B) Union of two graphs: Let G, (V,,E)) G, (V,,E,) be ~ graphs. The union of G, and G, is denoted by G UG, =g w, ®) ay it is a graph whose vertex set is V3, & ue, V=V, UV) and Bdge set is B= E, UE, Consider the graphs G, and G, as shown in above example ; 4 The union of G, and G, is given by G G, U6, (v, E) Fig. 3 where V= VU, = ty, V2. V3 V4, Vs} VE VU, = €, €21€3, 4, C5, eg} Note : Both graphs G, and G, are subgraphs of G, UG). C) The ring sum of two graphs : The ring sum of two ‘graphs G, (V,,E, ) and e, &% Gr (Vp. E>) is denoted ty G=G,@G, — Yyp—t2_ ol (V, E) whose vertex set is V= VU Vv; &5| |e. V5 and the edge set consists of those edges ee . 5 Vv, which are either in E, or in E5 but not in "2 1 both ive, B= (E, UE; )~(B, AE, ) The ring sum of above graphs G, and G. 2 is given. by GV, E)=G, @G, Ve Wb Vas Vas V4, V5} =VYuUW E= VE, )~ (nk, )= fe D) Sum of two graphs : GS, (YE) and G, (Vy, defined as the graph who: } The sum of two vertex disjoint ans E,) is denoted by G+G,=6, De Se Vertex set is V (G, UG,) and consisting 4 G, together with the edges obtained by i Verlex of G». Thus G, +G, is nothing but 2 in which each vertex Of G, is joined to each vertex of & by an edge. 29 &35 C4, 056 . nt A Guide for Engineering Stilt!piscrete Mathematics 3 Solved University Question Paper a S G3=Np G4=Ng x y a b a b c x y z G,+G2 G3+G, Fig. 5 Note : The sum N,, +N, of null graphs is nothing but the complete bipartite graph Ky n- E) Product of two graphs : Let G, (VM, E,) and G2 (V,,E,) be two vertex disjoint graphs then the product of G; and G, is denoted by G,xG = GV, BE) isa graph whose vertex set is V= VX V2 and two edges (X,, X) and (y,, ¥2) are adjacent if x, =¥, and xX) is adjacent to y, in Gz oF X2 ~ Y2 and x, is adjacent to y, in G,. e.g. If my M4 x Y2 22 o——> ee G, G Fig. 6 Then G, x G2 is given below : (ty X2) (y4» X2) (4. Ya) (4 Ya) (4, 2). (ya 22) Fig. 7 “A Guide for Engineering StudentsDiscrete Mathematics s-4 Solved University Question Paper F) Decomposition : A graph G is said to have been decomposeg us two subgraphs H and K if H UK = G and H AK = Nulll graph ie. eat edge of G occurs either in H or in K but not in both. But vertices may occur in both. In this context isolated vertices are not considered, e.g. The decomposition of G into H and K is given below : b e b e e <[ > <[] > c c d d SG H K Fig. 8 G) Fusion of vertices : A pair of vertices a and b in a graph G are said to be fused if a and b are replaced by a single new vertex say © such that every edge that was incident on either a or b or both is incident on the new vertex c. The fusion of two vertices do not edges but reduced number of vertices by 1. eg. t change the number of e d d EI =< : b c G Graph after fusion of b and e Fig. 9 e 2 Cc b Graph after fusion of c and d Fig. 10 A Guide forMathematics S-5 Solved University Question Paper b) Find the maximum flow in the given network. 18] Network (G) Flow =0 Fig. 11 Ams. or oO’ O10 | Flow = 0 Network (G) Fig. 12 -D-B-T from the source vertex S to Step 1: Select an arbitrary path S-C: flow of 7 units as the arc BT can sink vertex T. This path can carry 4 carry a maximum of 7 units. prcoors Guide for Engineering StudentsDiscrete Mathematics S-6 Solved University Question Pap, Step 2 : Now, select the path S-C-D-T. This path can carry a flow of o) unit as the arc D.T will get saturated in a flow of 1 unit. 8/10 Flow =0+1 Fig, 14 Step 3 : Now, select the path S-A-B-T. This path can carry an additional flow of unit 5 unit as the arc AB will get saturated on a flow of 5 unit. | 8/10 Flow =0+1 Fig. 15 Step 4 : Now, select the path S-A-C-D-T. This path can carry a flow of 2 units as the are AC will get saturated on a flow of 2 units. “5/5 10/10 Flow = 0+5 Fig. 16 No more paths left, -- Maximum flow = 15_ fe Mathematics A pct! S-7 Solved University Question Paper ©) Find the shortest path using Dijikstra's algorithm. 1 Fig. 17 Ans. : Step 1: Select any arbitrary path of given network. Let 1 3 56 path selected 1 vertex js source and 6 vertex js sink. 35 arc can cary maximum of 3 units. 3,3 Fig. 18 select 1 2 4 6 path. This path can © aturated on @ flow of 2 units. 72 Step 2 : Now arry a flow of 2 units as the arc 12 will get s oR ted planar graph with 20 vertices and the Q2 a) Let 'G' bea conne: jons in the degree of each vertex js 3. Find the number of C4825 and regio! (6 sreph. tices D vans. 2 Let G be a connected Planet raph with = 20.02 ie. DV) = 3.Discrete Mathematics S-8 Solved University Question Using handshaking Lemma 20 Dav, ) = 2e ist > 20x3 = 2e > e W 30 = No. of edges Using Euler's formula of connected plannar graph with n vertices, © edges and f faces or regions n-e+f=2 f=2-n+e 2-20+30 = 12 b) Explain the Sollowing types of graphs with the help of examples : i) Bipartite graph i) Complete graph 4ii) Regular graph iv) Spanning subgraph 1 Ans. : Bipartite graph : A graph G (y, E) is said t if its vertex set can be partitioned into two disj such that vy U v,'= v and vy nv, vertex of v; to a vertex of v5. fo be bipartite graph joint subsets say v, and v, = O and every edge of G joins a In Bipartite graph, vertices of v 1 Should not be adjacent, It is free ftom loops. Following graphs are bipartite graphs fle 2) a i ea) \VY “WY ‘ . 3 us ab 2 “= V4 = fa, b, o} v= {1, 2, 3} v= {1, 2, 3) Fig. 20 Complete graph : A simple graph G in which every pair weit vertices are adjacent is called a complete graph, If G ig @ com ony on n vertices then it is denoted by K,,. grap! “6 ide for Ey "0" Entincering Studentsysl Mathematics S-9 Solved University Queston Papers 5 complete graph, there is an edge between every pair of distinct i vertices b graph Ky every vertex is adjacent to yemaining n-1 vertices so degree of each vertex isn-1. qhus Ky 8 4 (a-l)- regular graph. -1 Ky has exactly ae-) edges. Consider the following examples : -yo K Ky Fig. 21 Regular graph : A graph G is said to be regular graph if every vertex of G has degree r. i) Regular graph of degree zero js called null graph. ii) A regular graph of degree 3 is called cubic graph. eg. i) ° ii) o——? | ° ° o—_—> Ng: 1 regular graph 4- regular graph iii) iv) 2 regular graphs 3- regular graph Fig. 22 “A Guide for Engineering Students—* Discrete Mathemattes 5-10 Solved University Question Pee, | Spanning subgp : Let G (V, E) be any graph. A subgraph H of 2 a G is said to be spanning subgraph if V (G) = V CH). Example : Let G be the following graph : 2 4 5 1 % te 3 A 4 8 7 o @ 3 G ¢ Hy H, 2 2 4 5 z é 5 3 3 1 3 1 1° 3 \ ° ° e 8 8 7 6 a 7 é Hy Hg Hs He Fig. 23 Graphs H), Hy, ... Hg are subgraphs of G. H, and H, are edge disjoint subgraphs but not vertex disjoint subgraphs. Hj and Hy, are vertex disjoint subgraphs as well as edge disjoint subgraphs. Subgraphs H; and H, are spanning subgraphs of G as V (Hs) = V (Hg) = V(G). ©) Find under what conditions K,,,, the complete bipartite graph will have an Eulerian circuit. (6) Ans.: In K,, , consider the following cases. Case 1: m =n and both m and n are even: In this case, degree of each vertex is even, Hence by theorem 1, K will have an Eulerian circuit. For example Ky 2 and K, . > Amn.