LESSON 2.1-2.

9
Electrical Testing and Measuring Equipment
“If you can’t make the most out of any given moment,

Then you don’t deserve a single extra second”

-Ekko
LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the principles, functions, and limitations, of different types of electrical testing and measuring
equipment based on the manufacturer’s manual
2. Describe the procedure in measuring voltage of a given electrical circuit using different types of voltage
measuring tools, in accordance with the maritime industry electrical standard.
3. Safely measure voltage using an analog meter, digital meter and a clamp meter on a given electrical circuit
as per standard marine practice.
4. Describe the procedure in measuring current in a given electrical circuit using different types of current
measuring tools, in accordance with the maritime industry electrical standard.
5. Safely measure current using an analog meter, digital tester and a clamp meter on a given electrical circuit
as per standard marine practice.
6. Describe the procedure for measuring the resistance of a component in an electrical circuit using different
types of resistance measuring tools, in accordance with the maritime industry electrical standard.
7. Safety measure resistance of an electrical component in a given circuit using an ohmmeter as per standard
marine practice.
8. Describe the procedure for measuring the insulation resistance of a component in a given electrical circuit
using different types of tools with insulation resistance measurement function, in accordance with the
maritime industry electrical standard.
9. Safely measure insulation resistance using an insulation tester of a given electrical component or system as
per standard maritime practice.
Why Test Equipment are Required
The performance of all electrical or electronic equipment tend to degrade with time due to fair wear out and
component material degradation owing to its exposure to heat, shock, vibration as well as other
environmental conditions. Accordingly, chances of equipment failure and electric shock increases with time.
Hence, it is always advised that the periodic calibration and tests of all electrical/ electronic equipment must
be conducted.

If we talk about the measurement involved with electronics, then we cannot discard the measurement
importance of voltage/current/capacitance/resistance/inductance etc. If the testing/fault finding of a circuit is
required, then all the above mentioned electrical quantities cannot be neglected. It is why we have to consider
all the electrical quantities and check for its correctness in order to determine the condition/defect of all
components of a circuit.

Today, if we think about practical electrical/electronics engineering i.e the field job, we should be able to use
various kinds of test equipment ranging from the very simple and inexpensive like tester (a test light consisting
of just a light bulb and a test lead) to complex and sophisticated test equipment like Digital Oscilloscope.

Common Applications of Test Equipment

There are numerous applications and electrical tests that can be carried out by Electrical / Electronic Test
Equipment. Here is a list of most common applications (but not limited to) of Test Equipment:

1. To check basic electrical/electronics parameters such as Voltage, Current, Resistance, Inductance,

Capacitance, etc.
2. To check Insulation of wire or equipment in order to avoid chances of electric shock or fire.
3. To verify equipment performance.
4. For identification of defects at system and component level.
5. To check continuity or conductance.
 ANALOG MULTIMETER

Analog multimeter are portable devices varying in size, precision, and accuracy. They
are mostly used for troubleshooting electrical devices and circuits. A multimeter is a type
of electrical measuring instrument that can be used to measure voltage, current, and
resistance. It is also called an AVO meter because we use it to measure current (A),
voltage (V), and resistance (Ohm). Multimeters can be classified into two types: analog
multimeters and digital multimeters.

Analog multimeters are devices that measure electrical quantities like voltage, current,
and resistance. They function by detecting the flow of electrons in a circuit. The most
common type of analog multimeter is the VOM (volt-ohm-metre), which generates a
voltage difference using a battery.

Although analog multimeters are older than digital multimeters, they have several
distinct advantages. A needle indicates the measurement of parameters in an analog
multimeter. You can determine AC or DC values by using an analog multimeter. Probes
are connected to their respective terminals.
 Digital Multimeter

A digital multimeter is a multimeter that measures variables like current, voltage and
resistance on a digital display. Digital multimeters are mostly used nowadays for the
measurement of electrical properties in both AC and DC circuits. These multimeters have
two probes for the positive and negative terminal which are colour coded as black and
red respectively. The black terminal is plugged into the port of a multimeter which is
marked as COM, whereas the red is used to touch the various contacts where the
measurement of the variable is required.

The digital multimeter has a knob in the centre which can be turned to determine the
different range of the measurements required. It also has a screen on which the results
of the measurements are displayed.
 Clamp meter
A clamp meter is an electrical test tool that combines a basic digital multimeter with a current sensor.
Clamps measure current. Probes measure voltage. Having a hinged jaw integrated into an electrical meter
allows technicians to clamp the jaws around a wire, cable or other conductor at any point in an electrical
system, then measure current in that circuit without disconnecting/deenergizing it.
Beneath their plastic moldings, hard jaws consist of ferrite iron and are engineered to detect, concentrate and
measure the magnetic field being generated by current as it flows through a conductor.

1. Current-sensing jaw.
2. Tactile barrier (to protect fingers from shocks).
3. Hold button: Freezes the display reading. Reading is released when button is pushed a second time.
 4. Dial (aka rotary switch).
5. Display.
6. Backlight button.
7. Min Max button: On first push, display shows maximum input. On subsequent pushes, minimum and
average inputs are shown. Works in current, voltage and frequency modes.
8. Inrush current button.
9. Zero button (yellow): Removes dc offset from dc current measurements. Also serves as dial’s shift
button to select yellow functions scattered around the dial.
10. Jaw release lever.
11. Alignment marks: To meet accuracy specifications, a conductor must be aligned with these marks.
12. Common input jack.
13. Volts/ohm input jack.
14. Input for flexible current probe.

Originally created as a single-purpose test tool, modern clamp meters offer more measurement functions,
greater accuracy and in some cases specialized measurement features. Today’s clamp meters include most of
the basic functions of a digital multimeter (DMM), such as the ability to measure voltage, continuity and
resistance.
Clamp meters have become popular tools primarily for two reasons:

 Safety. Clamp meters allow electricians to bypass the old-school method of cutting into a wire and
inserting a meter’s test leads into the circuit to take an in-line current measurement. The jaws of a
clamp meter do not need to touch a conductor during a measurement.
 Convenience. During a measurement, it is not necessary to shut off the circuit carrying current—a big
boost in efficiency.

Clamp meters are preferred for measuring high levels of current. DMMs cannot measure 10 A of current for
more than 30 seconds without risking damage to the meter.
Video about Clampmeter .

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfAz9iVQoiY
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DDSboxl2we0
 How to use a Multimeter
Multimeters are tools used to measure current, voltage and resistance. They are very useful instruments that
can be utilized in a number of fields, the primary users being electricians. There are two primary types of
multimeters, one begin the analog and the other is the digital. The primary difference between the two is the
display, an analog multimeter uses a needle to show the value, while a digital multimeter will show the results
as numbers on a screen.

How to use a digital multimeter

When looking at how to use a digital multimeter, DMM, it is worth understanding the main controls.

Normally towards the top of the main front panel is a screen which gives the readings and possibly a few other
indications.

There will also be a main switch to select the measurement type: amps, volts, ohms, and any other types of
measurement that need to be made. This may include an off position, although some meters include a
separate on / off switch.

There will also be the connections for the probes. Years ago, these connectors were usually normal banana
type plugs, but with safety more prominent these days, similar connectors, but with more protection against
accidental touching of the conductive surfaces.

There are normally three or possibly four connections. One is a common connection to which the black probe
is normally taken. another is typically for measuring voltage and resistance. The third is typically for current
measurements, and there may even be one for low current ranges.

There may be additional connections for temperature probes or for transistor tests where three connections
are needed, etc

The operation of a DMM, digital multimeter, itself is normally very straightforward. With a knowledge of how
to make voltage, current and resistance measurements, it is then a matter of putting the multimeter to use. If
the meter is new then it will obviously be necessary to install a battery to power it. This is normally simple and
straightforward and details can be found in the operating instructions for the DMM.

When using the meter it is possible to follow a number of simple steps:

1. Turn the meter on

2. Insert the probes into the correct connections - this is required because there may be a number of different
connections that can be used.
3. Set switch to the correct measurement type and range for the measurement to be made. When selecting
the range, ensure that the maximum range is above that anticipated. The range on the DMM can then be
reduced as necessary. However by selecting a range that is too high, it prevents the meter being
overloaded.
4. Optimise the range for the best reading. If possible enable all the leading digits to not read zero, and in this
way the greatest number of significant digits can be read.
5. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into the voltage measurement
sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage. In this way if the meter is accidentally connected without
thought for the range used, there is little chance of damage to the meter. This may not be true if it left set
for a current reading, and the meter is accidentally connected across a high voltage point!

How to use an analogue multimeter

The operation of an analogue multimeter is quite easy. With a knowledge of how to make voltage, current and
resistance measurements it is only necessary to know how to use the multimeter itself.

Typically the analogue test meter will have the main meter dial, and below this there will be a switch for the
range. Normally only one switch is used, but on occasions more than one is used as in the case of the British
AVO 8.

The switch will have positions for DC and AC voltage as well as DC and AC current. There will also be ranges for
resistance.

As for the digital multimeter, there will be different connections for the test probes. Often the protection fo
these connections is not as rigorous as for the digital multimeters - many analogue meters are much older and
may not have the same safety standards when they were made. Accordingly extra care is needed when
handling them.

If the meter is new then it will obviously be necessary to install any battery or batteries needed for the
resistance measurements.

When using the meter it is possible to follow a number of simple steps:

1. Insert the probes into the correct connections - this is required because there may be a number of different
connections that can be used. Be sure to get the right connections, and not put them into the ones for a
low current measurement if a high voltage measurement is to be made - this could damage the multimeter.
2. Set switch to the correct measurement type and range for the measurement to be made. When selecting
the range, ensure that the maximum for the particular range chosen is above that anticipated. The range
on the multimeter can be reduced later if necessary. However by selecting a range that is too high, it
prevents the meter being overloaded and any possible damage to the movement of the meter itself.
3. Optimise the range for the best reading. If possible adjust it so that the maximum deflection of the meter
can be gained. In this way the most accurate reading will be gained.
4. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into the voltage measurement
sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage position. In this way if the meter is accidentally connected
without thought for the range to be used, there is little chance of damage to the meter. This may not be
true if it left set for a current reading, and the meter is accidentally connected across a high voltage point!
 General hints and tips
Regardless of the type of test meter used, whether an analogue of digital multimeter, DMM, there are several
points that are worth remembering:

 Care when handling probes: Although the probes have been designed for probing points on a circuit, it is
still easy for them to slip. Occasionally this can cause a short circuit, so care is required when probing,
making sure that the probes do not slip.
 Turn meter off when not in use: When the test meter is not in use, it is always wise to turn it off. Although
analogue meters do not have an on/off button, digital ones do and they will use up battery power when
they are on. Some will have an auto-off capability but not all will. It is always wise to turn a DMM off when
not in use. In this way the battery is less likely to go flat and be ready for use when it is needed.
 Return meter to high voltage switch position after use: When using a test meter, either analogue or
digital it is wise to return the range switch to the highest voltage position after use. In this way, if the test
meter is used without being set to the correct range, as can easily happen when involved in testing, no
damage will result. If it was set to a low current range, there could be a distinct possibility of damage, if for
example, it was intended to measure a large voltage.
 Get the polarity right for analogue test meters: If the sense of the voltage or current is incorrect for an
analogue test meter, the meter needle will deflect backwards, and if a large reading is present, this could
damage the meter movement. It is always wise to ensure that the expected reading is in the correct sense
for the way the circuit is being probed.
 Select highest range for first measurement: It is important for any meter, and especially analogue test
meters that the highest range is selected first. In this way if a large voltage is present the meter will not be
overloaded. Some digital multimeters have a capability known as auto-ranging where it selects the range
once it has been set to current voltage of resistance, etc, but for others the range as well as measurement
type needs to be set. This can be very important for analogue test meters as the meter movement can be
damaged if it is overloaded too much

More in depth understanding of measurements

The main measurements to be made using test meters are those of voltage, current and resistance. The
voltage measurements are the most straightforward, but current and resistance should also not present any
major issues. Further details are given in the links below.

 Voltage measurements: Voltage measurements are typically by selecting the right range, and then placing
the probes across the two points to be measured. Normally the black probe is used for connecting to
ground, and the red one of the higher voltage.
 Current measurements: When making current measurements using a test meter it is normally necessary
to make a break in the circuit and place the meter in line with the circuit so that the current flows through
the meter. In this way it measures the current. Although there are ways where the circuit does not have to
be broken, this is the most widely used method.
 Resistance measurements: Resistance measurements are easy to make with both analogue and digital
multimeters. The measurements can simply be made by placing the resistor across the two probes and
measuring the resistance. Selecting the most appropriate range is obviously key. When making a resistance
measurement, this is best done with the component removed from the circuit otherwise other circuit
components will affect the result. Also capacitors will take time to charge up and this will mean a final
reading is not achieved for a while. Also diodes will give different values in the different directions.
 How to Use Your Clamp Meter
Before using your digital clamp meter, it’s important to understand how it differs from a digital multimeter
(DMM). Although a digital clamp meter is basically just a DMM combined with a current sensor, there are two
key differences:
1. A digital multimeter mostly measures voltage, but it has a few current capabilities. A clamp meter does
the opposite: it’s great for measuring current, but a little lacking when it comes to voltage.
2. While DMMs are high-resolution, measuring in units like millivolts and milliamps, clamp meters will
only measure to the nearest tenth or hundredth. This is fine for electric work, but don’t expect
smaller measurements!

How does this clamp meter work?

1. Know your clamp meter

Before you start using your clamp meter, know what you’re looking for. For example, resolutions differ by
meter. Hint — the resolution lets you see if there are any changes in the signal that you’re measuring. If you
have a meter with a 0.2 amp resolution, don’t expect to be able to see changes of 0.1 amps. Differences in
accuracy also matter. Even though clamp meters are super reliable, they aren’t as accurate as DMMs. There’s
room for error. Your accuracy will usually be expressed as a percent, kind of like the margin of error you see in
surveys.

2. Understand what you see

If you’re not familiar with digital clamp meters, the display can look like it’s in Greek. (There are some Greek
characters on there, actually.) Once it’s explained, however, it’s easy to read. Here are some of the terms you
may see on your display:
 Inrush: Short for inrush current. If it’s lit up, it’s active.
 Hold: This indicates whether or not your display is frozen to show the last reading you took.
 Ω and kΩ: ohms and kilo-ohms.
 Hz: frequency
 MAXMINAVG: This is telling you whether your maximum, minimum, or average reading is being
displayed. It’s important to pay attention to which is lit up. Your data will be wrong if you’ve
accidentally been using the minimum number in calculations instead of the average!
In addition to what’s above, each digital clamp meter has its own unique symbols on the display. All of them
are meant to help you double check what the meter is programmed to do. Before you use it, learn the
specifics of your meter to make sure you understand how to read the display.
3. Take a reading
The basic function of the clamp meter can be summed up in one sentence. Select the current you want to
measure, open the jaws, and put them around (not on) the wire. Wait. Done. Clamp meters are fast enough
that they will give you a reading within just a few seconds. Of course, there are some nuances in those
instructions. Let us break it down: First, use the rotary selector to make sure that you’ve set your clamp meter
to the correct function. You don’t want to be trying to measure DC current with AC settings. You’ll also use the
rotary selector to make sure that your range is correct. This is an important step, since measuring a current
that’s higher than the range you’ve selected can seriously damage your meter. If you’re not sure about the
range, set it higher than you think you’ll need just to be safe. You can lower it later as needed. To get the best
reading, make sure that the electrical wire you’re measuring is plugged into an appliance that’s currently
operating.
Special Measurements

What if you want to measure something other than current? If you’re looking to get a reading on something
like voltage or resistance, your process will look different.

Voltage
Measuring voltage is a little more complex. Instead of just using the hard arms, you’re going to have to break
out the test probes.
Here’s how the process changes to measure voltage:
1. Choose the voltage you’re trying to measure: AC or DC.
2. Plug in the test probes — the black probe goes to the COM jack, while the red connects to the V/O
jack.
3. Select the range, just like if you were measuring current.
4. Touch the tips of the probes to the conductor to get a reading. If you want to remember your
reading but get away from the electrical source, you can press the ‘hold’ button to freeze the reading.
Then you can walk away without worrying about forgetting the numbers.
Resistance
Measuring resistance is mostly the same as measuring voltage: you make sure resistance is selected, plug in
your test probes and select the range.
Instead of touching the tips of the probes to the circuit, you connect the probe tips across the part of the
circuit you want to measure.
The biggest difference is most important — resistance measurements can only be made with the circuit’s
power off.
Unlike measuring current or voltage, measuring resistance with the power on could damage either the circuit
or your meter.

Insulation Testers
Insulation testers are the ideal tool for preventative or predictive maintenance programs designed to identify
potential equipment failures before they occur. They are perfect for testing a wide range of high voltage
equipment including switchgear, motors, generators and cables. Ideally all electrical current sent along a
conductive wire should reach its intended destination. However you do find that some of it is lost along the
way due to various reasons. Wires are insulated with a resistant sheathing to contain the conductivity of the
typically copper or aluminium core, but even with this insulation in place, some of the current still manages to
escape. The electricity that leaks out can be detrimental to electrical circuits and machinery. Testing can help
you determine whether the insulation is performing at an effective and safe level. Excessive heat or cold,
moisture, vibration, dirt, oil and corrosive vapours can all contribute to deterioration therefore routine testing
can identify problems before they result in injury or equipment failure. Testing the integrity of insulation
requires measuring its resistance to current flow across it.

Insulation testers use a high voltage, low current DC charge to measure the resistance within wires and motor
windings to identify current leakage and faulty or damaged insulation, which can lead to arc faults, blown
circuits, and risk of electrical shock or fire. Megohmmeters are ideal for monitoring machine health and
improving preventative maintenance efforts.

The main purposes of performing insulation resistance testing include:

 1. Used as a quality control measure at the time a piece of electrical equipment is produced
2. Used as an installation requirement to help ensure specifications are met and to verify proper hookup
3. Used as a periodic preventive maintenance task
4. Used as a troubleshooting tool.

Insulation Tester

How Insulation Resistance is Measured

You have seen that good insulation has high resistance; poor insulation, relatively low resistance. The actual
resistance values can be higher or lower, depending upon such factors as the temperature or moisture content
of the insulation (resistance decreases in temperature or moisture). With a little record-keeping and common
sense, however, you can get a good picture of the insulation condition from values that are only relative. The
Megger insulation tester is a small, portable instrument that gives you a direct reading of insulation resistance
in ohms or megohms. For good insulation, the resistance usually reads in the megohm range. The Megger
insulation tester is essentially a high-range resistance meter (ohmmeter) with a built-in direct-current
generator. This meter is of special construction with both current and voltage coils, enabling true ohms to be
read directly, independent of the actual voltage applied. This method is nondestructive; that is, it does not
cause deterioration of the insulation.
 Typical Megger test instrument hook-up to measure insulation resistance

The generator can be hand-cranked or line-operated to develop a high DC voltage which causes a small current
through and over surfaces of the insulation being tested. This current (usually at an applied voltage of 500
volts or more) is measured by the ohmmeter, which has an indicating scale. The figure below shows a typical
scale, which reads increasing resistance values from left up to infinity, or a resistance too high to be measured.

Typical scale on the Megger insulation tester

How to Interpret Resistance Readings As previously mentioned, insulation resistance readings should be
considered relative. They can be quite different for one motor or machine tested three days in a row, yet not
mean bad insulation. What really matters is the trend in readings over a time period, showing lessening
resistance and warning of coming problems. Periodic testing is, therefore, your best approach to preventive
maintenance of electrical equipment

Whether you test monthly, twice a year, or once a year depends upon the type, location, and importance of
the equipment. For example, a small pump motor or a short control cable may be vital to a process in your
plant. Experience is the best teacher in setting up the scheduled periods for your equipment.

In summary, here are some general observations about how you can interpret periodic insulation resistance
tests, and what you should do with the result:
Summary:
1. A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two points in
an electric circuit. A voltmeter is connected in parallel with a device to measure its voltage.
2. An ammeter is a measuring device used to measure the electric current in a circuit. It is connected in
series with a device to measure its current.
3. Ohmmeter, instrument for measuring electrical resistance, which is expressed in ohms. In the simplest
ohmmeters, the resistance to be measured may be connected to the instrument in parallel or in series.
4. A clampmeter is an electrical device with jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical
conductor. This allows measurement of the current in a conductor without the need to make physical
contact with it, or to disconnect it for insertion through the probe.
5. Most commonly referred to as simply a “megger”, a megohmmeter is a special type of ohmmeter used
to measure the electrical resistance of insulators.
6. Analogue test meters can generally only make measurements of current, voltage, and resistance - AC
and DC ranges are normally available for both current and voltage.
7. Digital multimeters can make these measurements and in addition to this, many DMMs can also make
measurements of capacitance, frequency, perform diode and transistor tests, some may be able to
make temperature measurements and there are even other measurements that can be made.

8. Electrical testing in its most basic form is the act of applying a voltage or current to a circuit and
comparing the measured value to an expected result. Electrical test equipment verifies the math
behind a circuit and each piece of test equipment is designed for a specific application.
9. It is the job of a test technician to know which piece of test equipment to use for the task at hand and
also understand the limitations of the test equipment they are using. In this article, we take a look at
the most common pieces of test equipment used in the field.
 LESSON 3.1-3.2

Hazards and Precautions in Electricity

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the safe handling of electrical components, in accordance with the code of safe
Working Practices for Merchant Seafarers.
2. Perform lock-out tag-out (LOTO) by using appropriate tools and PPE to isolate the circuit
from the power supply, in accordance with the Code of Safe Practices for Merchant
Seafarers.

Electrical Hazards

Electrical Shock

Electrical shock is the most common electrical hazard and can be caused by direct contact with live electrical
conductors, or when a person comes into contact with an energized surface or object. The severity of the
shock can vary depending on the amount of current and the duration of exposure. Electrical shock can lead to
burns, muscle contractions, and even cardiac arrest.

Electrical Burns

Electrical burns are caused by electrical energy passing through the body and can occur when a person comes
into contact with an electrical conductor or when there is a flashover or arc that produces intense heat.
Electrical burns can be severe and can cause significant damage to the skin and tissues.

Electrical Fires

Electrical fires can occur when electrical equipment or wiring overheats and ignites surrounding materials.
Electrical fires can be caused by overloaded circuits, damaged wiring, or faulty electrical equipment. Electrical
fires can spread quickly and can be difficult to extinguish.
 Causes of Electrical Hazards

 Faulty or damaged wiring or equipment: This is a common cause of electrical hazards. Electrical wiring and
equipment can get damaged due to various reasons, such as wear and tear, exposure to the elements, or
physical damage.
 Loose connections: Loose connections can lead to overheating and arcing, which can cause electrical fires and
shock hazards.
 Use of poor quality fittings: Poor quality fittings, such as plugs and sockets, can increase the risk of electrical
hazards. These fittings may not be able to handle the electrical load, leading to overheating and other hazards.
 Lack of earthing/bonding and grounding: Earthing/bonding and grounding are essential for electrical safety.
Without proper earthing and grounding, electrical equipment and systems can become energized, leading to
shock hazards.
 Use of overrated fuse or jumper: Overrated fuses and jumpers can lead to overloading of electrical equipment
and systems, which can cause overheating, arcing, and electrical fires.
 Working on live equipment: Working on live equipment is one of the most dangerous causes of electrical
hazards. It increases the risk of electric shock and can be fatal.
 Overloading of power sockets and equipment: Overloading of power sockets and equipment can cause
overheating and increase the risk of electrical fires.
 Poor housekeeping: Poor housekeeping, such as cluttered workspaces and blocked electrical panels, can
increase the risk of electrical hazards.
 Handling of electrical equipment with an incompetent person and lack of training awareness: Improper
handling of electrical equipment and lack of training awareness can lead to accidents and injuries.
 Lack of safe working procedures and communication: Lack of safe working procedures and communication can
increase the risk of electrical hazards. It is essential to have clear procedures and effective communication to
ensure electrical safety.
 Failure to use appropriate PPE: Failure to use appropriate PPE, such as insulated gloves and safety glasses, can
increase the risk of electrical hazards.

Electrical Safety Control Measures

To ensure electrical safety, several control measures can be taken. Here are some of the most effective
electrical safety control measures:

A competent and experienced person shall be allowed to do electrical jobs

The first and foremost important aspect of electrical safety is ensuring that only competent and experienced
individuals should be allowed to perform electrical jobs. Electrical work requires specific knowledge, skills, and
experience to perform safely. A competent person is someone who has acquired the necessary training,
education, and experience to do the job safely and efficiently. This person must also be aware of electrical
hazards and how to prevent them.

It is the employer’s responsibility to ensure that their workers are competent and trained. Training and
certification programs can be used to ensure that workers have the necessary knowledge and skills to perform
electrical work safely. Employers can also verify their employees’ training, education, and experience before
allowing them to work on electrical equipment.

Don’t work on live equipment, isolation and multi lock system shall be followed

Working on live electrical equipment can be extremely dangerous and can result in electric shock, injury, or
death. Therefore, it is crucial to follow the isolation and multi-lock system to prevent injury by accidental
energizing of equipment while it is attended by different crafts.

The isolation and multi-lock system involve disconnecting the equipment from its energy source, locking the
disconnect in the off position, and placing a tag on the equipment to indicate that work is being performed.
This system ensures that the equipment cannot be inadvertently energized while maintenance or repair work
is being carried out.

A multi-lock system is used to prevent injury by accidental energizing of equipment while it is attended by
different craft. The executing authority and issuing authority jointly decide the requirement, and the issuing
authority issues the work permit to a competent electrical person to isolate the electrical equipment from the
substation. The competent electrical person and the executing authorities install their locks in the multi-lock
pad as per color-coding. `

Each lock should be numbered, and the key should be the same number. After locking, the person who installs
the lock is the responsible custodian of the key. Electrical maintenance will have to remove the lock lastly after
receiving all necessary permits, and the lock should be removed by individual craft after completion of their
job.

Handling of electrical equipment or switchgear shall not be done with wet hand or body

When handling electrical equipment or switchgear, it is crucial to ensure that your hands or body are dry to
prevent electric shock. Moisture can conduct electricity and increase the risk of electric shock. It is essential to
dry your hands and body thoroughly before handling electrical equipment.

Electrical switches or access to them shall not block by any material

Electrical switches or access to them should not be blocked by any material. It is important to ensure that
electrical equipment is accessible and free from obstructions to prevent any accidents. Workers should ensure
that the electrical equipment and its switches are easily accessible and visible.
Use appropriate PPE while working on electrical equipment

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is crucial when working with electrical equipment. The right PPE will
depend on the specific job and the risks involved, but common PPE for electrical work includes insulated
gloves, safety glasses, and hard hats. PPE can protect workers from electrical hazards and prevent injuries.

Regular inspection and maintenance of electrical equipment

Regular inspection and maintenance of electrical equipment can help identify potential hazards and prevent
accidents. This includes checking for signs of wear and tear, such as frayed wires, loose connections, and
damaged insulation. It is important to repair or replace faulty equipment promptly to prevent accidents.

Use of proper grounding and bonding

Proper grounding and bonding are essential for electrical safety. Grounding provides a path for electrical
current to flow safely to the ground, while bonding ensures that all metal parts of an electrical system are at
the same potential. This helps prevent electrical shock and electrocution

Proper use of extension cords and power strips

Improper use of extension cords and power strips can lead to electrical hazards. These devices should only be
used temporarily and should be rated for the amount of power being used. Extension cords and power strips
should not be overloaded or daisy-chained, and they should be inspected regularly for signs of wear and tear.

Use of warning signs and labels

Warning signs and labels can help alert workers and others to potential electrical hazards. These should be
placed in areas where electrical hazards may exist, such as near electrical panels or equipment. Warning signs
should be clear, easily visible, and include appropriate safety messages.

Electrical safety training for non-electrical workers

Electrical safety training is not only important for workers who directly work with electrical equipment but
also for non-electrical workers who may be working in the vicinity of electrical equipment. These workers
should be trained on the potential hazards associated with electrical equipment, the importance of staying
clear of electrical equipment and following safety procedures, and the proper use of PPE.

Use of non-conductive tools

When working with electrical equipment, it is important to use non-conductive tools to prevent accidental
electrical contact. Non-conductive tools are made from materials that do not conduct electricity, such as
fiberglass or plastic. This reduces the risk of electric shock and ensures that the equipment is not accidentally
energized.

Emergency response plan

An emergency response plan should be in place in case of an electrical accident. This plan should include
procedures for responding to electric shock, electrical fires, and other electrical emergencies. Workers should
be trained on the emergency response plan and have access to appropriate first aid equipment.

Electrical safety checklists

Electrical safety checklists can be used to ensure that safety procedures are being followed and to identify
potential hazards. These checklists can be used to inspect electrical equipment, check wiring and grounding,
verify that lockout/tagout procedures are being followed, and ensure that PPE is being used properly.

Electrical safety audits

Electrical safety audits can help identify potential hazards and ensure that safety controls are being followed.
An audit can be conducted by an external consultant or an internal safety team. The audit should include an
assessment of electrical equipment, procedures, and training programs.

Don’t hang cloth or any material on electrical equipment

Hanging cloth or other materials on electrical equipment can be hazardous as it can cause equipment to
overheat and start a fire. It is important to ensure that electrical equipment is free from obstructions to
prevent any accidents. The materials used in electrical work should be non-flammable and non-conductive.

ELECTRIC SHOCK
The effects of an electric shock vary depending on its source and severity. For example, shocks from light
switches may be mild, while contact with industrial power sources can cause severe effects.

When an electric current touches or flows through the body, this is known as an electric shock. It can happen
wherever there is live electricity.

Approximately 5% of burn unit admissions in the United States are due to electrical injuries. Anyone who
receives a high-voltage shock or an electrical burn should seek medical advice immediately.
This article looks at the symptoms of an electric shock, provides advice on first aid procedures, and explains
when to seek medical help.
Effects on the body

A person may get an electric shock due to faulty household wiring.

Electrical currents cause four main types of injuries:

 Flash: A flash injury typically causes superficial burns. These occur due to the heat of an arc flash,
which is a type of electrical explosion. The current does not penetrate the skin.
 Flame: These injuries occur when an arc flash causes a person’s clothes to ignite. The current may or
may not pass through the skin.
 Lightning: These involve short but high voltage electrical energy. The current flows through a person’s
body.
 True: The person becomes part of the circuit, and the electricity enters and exits the body.

The symptoms of electric shock depend on many factors. Injuries from low voltage shocks are most likely to be
superficial, whereas prolonged exposure to electrical current may cause deeper burns.
Secondary injuries can occur following an electric shock. A person may respond by jerking away, which might
cause them to lose balance or fall and injure another part of their body.

Short-term effects

Depending on the severity of the electrical injury, its immediate effects may include:

 burns
 irregular heartbeat
 seizures
 tingling or prickling sensations
 loss of consciousness
 headaches
Some people may notice unpleasant sensations but not have apparent physical damage, whereas others may
experience a lot of pain and have obvious tissue damage.
Those who have not experienced a significant injury or cardiac abnormalities within 24–48 hoursTrusted
Source of the electric shock are unlikely to develop them.
More severe outcomes can include:

 coma
 heart attack
 respiratory arrest

Long-term effects

One study found that people who had received an electric shock were no more likely to develop heart
problems within 5 years of the incident than those who had not.
A person may experience a variety of symptoms, including neuropsychological and physicalTrusted
Source symptoms.
The symptoms may include:

Psychological Neurological Physical

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) memory loss pain

depression concentration difficulties fatigue

anxiety tingling sensations headaches

insomnia fainting night sweats

reduced attention span loss of balance muscle spasms

panic attacks sciatica stiff joints

Anyone who has experienced an electric shock, regardless of whether it has caused a burn, should seek advice
from a healthcare professional.

What is an electric shock?

An electric shock occurs when an electric current passes from a live outlet to part of the body.
Electric shocks can result from contact with:

 faulty electrical appliances or machinery

  household wiring
 electrical power lines
 lightning
 electricity outlets

The domestic electricity running through a typical U.S. household is 110 volts (V) , with some appliances
needing 240 V. Industrial and power lines may carry more than 100,000 V.
High voltage currents of 500 V and more can cause deep burns, while low voltage currents consisting of 110–
120 V can result in muscle spasms.
A person can get an electric shock through contact with an electric current from a small household appliance,
wall outlet, or extension cord. These shocks rarely cause severe trauma or complications.
About half of electrical injuries occur in the workplace. High risk occupations for nonfatal electrocutions
include:

 construction
 leisure and hospitality
 education and health services
 accommodation and food services
 manufacturing

Several factors can affect the severity of electric shock injuries, including:

 the intensity of the current

 the type of current — alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC)
 which part of the body the current reaches
 how long a person has exposure to the current
 resistance to the current

The let-go threshold

The let-go threshold is the level where a person’s muscles contract, meaning that they are unable to let go of
the electrical source until someone safely removes it. This table shows the body’s response to different
intensities of current, using milliamps (mA) as the measurement:

Current
Response
(mA)

0.2–2 an electrical sensation

1–2+ a painful shock

3–5 let-go threshold for children

 6–10 minimum let-go threshold for adults

10–20 possible seizure at the contact point

22 inability to let go, for 99% of adults

20–50 possible seizures

50–100 possible life threatening heart rhythms

First aid

Minor electric shocks, such as those from small household appliances, do not typically need medical
treatment. However, a person should see a doctor if they have experienced electrocution.
If someone has received a high voltage shock, it is important to call 911 right away.
If a person experiences a serious electric shock, the give the following advice for how to respond as a
bystander:

 Do not touch the person, as they may be in contact with the electrical source.
 Call 911 or have someone else call 911.
 If it is safe to do so, turn off the source of electricity. If it is not safe, use a nonconducting object made
of wood, cardboard, or plastic to move the source away.
 After removing the electrical source, check the person for a pulse, and determine whether they are
breathing. If the person has no pulse, begin CPR immediately.
 If the person is faint or pale, lay them down with their head lower than their body and elevate their
legs.
 A person should neither touch any burns nor remove burned clothing.

A person can perform CPR by:

1. Administering compressions: Place one hand on top of the other in the middle of the chest. Using
body weight, push down hard and fast to administer compressions that are 2 inches deep. The aim is to
deliver 100–120 compressions per 60 seconds.
2. Delivering rescue breaths: First, make sure that the person’s mouth is clear. Then, tilt their head back,
lift their chin, pinch their nose closed, and blow into their mouth to make their chest rise. Perform two
rescue breaths and continue administering compressions.
3. Repeating the process: It is important to carry on until help arrives or the person begins breathing.
Diagnosis

At the emergency department, the doctor will perform a thorough physical exam to assess potential external
and internal damage. They will likely order tests, which may include:

 electrocardiogram (EKG) to monitor the heart’s rhythm

 pregnancy test, which is for pregnant people only, to assess any impact on the developing baby
 CT scan to check the health of the brain, spine, and chest
 blood tests to check for rhabdomyolysis

A medical professional will only order CT scans and blood tests if they suspect internal injury.

When to contact a doctor

Not every person who experiences an electric shock needs to visit the emergency department. People can
follow this advice:

 Call 911 if a person experiences a high voltage shock, which is one of 500 VTrusted Source or more.
These voltages can cause deep burns that require immediate attention.
 Go to the emergency department following a low voltage shock that results in a burn. It is important
not to try to treat the burn at home.
 If a person experiences a low voltage shock with no burn injury, they should visit a doctor to ensure
that no damage has occurred.

Outlook

Electric shocks can cause injuries that are not always visible. Depending on how high the voltage was, the
injury may be fatal. However, if a person survives the initial electrocution, they should seek medical attention
to ensure that no injuries have occurred.
Anyone who thinks that an individual has had a severe electric shock should call 911 right away.
Even after a minor shock, a person should see a doctor.

Summary

Electric shocks range from minor to severe, as do the injuries they can cause. Many electric shocks occur in the
home, so it is important to check household appliances regularly for signs of damage.
People working in proximity to the installation of electrical systems should take particular care and always
follow safety regulations.
If a person has experienced a severe electric shock, a bystander should call 911 and administer first aid if it is
safe to do so.
 Conclusion

Electricity has become an essential part of modern life, but it can also be dangerous if safety measures are not
taken seriously. Electrical hazards, including electrical shock, burns, and fires, can be caused by faulty wiring
and equipment, loose connections, lack of grounding, overloading of equipment, and more. To ensure
electrical safety, competent and experienced individuals should be trained and certified to perform electrical
work, and safety procedures like isolation and multi-lock systems should be implemented. Failure to take
safety measures can lead to serious consequences, but proper safety measures can prevent electrical hazards
and save lives.

LOCK OUT-TAG OUT

What is LOTO?

LOTO stands for lockout/tagout. When done properly before equipment service or maintenance,
lockout/tagout procedures control hazardous energy and protect workers from harm.
In this article, we’ll look at the basics of lockout/tagout and LOTO safety, including some basic definitions,
relevant OSHA regulations and informational resources, and steps to follow when performing lockout tagout
procedures.

The Purpose of Lockout/Tagout and LOTO Safety

When machines or equipment are being prepared for service or maintenance, they often contain some form
of “hazardous energy” that can cause harm to people in the area.
When we talk about hazardous energy, we mean any type of energy that can be released and might harm a
person. This could include energy of the following types:
 Chemical
 Electrical
 Hydraulic
 Mechanical
 Pneumatic
 Thermal
 Other sources of energy
Without the use of proper LOTO safety procedures, the serviced equipment can unexpectedly start up or
otherwise release these forms of energy. This can lead to serious (even potentially fatal) injuries to the people
working on the machine and to others working in the area or living in the community.
Consider just a few examples:
 A worker is servicing a press, another worker comes by and starts the press, and the service worker is caught
up in the press, causing an amputation
 Workers are repairing a connection in piping, and somewhere up that same line another worker opens a valve,
sending fluids down the pipe that ultimately spill on and burn the maintenance workers
 A conveyor jams, a worker reaches in to try to clear the jam, the conveyor jam is suddenly and unexpectedly
freed, and the worker is crushed as a result
 A worker is servicing a machine, and at the same time internal wiring in the machine shorts, causing the
maintenance worker to receive an electrical shock
 All of these are examples of hazardous energy causing harm. And that’s what LOTO safety is all about–making
sure these types of hazardous energy are controlled so they’re never released and can’t cause harm.

Lockout/Tagout is Part of an Energy Control Program

Every workplace should have an energy control program in place, with LOTO safety being one part of that
program. An energy control program includes established procedures for using locks and tags; the locks and
tags themselves; lockout/tagout procedures, policies, and equipment; and periodic reviews and inspections of
the system (at least annually).

Lockout/Tagout standard also requires employers to train each worker to ensure that they know, understand,
and are able to follow the applicable provisions of the hazardous energy control procedures. Workers must be
trained in the purpose and function of the energy control program and have the knowledge and skills required
for the safe application, usage, and removal of energy control devices.
This standard requires that employees who work in an area where energy control procedure(s) are utilized be
instructed in the purpose and use of the energy control procedure(s), and especially trained not to attempt to
restart or reenergize machines or other equipment that are locked or tagged out.

All employees who employers authorize to lockout machines or equipment and perform any service or
maintenance operations must be trained each year to recognize sources of hazardous energy in the
workplace, the type and magnitude of energy found in the workplace, and the means of isolating and/or
controlling the energy.

Six Steps of LOTO Safety & Lockout/Tagout Procedures

A lockout/tagout procedure should include the following six steps:

1. Preparation
2. Shutdown
3. Isolation
4. Lockout/tagout
5. Stored energy check
6. Isolation verification

Let’s look at each of these steps of LOTO safety more closely in the sections below.

Lockout/Tagout Step 1: Preparation

The first step of locking and tagging out equipment for service and maintenance is to prepare. During the
preparation phase, the authorized employee must investigate and gain a complete understanding of all types
of hazardous energy that might be controlled. In addition, it’s important to identify the specific hazards and of
course means for controlling that energy.
 Lockout/Tagout Step 2: Shut Down

With planning complete, the actual process of powering down and locking out machines begins.
At this point, it’s time to shut down the machine or equipment that will be serviced or maintained. Another
important part of this step is to inform any employee affected by the shutdown, even if they won’t play a role
in the service or maintenance. An example of affected employees include machine operators who need to
know that their machine should not be operated, or any other employees, visitors, or contractors who would
be working in the area.

Lockout/ Tagout Step 3:

Isolation

The next step of the lockout/tagout

procedure is to isolate the machine or
equipment from any source of energy.
This may mean any number of things, such as turning off power at a breaker or shutting a valve.
 Lockout/Tagout Step 4: Lockout/Tagout

With the machine or equipment isolated from its energy source the next step of lockout/tagout is to actually
lock and tag out the machine. It’s fair to say that this entire six-step process takes its name from this step.
During this step, the authorized employee will attach lockout and/or tagout devices to each energy-isolating
device. The point is to apply the lockout
device on the energy-isolating device in
a way so it says in the “safe” position
and cannot be moved to the unsafe
position except by the person
performing the lockout.
Tagout refers to applying a tag on the
device as well. This tag includes the
name of the person who performed the
lockout and additional information.

Lockout/Tagout Step 5: Stored Energy Check

Even after the energy source has been disconnected, in step 3 of the lockout safety process, and the machine
has been locked out, in step 4, that doesn’t entirely guarantee that there’s no hazardous energy still stored
within the machine or that it’s safe to perform maintenance.
At this time, it’s important to look for any hazardous energy that’s been “stored” within the machine, or any
“residual” energy. During this phase, any potentially hazardous stored or residual energy must be relieved,
disconnected, restrained, or made non-hazardous in some other way.
 Lockout/Tagout Step 6: Isolation Verification

This last step is all about making sure.

Yes, you’ve shut down the machines, isolated them from their source of power, locked them out, and checked
for hazardous stored energy. But now’s the time to double-check that you did it all right and it’s now safe to
work on the machine or equipment.
At this point, an authorized employee verifies the machine has been properly isolated and de-energized.

Conclusion: LOTO Safety in 6 Easy Steps

We hope you enjoyed learning the six basic steps of every lockout/tagout procedure. If your workplace needs
help with developing lockout tagout training, at Vector Solutions we offer several lockout training courses
within our extensive online safety training library that can be leveraged to better protect your team from
unintentional exposures to all types of hidden energy and electrical hazards.
Our online lockout tagout training has helped thousands of organizations to comply with OSHA’s standard for
the Control of Hazardous Energy and protect their employees from harm. Contact us today to learn more
about how we can support your workplace’s environmental health and safety training.
 LESSON 4.1-4.2
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the importance of performance testing of protective devices in accordance with industry,
manufacturer’s, and regulatory requirements.
2. Conduct performance test of protective devices as per manufacturer’s manual.

Circuit Breaker
Circuit breakers are now standard household equipment that protects electrical systems from fire and
overcurrent. This protective switchgear saves lives, time, and money for power system maintenance.
The need for reliable and efficient protection mechanisms is paramount in every electrical system.
One of the key components ensuring safety and stability is the circuit breaker. This device not only
safeguards electrical circuits from damage caused by overcurrent but also plays a crucial role in
preventing potential fire hazards.

Circuit breakers are essential devices in electrical systems designed to protect circuits from damage
caused by overload or short circuits. These devices automatically interrupt the flow of electricity
when a fault is detected, thereby preventing overheating and potential fire hazards.

Imagine a scenario where a household appliance, such as a washing machine, experiences a

malfunction that causes a surge in electrical current. Without a circuit breaker, this excessive current
could overheat the wires, potentially leading to an electrical fire. The circuit breaker detects the
abnormal current flow and swiftly disconnects the power, ensuring the safety of both the appliance
and the home.

They can be found in residential, commercial, and industrial settings, safeguarding electrical systems
and ensuring a reliable power supply.
 A circuit breaker “makes” and “breaks” a circuit automatically under faulty conditions such as a short
circuit or overload. When the current value becomes large enough to cross the predetermined value
specified by the manufacturer, the current is termed overcurrent. The circuit breaker automatically
senses the overcurrent and disconnects the circuit to break the fault current flow and prevent damage
such as fire.

Apart from opening the circuit, a circuit breaker should be able to close the circuit during the faulty
condition. It carries the overcurrent for a time period of T until the fault is recovered in the power
system. Circuit breakers isolate the faulty components of the power system from further damage and
resume operation post-repair of the faulty components. However, a circuit breaker must not damage
itself within the limit of its power rating.

Three duties of a Circuit Breaker

 The circuit breaker should be capable of opening the faulty circuit and breaking the faulty
current flow.

 The circuit breaker must remain closed during the faulty condition.

 Circuit breakers must carry fault current for a time period until the fault is cleared.

How does a Circuit Breaker work?

What is the Arc effect in a circuit breaker?

Arc effect is observed when heavy current flows through the non-conductive path
developed between two separating metal contacts inside a circuit breaker. The electric arc
is produced when an ionized gas with molecules that have lost one or more electrons
generates plasma-the fourth state of matter. The plasma in the electric arc results in
visible light (just like a spark) that provides a path for heavy current flow.
 This Image shows an effect similar to the arc effect.

When these metal contacts begin to separate, the contact area and pressure decrease.
This in turn increases resistance by a small value of about 1 ohm. The large value of fault
current (in the order of mega ampere) produces a heavy potential difference of the same
order. The electronics dislodge from the cathode surface towards the anode. Due to a
decrease in pressure and an increase in heat, the gas in the circuit breaker ionizes.

The ionized gas contains positive ions and free electrons. Due to their small size, free
electrons move at a higher velocity toward the anode compared to positive ions. The free
electrons moving towards the anode collide with molecules that knock off more electrons
and increase the heat. The kinetic energy and velocity of the electrons increase, leading to
more collisions. This effect is known as field emission because electrons are emitted due
to the electric field. The current due to positive ions moving toward the cathode is very
less compared to the current produced by the flow of electrons. The current path between
two separating metal contacts consisting of plasma is termed an electric arc. In short, the
electric arc provides a path for the heavy current to flow without any interruption.
 Circuit Breaker ratings

 Rated Voltage: Rated Voltage is the highest phase-to-phase voltage that the circuit
breaker is capable of withstanding without damage. It is always more than the nominal
voltage and is expressed in KV rms.

 Rated Frequency: Maximum frequency for which the circuit breaker operates without
failure.

 Operating Sequence: The operating sequence of a circuit breaker is “CO”- closing

followed by a rapid opening. Another sequence can be CO-t1-C— closing followed by a
rapid opening that sustains for time t1. After time t1, the circuit closes, and so on.

 Standard Duty Cycle: The standard duty cycle of a circuit breaker is a sequence of two
operations in a time period between two operations. For eg: O-t1-CO-t2-CO.

 Breaking capacity or rated short-circuit breaking current: The breaking capacity of

a circuit breaker is defined as the current breaking capability of a circuit breaker at a
certain recovery voltage under specific conditions. In simple words, breaking capacity is
the rms value of the fault current at the instant of contact separation initiation.

 Making Capacity or Rated Short-Circuit Making Current: The making capacity of a

circuit breaker is defined as the maximum capability of a circuit breaker to withstand faulty
current and close against the forces. In simple words, making capacity is the value of peak
current during the first half cycle of current after its closure of the contacts. It includes the
DC component of the peak current as well.

 Short-Time Rating: The short-time rating is defined as the time period for which the
circuit breaker allows faulty current flow while being safely closed. The circuit breaker
should neither be tripped nor damaged during the short-term rating.

 Short-Time Current Rating: The short-time current rating is defined as the rms value of
the current for which the circuit breaker is closed for the time period without any damage.

 Nominal Current Rating: The nominal current rating is the rms value of the continuous
current of the circuit breaker without temperature rise exceeding specified conditions.
 Circuit Breaker types
Circuit breakers are classified into multiple types depending upon the mediums used for
arc extinction and voltage-withstanding capacity.

C
ircuit breaker types based on medium and voltage handling capacity.

However, there are four main mediums for circuit breakers:

 Oil

 Air

 Vacuum

 Sulphur Hexafluoride
Higher dielectric strength of the insulating medium enables arc quenching mechanism with
efficiency.
 Dielectric strength of different circuit breaker media.

Category 1: Low Voltage Circuit Breakers (V < 1000 Volts)

 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB): MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker) is one of the most
popular household circuit breakers that operate for low voltages. It can be turned on and
off manually and works through magnetism. The bimetallic strip in the MCB senses the
overcurrent and releases a mechanical latch. MCB comes in various types such as A, B,
C, D, G, H, and K.

 Air Break Circuit Breaker: Air Break circuit breakers are used in low voltage
applications with a less contact life of about 6 short circuits. This circuit breaker is of two
types- plain air break and magnetic blow-out air break circuit breakers. The air break
circuit breaker employs the method of high résistance interruption for arc quenching. The
resistance of the arc is increased by reducing the area of the cross-section and increasing
the length of the arc. Arc can also be quenched by cooling and spitting it inside the circuit
breaker.

Category 2: Medium Voltage Circuit Breakers (1 kV - 33 kV)

 Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MoCB): Oil circuit breakers generally use transformer oil
as an insulating medium to extinguish the arc. It is because oil is a good dielectric medium
having a high dielectric strength of 110 kV/cm. The ions meant for producing the arc react
with oil to release gasses like hydrogen (70-80%), methane, ethylene, and acetylene.
Since hydrogen is a good conductor of heat, the hydrogen bubble near the contact cools
 down the system to promote de-ionization for the production of the electric arc. The
turbulence of oil in the arc path is another factor that forbids its production. The contact life
of such circuit breakers is around 6 short circuits and is more likely to be replaced
frequently.

 Vacuum Circuit Breaker: A vacuum circuit breaker uses a medium with pressure less
than that of the atmospheric pressure i.e. pressure less than 760 mm of Mercury. Unit Torr
(1 mm of Hg) is used to measure such low pressures. In vacuum circuit breakers, a
vacuum arc quenching medium of 10-5 to 10-7 Torr is used. The dielectric and insulating
strength of the medium is the highest among other circuit breaker mediums. The presence
of the vacuum allows micro projections to produce metal ions and form an electric arc.
The vacuum breaker is fast enough to interrupt the faulty current within the very first cycle.
The explosion possibility of the vacuum circuit breaker is NIL and it offers a contact life of
about 100 short circuits.

Category 3: High Voltage Circuit Breakers (33 kV - 220 kV) and Extremely High
Voltage Circuit Breakers (V > 400 kV)

 Air Blast Circuit Breaker: Air blast circuit breakers are used as a replacement for oil for
medium, high, and extremely high voltages. However, air blast circuits are frequently used
for high voltages of more than 110 kV. High-pressure air or compressed air is used as a
method for quick arc quenching instead of other gasses like nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen. The choice of air instead of other gasses reduces the cost and size of the
circuit breaker. Due to the presence of air instead of oil, there is no risk of fire. The contact
life of air blast circuit breakers is around 25 short circuits and they offer re-closures
(reuses).

 SF6 Circuit Breaker: Sulphur Hexafluoride Circuit Breaker uses SF6 gas for
extinguishing the arc in high and extremely high voltage applications. The sulfur
hexafluoride gas has high dielectric strength and electronegative properties of absorbing
the free electrons. The gas produces negative ions which are relatively slower than free
electrons to enable ionization for arc generation. The contact life of SF6 circuit breakers is
around 25 short circuits and the same gas can be used after operation. Other features
include a low risk of fire, and non-explosive, noble, and non-poisonous properties.
 Circuit Breaker advantages

 Circuit breakers operate in groups and protect multiple electrical equipment and switches
in a power system.

 Circuit breakers are fast in operation and ensure continuity in the power supply.

 The circuit breaker extinguishes the electric ark and prevents re-striking.

 Circuit breaker protects the electrical equipment it is supplying power to from overcurrent.

 Circuit breaker operates within no-load, full-load, and faulty conditions.

 The circuit breaker performs switching functions manually. It opens and closes a circuit
upon manual input at the time of repair or replacement of electrical equipment.

 Circuit breakers can be reliably used for high-voltage applications.

 Circuit breakers are better than mechanical fuses because they offer multiple reuses.

 Circuit breakers require auxiliaries like relays and motors for full operation.

 Circuit breakers save replacement time and reduce maintenance costs.

Circuit Breaker uses

Replacement of Fuse

Compared to another switchgear-like fuse, a circuit breaker is smaller in size and can be automatically reset for
repeated operation. Fuses are made up of metal and are placed in the circuit for protection. Whenever heavy
current flows through the circuit, the fuse melts or blows up. A fuse can be used only one time and cannot be
reset post-repair of faults in the circuit. Every time a new fuse must be added to the circuit for a one-time
operation. Moreover, fuses have slow capabilities to determine the time to start operation and are used for low-
voltage applications. On the other hand, circuit breakers are fast enough to operate in faulty conditions. A
circuit breaker can be automatically reset post-repair of the circuit and ensures continuous supply. Using a
circuit breaker instead of a fuse eliminates the cost of replacement, saves time, and enables high-voltage
operation.
 Circuit Breaker as a Switch

The circuit breaker can also act as a switch that manually turns on and turns off the power
supply to electrical equipment in the power system. It can be used as a switch to manually
turn on and turn off the supply for repair or replacement purposes. When power system
components like transformers, coils, and other equipment or circuit breakers need to be
repaired or replaced, a circuit breaker isolates those components. A circuit breaker breaks
the current flowing to the device and disconnects the device for further procedures. Post
repair or replacement, circuit breakers can be switched on for regular operation. A normal
switch cannot be used in faulty conditions because it needs a manual turn-off. One cannot
judge that the overcurrent flow has passed design limitations. Circuit breaker automatically
“senses” overcurrent and breaks the circuit immediately.

Circuit Breaker applications

 Circuit breakers are used in switching different kinds of loads in households, commercial,
buildings, and industrial places.

 Circuit breakers are used as switchgear to protect electrical equipment in household and
commercial areas from faulty current, overcurrent, short-circuit, and fire.

 Circuit breakers are used in feeder circuits and motors.

Fuse

Figure 1: A fuse box in a basement[1]

A fuse is an electrical safety device that protects an electric circuit from excessive electric current.
Fuses are destroyed during overload conditions. When reasonable to do so (and economically
sensible), circuit breakers are used instead because they are not destroyed during overload
conditions. It's cheaper to install fuses than circuit breakers, but since fuses need to be replaced and
circuit breakers don't, fuses have a higher operational cost.
Practical tips

Houses have fuses in fuseboxes (see figure 1). Here are some helpful household tips for homes with
a fuse box.

 Never replace a fuse with a larger fuse, as this will let too much current through and be a fire hazard.
 Replacing a fuse with a smaller-sized fuse is also a problem because this will prevent normal operation.
 Never use something other than a fuse to replace a fuse; this will quite likely cause a fire.
 Keep extra fuses around the house to quickly replace blown fuses.
 Know where your fuse box (see figure 1) is.
 Turn off or unplug items in use before replacing a blown fuse; otherwise, the replacement fuse will be
immediately destroyed as well.
How fuses work

Fuses are designed to allow current through the circuit, but in the event that the current exceeds
some maximum value it will burn out the wire, so that there is no longer a circuit. The current that will
cause a fuse to blow is called the current rating. Fuses also have a voltage rating; this is the
maximum voltage difference that the fuse can block. Once a circuit is open (broken), an applied
voltage exists at the ends of the fuse, and if this voltage exceeds the voltage rating of the fuse, the air
in the fuse may ionize and start conducting again, therefore leaving the circuit without a safety
system.
Types of fuses

Fuses are housed in fuse boxes (see figure 1) and listed in the table below.[2]

Fuse
Description Picture
type

Contains a thin conductor designed to melt at a low

temperature. Once the current reaches a level that
Cartridge
can generate enough heat to match or surpass the
designed melting point, the connection will break.
A normal cartridge fuse and a slo-blo fuse[3]

Contains two electrical connectors that plug into a

Blade circuit and a wire inside that will melt at a certain
current.

Blade fuses[4]

.
 Screwed directly into a standard fuse socket. To learn
Plug
more about this type of fuse please see EPB.

A plug fuse and its base[5]

Referred to as a rejection base (also called type-S), it

requires an adapter to fit into a standard fuse socket.
Once it is installed it cannot be removed. Fuses with
Adapter different current ratings will have different threads;
therefore, they cannot be replaced with a fuse of a
different current rating. To learn more about this type
of fuse please see EPB.

An adapter fuse and its base[6]

There are special fuses which handle short periods of overloads by deliberately reacting slowly, called time
delay fuses. They can normally be found in a household microwave, which produces a current surge when it is
turned on.
 RELAYS
Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or electronically. Relays control one
electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts in another circuit. As relay diagrams show, when a relay
contact is normally open (NO), there is an open contact when the relay is not energized. When a relay contact
is Normally Closed (NC), there is a closed contact when the relay is not energized. In either case, applying
electrical current to the contacts will change their state.

Relays are generally used to switch smaller currents in a control circuit and do not usually control power
consuming devices except for small motors and Solenoids that draw low amps. Nonetheless, relays can
"control" larger voltages and amperes by having an amplifying effect because a small voltage applied to a
relays coil can result in a large voltage being switched by the contacts.

Protective relays can prevent equipment damage by detecting electrical abnormalities, including overcurrent,
undercurrent, overloads and reverse currents. In addition, relays are also widely used to switch starting coils,
heating elements, pilot lights and audible alarms.

ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS
The basic parts and functions of electromechanical relays include the frame, coil, armature, and contacts.
A heavy-duty frame contains and supports the parts of the relay. A wire is wound around a metal core, and the
coil of wire causes an electromagnetic field. The armature is the moving part of the relay, which opens and
closes the contacts. An attached spring returns the armature to its original position. The contacts are the
conducting parts of the switch that makes (closes) or breaks (opens) a circuit. When the contacts make a
connection there is typically a “click” sound.

In the image above the plastic outer case of the relay is removed. On the left are the two spring contacts. On
the right is the electromagnet coil. When the current flows through the coil it turns into an electromagnet,
which pushes a switch to the left, forcing the spring contacts together, and completing the circuit they are
attached to.
TYPES OF ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

GENERAL PURPOSE RELAYS

 General purpose relays are electromechanical switches that are usually operated by a magnetic coil.
They operate with AC or DC current, at common voltages such as 12V, 24V, 48V, 120V, and 230V and
can control currents ranging from 2A-30A. These relays are economical, easy to replace, and allow a
wide range of switch configuration.
 MACHINE CONTROL RELAYS
 Machine control relays are also operated by a magnetic coil. They are heavy-duty and are used to
control starters and other industrial components. Although they are more expensive than general
purpose relays, they are generally more durable. The biggest advantage of machine control relays over
general purpose relays is the expandable functionality of machine control relays by the adding of
accessories. A wide selection of accessories is available for machine control relays including additional
poles, convertible contacts, transient suppression of electrical noise, latching control, and timing
attachments.

REED RELAYS
 Reed relays are a small, compact, fast operating switch design with one contact, normally open (NO),
and hermetically sealed in a glass envelope, which makes the contacts unaffected by contaminants,
fumes, or humidity. This allows for more reliable switching and gives contacts a higher life expectancy.
The ends of the contact, which are often plated with gold or another low resistance material to
increase conductivity, are drawn together and closed by a magnet. They can switch industrial
components such as solenoids, contactors, and starter motors and consist of two reeds. When a
magnetic force is applied, such as an electromagnet or coil, it sets up a magnetic field in which the end
of the reeds assumes opposite polarity. When the magnetic field is strong enough, the attracting force
of the opposite poles overcomes the stiffness of the reeds and draws them together. When the
magnetic force is removed, the reeds spring back to their original, open position. These relays work
very quickly because of the short distance between the reeds.

SOLID STATE RELAYS (SSRS)

 SSRs consist of an input circuit, a control circuit, and an output circuit. The input circuit is the portion of
a relays frame to which the control component is connected. The input circuit performs the same
function as the coil of electromechanical relays. The circuit is activated when a voltage higher than the
relays specified pickup voltage is applied to the relays input. The input circuit is deactivated when the
voltage applied is less than the specified minimum dropout voltage of the relay. The voltage range of 3
VDC to 32 VDC, commonly used with most SSRs, makes it useful for most electronic circuits. The
control circuit is the part of the relay that determines when the output component is energized or de-
energized. The control circuit functions as the coupling between the input and output circuits. In
electromechanical relays, the coil accomplishes this function. A relays output circuit is the portion of
 the relay that switches on the load and performs the same function as the mechanical contacts of
electromechanical relays. SSRs, however, normally have only one output contact.

TYPES OF SOLID STATE RELAYS

ZERO-SWITCHING RELAYS
 Zero switching relays turn on the load when the control (minimum operating) voltage is applied, and
the voltage of the load is close to zero. These relays turn OFF the load when the control voltage is
removed and the current in the load is close to zero. Zero-switching relays are the most widely used.

INSTANT ON RELAYS
 Instant ON relays turn on the load immediately when the pickup voltage is present, and they allow the
load to be turned on at any point in its up and down wave.

PEAK SWITCHING RELAYS

 Peak switching relays turn on the load when the control voltage is present, and the voltage of the load
is at its peak. They turn OFF when the control voltage is removed and the current in the load is close to
zero.

ANALOG SWITCHING RELAYS

 Analog switching relays have an infinite number of possible output voltages within the relays rated
range. They have a built-in synchronizing circuit that controls the amount of output voltage as a
function of the input voltage. This allows a ramp-up function of time to be on the load and turn off
when the control voltage is removed and current in the load is near zero.
 Relay Applications

Solid-state relays can be used for:

 Applications requiring high speed and frequent switching operations

 Applications in high vibration environments
 Applications where the relay has to be located near sensitive automation components, such as PLC’s,
HMIs, and temperature controllers

Electromechanical relays can be used for:

 Applications requiring a wide output range from the relay

 Applications using motors and transformers requiring high starting amps
 Applications where the initial installation budget is very limited

LESSON 4.3-4.4
LIVE WIRE TEST
LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the importance of live wire test during installation, maintenance, or troubleshooting activities, based on
accepted industry practice.
2. Perform live wire test in the electrical system, considering the different parameters, in accordance with the Code of
Safe Working Practices.

Working with electricity requires caution. Before doing any electrical work, it’s essential to know how to test
whether a wire is live. There are multiple methods to check, using tools like a multimeter, a non-contact
voltage tester, or even older methods like the tester screwdriver and light bulb. This guide provides everything
you need to know about identifying a live electrical wire safely.

Understanding Electrical Wires

Electrical systems consist of various wires, each serving a specific purpose. Before probing or testing, one
should understand the different types of wires in an electrical system.
Differentiating Between Ground Wire, Hot Wire, and Neutral Wire
 Ground Wire (Earth Wire): This wire is typically green or bare without insulation. It provides a direct
path to the ground, ensuring safety by preventing electric shocks from faulty appliances or systems.
 Hot Wire (Black or Red Wire): Often black or red, this wire is live and carries the current from the
power source to the electrical outlet or appliance. Touching a hot one without proper precautions can
result in a shock.
 Neutral Wire: Typically white, this wire completes the electrical circuit by providing the return path for
the current. It’s usually at the same voltage level as the ground but should still be approached with
caution.

Why Knowing if a Wire is Live is Crucial

Determining whether a wire is live is paramount for various reasons:

1. Safety: A live wire can cause electric shocks. Using a non-contact voltage tester is the safest way to test
for a live wire. When working near the wire, always use high-voltage safety gloves.
2. Electrical Work: Before conducting any electrical work, like repairing an electrical cable or accessing an
electrical outlet, ensure you turn off the power. Always test electrical wiring to confirm no current is
flowing through a wire.
3. Preventing Electrical Faults: Knowing which wire is the hot one, neutral, or ground helps in making
proper connections. Incorrectly connecting wires can result in an electrical fault.
4. Identifying Wires: In older homes, wire colours may not follow modern standards. Testing helps
identify live, neutral, or ground wires behind a wall, ensuring that electrical systems function correctly.

Multimeters
A multimeter is a versatile instrument used to measure various electrical properties, such as voltage, current,
and resistance. Available in analog and digital forms, multimeters are essential tools for electricians, hobbyists,
and anyone working with electricity. They’re instrumental in diagnosing electrical faults, testing components,
and, most importantly, determining if a wire is live.

 Digital vs. Analog: While both types serve similar functions, digital multimeters (DMMs) provide a
digital readout, making them more accurate and easier to read than their analog counterparts.
 Non-contact Voltage Testers: These are another category of testers, ideal for quickly determining if a
wire is live without making physical contact. A non-contact tester will light up or beep near a live wire,
making them a fast and safe way to check.

Using a Digital Multimeter to Test Voltage

Using a Digital Multimeter to Test Voltage Testing a wire for voltage using a digital multimeter is
straightforward, ensuring you take necessary safety precautions:

1. Setting up Your DMM: First, ensure the multimeter is set to the voltage (V) setting. If you’re unsure of
the voltage range, start at the highest setting and work your way down.
2. Inserting the Probes: Place the red probe into the port labeled “V” (or similar) and the black probe into
the port typically labeled “COM.”
3. Testing the Wire: Touch the red probe to the wire you suspect to be live (hot wire). Touch the black
probe to a known ground (ground wire or a grounded metal part). If the wire is live, the multimeter will
display the voltage.
 4. Reading the Results: If there’s a voltage reading, the wire is live. If the reading is close to zero, the wire
is not live. Always double-check on a known live wire or socket to ensure the multimeter is working
correctly.
5. Safety Precautions: Always wear insulated gloves and safety goggles when working with electrical
wires. If you’re uncertain about the procedure or the results, it’s best to consult with an electrician

Remember, while a multimeter is an invaluable tool, always prioritise safety. It’s essential to have the
knowledge and confidence when testing live wires or any other electrical work.

The Convenience of Non-contact Voltage Testers

Non-contact voltage testers are modern tools designed to detect voltage without needing direct contact with
the wire or outlet. They offer a quick and safe way to tell if a wire is live.

 How They Work: These testers sense the electric field around a live wire. When close to a wire that has
electricity flowing through it, the tester will typically light up, beep, or both.
 Safety First: One of the significant benefits is safety. Since you don’t have to touch the wire, there’s no
risk of accidental shocks.
 Quick and Efficient: For rapid checks, especially in environments with many wires or outlets, a non-
contact voltage tester saves time. Simply move it near a wire or socket, and it’ll instantly show if
there’s a live electrical current.

Old-school Methods: Tester Screwdriver & Light Bulb

Before advanced tools became widespread, there were simple yet effective methods to test if a wire was live:

 Tester Screwdriver: This tool has a small neon bulb with two electrodes. When the tip touches a live
wire and the base is touched by your hand, it closes the circuit, causing the bulb to light up, indicating
the wire is live.
 Light Bulb Method: This involves connecting a wire to a light bulb holder. If the bulb lights up when
connected to another wire or outlet, it indicates a flow of electricity. Though rudimentary, this method
is an easy way to visualise a live connection.
Pros and Cons of Different Testers
 Digital Multimeter:
 Pros: Accurate readings, versatile (can measure voltage, current, resistance), can test both DC and
AC currents.
 Cons: More expensive, requires direct contact with the wire, can be overkill for simple live wire
tests.
 Non-contact Voltage Tester:
 Pros: Safe, fast, no direct contact needed with wires, relatively affordable.
 Cons: Can sometimes give false positives (especially near other electrical devices), may not detect
low voltage.
 Tester Screwdriver:
 Pros: Simple to use, cheap, easily available.
 Cons: Requires direct contact with the wire, not as safe as non-contact testers, can’t measure exact
voltage.
 Light Bulb Method:
 Pros: Easy visualisation of live connection, simple setup.
  Cons: Not precise, can be risky if not done correctly, only indicates the presence of current but not
its strength.

While each tester has its unique advantages and disadvantages, the most important factor is the user’s safety.
Regardless of the method or tool, always ensure you’re taking proper precautions when testing or working
with electrical wires.

Steps to Safely Check if a Wire is Live

Checking a wire to determine if it’s live is a task that demands precision and safety. Here are step-by-step
guidelines to ensure a safe testing experience.

1. Turn Off the Main Power: Before beginning, switch off the main power source. This step is essential,
even if you’re using a non-contact tester.
2. Use Reliable Testers: Whether it’s a multimeter, non-contact voltage tester, tester screwdriver, or any
other tool, ensure it’s in good working condition. If using a multimeter, test it on a known live socket or
wire to confirm its functionality.
3. Check the Wire’s Insulation: Inspect the wire for any cracks or damages in its insulation. A damaged
wire can pose a risk, even if you’re just testing it.
4. Test the Wire: Depending on your chosen method, test the wire. Remember to always use one hand
when testing to minimise the risk of a circuit passing through your body.
5. Double-Check: Once you’ve determined whether the wire is live or not, it’s always a good idea to test
again for confirmation.

Ensuring Personal Safety Before Testing

Before you touch any wire or electrical system, you must ensure your personal safety:

1. Wear Insulated Gloves: These gloves offer protection against accidental shocks. Ensure they’re dry and
free from any tears.
2. Safety Goggles: Protect your eyes from any sparks or debris with safety goggles.
3. Stay Dry: Never handle electrical components with wet hands or stand on a damp floor. Water is a
good conductor of electricity, and this can be a fatal mistake.
4. Use Insulated Tools: If using tools to manipulate wires, ensure they have insulated handles.
5. Stand on an Insulated Surface: Using a rubber mat or standing on a wooden surface can add an extra
layer of safety.
6. Stay Grounded: Be aware of your surroundings. Ensure you’re not in contact with any grounded object
while testing.
7. One Hand Rule: Whenever possible, keep one hand behind your back or in your pocket when testing.
This action reduces the chance of electricity passing through your heart if a shock occurs.
Remember, safety first! If you’re unsure about anything, it’s always better to consult a professional electrician.

Using a Multimeter to Determine if a Wire is Live

When working with electricity, one of the most common tasks an electrician faces is determining whether a
wire is live or not. A multimeter is a versatile tester that can help safely check if a wire has voltage flowing
through it.
Setting up Your Digital Multimeter
1. Turn off the Power: For safety, always ensure the electrical system’s power is off, especially when
setting up your multimeter.
2. Select the Right Setting: Depending on your digital multimeter, choose the AC or DC voltage setting,
based on the type of current you are testing. Typically, household wiring is AC.
3. Determine Voltage Range: If your multimeter isn’t auto-ranging, select a voltage range higher than
what you expect to measure.
4. Inspect Your Multimeter: Before using, check whether the multimeter and its probes are in good
condition without any exposed wires.
Probing Wires with Multimeter
1. Identify Wires: Typically, black wire is the “hot” wire, red can also be “hot”, and white or green are
often neutral or ground. It’s essential to know which wire you want to test.
2. One Test Lead at a Time: Place one test lead on the wire you want to check. For household AC testing,
the other lead can be placed on a ground wire or neutral.
3. Safety First: Always use one hand when probing, keeping the other hand away from the electrical
system to prevent unwanted circuits.
Reading and Interpreting Multimeter Results
1. Live or Not?: If the multimeter displays a voltage close to the expected value (e.g., ~120V for standard
US households), the wire is live. A reading of zero or close to zero indicates the wire is not live.
2. Positive and Negative Wires: If you’re testing DC voltage, the multimeter will show either a positive or
negative reading, helping you tell which wire is positive.
3. Consistent Readings: Sometimes, it’s wise to take multiple readings, especially if the first reading was
unexpected or inconsistent with what you know about the electrical system.
4. Know the Indicators: Some multimeters may have symbols or sounds to alert you if a high voltage is
detected.
Checking for Live Wire Without a Multimeter
While a multimeter is a preferred tool for many electricians, there are times when you might need to check if
a wire is live without one. Whether you’re working with an older electrical system or simply don’t have access
to a multimeter, there are other methods to determine whether a wire has voltage flowing through it.

Using a Non-contact Voltage Tester

1. Understanding the Tool: A non-contact voltage tester is a device that can detect electrical voltage
without touching the actual wire. It’s often considered the safest way to test for a live wire.
2. How to Use: Approach the wire with the tester. If the wire is live, the tester will either light up or make
a sound. Ensure the tester is calibrated and has fresh batteries for accurate readings.
3. Benefits: This method is non-invasive and reduces the risk of getting shocked. It’s particularly useful for
wires behind a wall or other hard-to-reach places.
The Tester Screwdriver Technique
1. What is it?: A tester screwdriver has a small neon light bulb inside it that can show the presence of
electricity.
2. Method: Insert the metal tip into the socket or touch the wire you want to test. Place your finger on
the metal cap on the other end. If the bulb lights up, the wire is live.
3. Safety Note: This method involves direct contact with a potentially live wire. Always wear high-voltage
safety gloves and take necessary precautions.
The Light Bulb Method
1. Preparation: For this, you need a socket, a working light bulb, and the wire you wish to test.
2. Procedure: Attach the wire to the socket’s terminals. Screw in the light bulb. If the bulb illuminates
when the power is on, then the wire is hot.
 3. Considerations: This method is more rudimentary and might not be as safe as using dedicated testers.
It’s best used for basic checks where other methods aren’t available.
While a multimeter is a comprehensive tool for electrical work, there are other ways to tell if a wire is live.
Each method comes with its own set of considerations, so it’s important to know and understand the risks
associated with each. If you’re ever in doubt, consulting with a professional electrician is the best course of
action.

How to Tell if a Wire is Hot by Physical Signs

1. Audible Buzz or Hum: Some live wires produce a faint buzzing or humming sound, especially if they’re
near other electrical components or if there’s a fault.
2. Vibration: At times, due to the flow of electricity, a live wire might slightly vibrate. However, this isn’t
always noticeable unless you’re holding the wire – which isn’t recommended.
3. Heat: Touching a wire is not advisable. However, live wires can sometimes become warm or even hot
to the touch, especially if carrying a heavy load.
4. Sparking: Exposed live wires might occasionally spark, especially if they make contact with other wires
or conductive materials. This is a clear and dangerous indication that the wire is live.
5. Electrical Burn Smell: Overloaded or shorted wires can produce a distinct burnt odour.
6. Visual Signs: In case of an electrical fault, a wire’s insulation might appear melted, discoloured, or
charred.
What Does It Mean When a Wire is Live Without a Tester?
1. Risks of Assumption: Assuming a wire is not live without testing is a perilous mistake. It could result in
electrical shocks or fires.
2. Experience and Knowledge: An electrician, through years of experience, may recognise signs or have
an instinct about a wire’s state. However, even professionals will always test a wire before working on
it.
3. Using Other Methods: If you don’t have access to a tester, consider alternative methods like a non-
contact voltage tester or a tester screwdriver. But remember, while they provide indications, they’re
not as definitive as a multimeter.
4. Safety First: If you’re uncertain whether a wire is live, treat it as if it is. It’s always better to prioritise
safety. Turn off the power from the main switch if you need to work on or near the wire.
While physical signs can sometimes indicate a wire’s status, they shouldn’t replace proper testing methods.
Always ensure you take the necessary precautions when working with or near electrical systems.

The Importance of Testing All Wires in an Electrical Box

1. Variety of Circuits: An electrical box might house wires from different circuits. Assuming they are all
dead because one is can be a dangerous mistake.
2. Shared Neutral Wires: Some circuits may share a neutral wire. If one circuit is turned off but the other
isn’t, the neutral wire can still carry current.
3. Accidental Cross Connections: There’s always a risk of wires being accidentally crossed or connected
incorrectly, especially in older installations or DIY setups.
4. Safety First: Testing all wires ensures that you’re not caught off-guard by an unexpected live wire.
Avoiding Common Mistakes When Using a Tester
 Assuming All Wires are Safe: Never assume a wire is not live just because it looks inactive. Always use
a tester to check if a wire is live before handling it.
 Misreading Multimeters: If using a digital multimeter, make sure you’re familiar with its settings and
how to interpret results. It’s easy to get a false sense of security if you’re looking at the wrong
measurement or range.
  Ignoring Wire Colours: While colour-coding can differ, red wire often indicates a live or hot wire, and
black wire may serve a similar purpose. However, always test, as colours aren’t universally consistent,
especially in older electrical systems.
 Using Damaged Equipment: Ensure your tester, be it a non-contact voltage tester or a multimeter, is in
good working condition. Check for any visible damage, like exposed wires, on the equipment.
 Overlooking Neutral or Ground: Remember to test all wires, including the neutral wire and ground
wire. Assuming they are always safe can be a costly mistake.
Best Practices to Ensure Safety and Accuracy
1. Always Turn Off Power: Before you start, turn off the power at the main switch. Even if you want to
test if wires are live, it’s safest to assume they are and proceed with caution.
2. Wear Safety Gear: Use high-voltage safety gloves and ensure you’re not standing on a wet surface. If
possible, wear insulated footwear.
3. Use the Right Tester: If you’re checking an electrical outlet or a socket, a non-contact voltage tester is
the safest way to determine whether a wire is live. For more detailed readings, consider using a digital
multimeter.
4. Double-check: If you’re about to do electrical work after testing, double-check the wire using another
method to ensure it’s not live.
5. Stay Informed: Know how to tell which wire is positive or which wire is the hot one in your system. The
more you know, the safer you’ll be.
6. Test Your Tester: Before and after checking a live wire, test your tester on a known live wire or socket
to ensure it’s working correctly.
In the realm of electrical work, the adage “better safe than sorry” rings especially true. Equip yourself with the
right knowledge, tools, and safety measures, and you can ensure that your interactions with live wires are
both effective and safe. Remember, if in doubt, consulting an electrician is always a wise choice.

The Importance of Regularly Testing Electrical Wires

1. Ensuring Safe Operations: Regularly testing wires, especially in older electrical systems, helps in
ensuring that the flow of electricity is as it should be. An unchecked electrical wire is live and could be
a hazard waiting to happen.
2. Preventing Electrical Faults: Electrical faults can lead to bigger issues, such as fires. By regularly testing
electrical wiring, you can identify and resolve potential problems before they escalate.
3. Peace of Mind: Knowing that your electrical system is in good working order gives you peace of mind.
You won’t have to wonder whether a wire is hot or if you’re at risk every time you plug in an appliance.
4. Maintaining Efficiency: As with any system, wear and tear can impact efficiency. Regularly checking
and testing live wires ensures that your electrical system runs efficiently, reducing energy wastage and
potential costs.
When to Consider Calling an Electrician
1. Unsure of Wire Status: If after testing you’re still uncertain about the status of a wire or socket, it’s
best to consult a professional.
2. Complex Setups: Older homes or complex electrical setups may have wiring that isn’t straightforward.
An electrician can navigate these complexities safely.
3. Evidence of Electrical Problems: If you notice signs like burning smells, consistent fuse trips, or
sparking, it’s essential to get a professional opinion.
4. Regular Checks: Even if there’s no evident problem, having an electrician conduct regular checks
ensures your electrical system remains in top shape.