Question no.

7 : A discussion of the social and architectural significance of places of worship,

with a focus on the London Central Mosque and the Muslim community in Britain
A place of worship is a purpose-built religious building where individuals come together to engage in rituals they consider religious, or where
communities assemble in the name of a particular faith.1 These places hold significant importance for local communities as they serve as a central hub
for religious and spiritual practices, fostering a sense of belonging, community, and connection to the divine. They also provide a space for individuals
to express their faith, seek guidance, and find solace. A place of worship refers to various types of spaces, such as churches, temples, synagogues, or
mosques, which can range from small home altars to entire cities. These places hold symbolic significance, fostering attachment, devotion, and spirituality
through their design, architecture, and the narratives associated with them.2

This paper will hopefully provide a clear understanding of the architectural and socio-political significance of places of worship. I will particularly focus
on analysing how the constantly evolving and adapting religious architecture impacts the built environment, how it can help to represent and express a
community’s identity, and the politics behind the construction of religious buildings, by using the London Central Mosque in Regent’s Park as a case
study. The Central Mosque serves as a good example of addressing both aspects as it represents a critical shift in the British urban landscape by merging
Islamic architectural symbols with local styles in a prominent and visible location. Also, it embodies the culmination of efforts by influential Muslims
in Britain, dating back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, to establish a central mosque representing the Muslim community on a national stage.
Additionally, the mosque's design process involved high-profile British architects, reflecting the emergence of an architectural discourse for Muslim
buildings within wider society. 3

Places of worship play a significant role in shaping a nation’s built Figure 1. The Jame Mosque, Leicester,
environment. Throughout history, religion has inspired the construction completed in 2010, was one of a new
generation of mosques from the late
of some of the most architecturally impressive buildings, with the aim of 1990s onwards that pursued a coherent
historicist style in their architecture.
connecting people to a higher power. We commonly associate religious
buildings with fixed or universal design approaches across most major
religions such as minarets with Islam and Gothic cathedrals with
Catholicism, but historical evidence shows that sacred spaces often adapted
to different religious affiliations based on the prevailing authorities. 4 The
influence of religious architecture on the built environment stems from its
ability to unify diverse communities, nationalities, and identities within a
shared space, thereby integrating with and enhancing the local
architectural fabric. As a nation of multiple ethnicities and cultural
backgrounds, Britain’s towns and cities have seen a transformation of the
religious and urban landscape. Zooming into British mosques, they are
Figure 2. The Shahporan
established largely by immigrant Muslim communities and their Mosque in east London
descendants, and they are evolving in novel ways, primarily within regions adopts a contemporary
approach to traditional
of established Muslim communities but also in emerging areas as Muslim Islamic art in the design of
populations spread out. These mosques are influenced by new social its new wing, while the
original mosque in the
narratives and, in certain instances, they experiment with innovative historic house ( on the left of
this photograph) has been
architectural designs and broaden their functions. (Figures 1 and 2 show retained and refurbished.
two different cases of preserving historical style and adapting to new

1Oskar Verkaaik, “Religious Architecture : Anthropological Perspectives,” in Religious Architecture : Anthropological Perspectives, 2013, 15, https://doi.org/10.26530/oapen_456162.
2Shampa Mazumdar and Sanjoy Mazumdar, “Religion and Place Attachment: A Study of Sacred Places,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 24, no. 3 (September 1, 2004): 387,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.08.005.
3Shahed Saleem, “Making Muslim Landmarks and Institutions,” in The British Mosque: An Architectural and Social History (Historic England Publishing, 2018), 133.
4Yiling Shen, “Is Religious Architecture Still Relevant?,” ArchDaily, May 28, 2018, https://www.archdaily.com/891984/is-religious-architecture-still-relevant.
architecture.) The mosque is a process of evolution and growth. Its construction, instead of being seen merely as bringing symbols of an existing Muslim
culture from elsewhere, is an architectural challenge for immigrant Muslim communities to shape their identities in their new countries.5

It might be challenging to incorporate religious architectural elements into building designs while adapting to the local site. These challenges are
demonstrated by the Central Mosque (Regent’s Park Mosque) design competition in London. The design was to express itself as a mosque and reflect
the traditional Islamic culture while remaining conscious of the natural setting and Regent's Park character and the surrounding Nash terraces, according
to the competition brief. The winning design by Sir Frederick Gibberd (1969) (figure 3) successfully navigated this challenge. 6 Islamic culture and
spirituality are represented by the Central Mosque's architectural features, which include the minaret, dome, and four-centered arches. (figure 4) The
prayer hall is oriented toward the Qibla (the direction towards the Kaaba in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca)7 (figure 5), and traditional Islamic motifs and
a women's prayer gallery are included to provide a setting that responds to Muslim users' personal and collective memories. 8 These characteristics are
specific to Islamic architecture and act as indications to earlier Muslim architectural patterns. The use of precast concrete panels, glazed curtain walling
(figure 6 and 7), and a gold-colored copper alloy dome in the construction of the mosque reflects a blend of traditional Islamic forms with modern
materiality. 9 These architectural elements create a familiar and spiritually uplifting space for worship, and clearly communicate the community's
religious identity and cultural legacy. However, like every winning project, Sir Gibberd’s proposal faced critiques regarding the design not being equal
to the best in the Islamic tradition and using elements for ornamental purposes. His response to the criticism was “The mosque's use of traditional
Islamic symbols was central to those who would use it and that the design was a direct and simple answer to a set of problems. The dome and four-
centered arch were the most characteristic architectural forms of Islam and could still be valid without becoming mere decorative devices.” 10 These
controversies and debates are evidence of how the architecture of the mosque becomes a performance through which the community establishes its
dynamics and relationships with each other and the outside world, and how much impact places of worship have in shaping a community’s urban
landscape.

Figure 3. Frederick Gibberd's 1969 competition-winning design for Regent's Park Mosque.

5
Shahed Saleem, “Surveying the landscape - 130 years of the mosque in Britain,” in The British Mosque: An Architectural and Social History (Historic England Publishing, 2018), 245-247.
6
Shahed Saleem, “Making Muslim Landmarks and Institutions,” in The British Mosque: An Architectural and Social History (Historic England Publishing, 2018), 139.
7
Wikipedia contributors, “Qibla - Wikipedia,” February 7, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla.
8 Shahed Saleem, “Making Muslim Landmarks and Institutions,” in The British Mosque: An Architectural and Social History (Historic England Publishing, 2018), 143.
9 Shahed Saleem, “Making Muslim Landmarks and Institutions,” in The British Mosque: An Architectural and Social History (Historic England Publishing, 2018), 133.
10 Shahed Saleem, “Making Muslim Landmarks and Institutions,” in The British Mosque: An Architectural and Social History (Historic England Publishing, 2018), 147.
Figure 4. Sketch showing the structural strategy of Gibberd's Figure 5. Gibberd's proposed southeastern elevation (c 1973), showing the Qibla wall to the main prayer hall and sunken garden.
proposed building.

Figure 6. The main entrance of the mosque viewed from the courtyard, Figure 7. Study model (c 1972) of Gibberd's winning design showing the glass curtain
photographed shortly after its completion in 1977. walling set within concrete four-centred arches, which can be seen as built with plain glass
F
 Religious buildings are not crucial for religious reasons only but are important in a social or
political sense. This argument suggests that for religious minorities, their religious buildings
represent religious identity and power and are therefore linked to processes of emancipation or
integration. 11 Serving as physical embodiments of collective identity and cultural heritage, places
of worship foster social cohesion in diverse communities. Religious architecture reflects the
values, beliefs, and aspirations of its members, critical for expressing and reinforcing community
identity. These buildings function as communal spaces for believers to gather, practice their
faith, and participate in religious ceremonies collectively (figure 9), fostering a sense of Figure 8. The interior of the library of Regent's Park Mosque,
belonging and unity. 12 Additionally, they serve as hubs for social activities, education (figure which overlooks the courtyard.
8), and charity, further promoting social cohesion and community development. Moreover,
religious buildings act as symbols of religious identity and cultural heritage, preserving and
celebrating community traditions. Historically integral to community welfare, religion
continues to provide support for vulnerable populations. In today's multicultural landscape,
places of worship serve as focal points for faith-bound communities, facilitating discussions,
events, and collaborations with community organizations. Leveraging their trusted status, these
institutions influence authorities and mobilize volunteers for community initiatives,
emphasizing integration between religion and communal service.

Figure 9. Worshippers praying in London Central Mosque’s Prayer

Hall

The Central Mosque serves as a multifaceted institution that plays a significant role in the lives of British Muslims considering its central location,
functioning as a center for religious, social, and educational activities. As a religious center, the mosque provides a space for daily prayers, Friday
congregational prayers, and special religious ceremonies. (figure 9) However, its role extends beyond religious activities, serving as a social hub where
members of the community gather for various events (figure 10) and celebrations, including weddings, Eid festivities, or even community gatherings.
These social interactions facilitate the formation of strong bonds and promote solidarity among diverse Muslim groups, contributing to community
integration and cohesion. Additionally, the mosque's spatial layout is carefully designed to accommodate various worship practices and encourage
interaction among different members of the community. The prayer hall, (Figure 9) with a capacity of 975 worshippers13, provides a sacred space for
congregational prayers while accommodating diverse religious traditions and rituals. Furthermore, designated areas within the mosque, such as the
women's prayer gallery and community halls, cater to the specific needs of different groups, ensuring inclusivity and accessibility for all members. By
fostering an inclusive and welcoming
environment that embraces diversity, the
Central Mosque promotes community
integration and solidarity among British
Muslims, serving as a vital institution that
contributes to the social fabric of society.

Figure 10. London Central Mosque host the London Muslim

community's first EcoFair.

11Oskar Verkaaik, “Religious Architecture : Anthropological Perspectives,” in Religious Architecture : Anthropological Perspectives, 2013, 8, https://doi.org/10.26530/oapen_456162.
12Shampa Mazumdar and Sanjoy Mazumdar, “Religion and Place Attachment: A Study of Sacred Places,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 24, no. 3 (September 1, 2004): 387,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.08.005.
13
Shahed Saleem, “Making Muslim Landmarks and Institutions,” in The British Mosque: An Architectural and Social History (Historic England Publishing, 2018), 143.
From a political perspective, the significance of places of worship lies in their symbolic use by the state to exert ideological hegemony and garner political
support from religious groups and individuals. The state invests political meanings in religious buildings to promote religious tolerance and acceptance
among its citizens. By holding up religious buildings as symbols of tolerance, the state seeks to shape social lives and influence people's private,
specifically religious, lives through its policies and actions. The state's provision of sites for religious use and the preservation of selected religious
buildings serves as evidence of the state's support for religion. This allows the state to win political support from religious groups and individuals,
ultimately contributing to the state's exercise of hegemony. 14 The state's actions and policies about religious places reflect its underlying symbolic
meanings and values, as well as its attempts to establish its particular set of values in the population to maintain political power and diplomatic
relationships with different communities. The political aspect behind the construction of religious buildings, particularly in the context of the Muslim
community's efforts to establish a mosque in central London, is deeply tangled with historical, social, and geopolitical factors. To have a deeper
understanding of the political aspects of places of worship, I will examine the history of the Central Mosque and the political situation before its
construction was approved.

The quest for a central mosque in London was not merely a religious attempt, but a strategic and symbolic move with far-reaching political implications.
The push for a central mosque in London by the Muslim community dates back to the early 1900s, when influential Muslims wanted to create a
prominent place of worship that would represent the Muslim community on a national scale. There was no mosque in London at the turn of the 20th
century, so Muslims performed their religious rituals in improvised locations. The construction of a central mosque was considered as a way to solidify
Muslim cultural life in the city and to provide places for Islamic prayer. The London Mosque Fund (LMF) was established in 1910 with the goal of
raising money to provide a mosque in London worthy of the traditions of Islam and the capital of the British Empire. The fund was supported by
influential figures such as the Aga Khan and Syed Ameer Ali, and it garnered overseas donations from prominent Muslim leaders and rulers. 15

The political climate at the time, including tensions arising from World War I and the Ottoman alliance with Germany, added a layer of complexity to
the Muslim community's efforts to secure a central mosque in London. The quest for the central mosque was not only a matter of religious significance
but also a strategic move to assert the Muslim presence in the heart of the British Empire. The Muslim community's pursuit of establishing a central
mosque was highlighted by a political incentive, driven by their aspiration to receive recognition for demonstrating their loyalty to the Crown. This
aspiration was particularly stimulated by the considerable presence of Muslim soldiers within the British Empire, who were extensively mobilized to
serve the Crown during the war. Also, the idea of a mosque in London was supported by Lord Lloyd of Dolobran as a means of serving British interests
and enhancing British prestige in the 1930s. Lord Lloyd, along with Lord Halifax and Lord Amery, submitted a memorandum to the War Cabinet titled
'Proposals that His Majesty's Government should provide a site for a mosque in London'. The memorandum presented various arguments for the
establishment of a London Mosque, including the presence of a large Muslim population in London and within the British Empire, as well as the
positive impact such a mosque would have on Arab countries in the Middle East. 16

The journey towards the construction of the London Central Mosque and Islamic Cultural Centre (Regent's Park Mosque) was marked by a series of
political maneuvers and diplomatic negotiations. The allocation of funds for the purchase of a site for the mosque in London, the involvement of high-
profile British architects, and the engagement with government officials and diplomatic channels all highlighted the political significance of the project.
The construction of the Regent's Park Mosque was not only a milestone for the Muslim community in London but also a testament to the political
agency and strategic foresight of the community. The mosque's design and architecture, influenced by historic Islamic styles and traditions, served as a
visual representation of the Muslim presence in the heart of the British capital, conveying a message of cultural identity, religious significance, and
political symbolism.

14
Lily Kong, “Ideological Hegemony and the Political Symbolism of Religious Buildings in Singapore,” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 11, no. 1 (February 1, 1993): 23–45,
https://doi.org/10.1068/d110023.
15,16
Shahed Saleem, “Making Muslim Landmarks and Institutions,” in The British Mosque: An Architectural and Social History (Historic England Publishing, 2018), 133-147.
To conclude, the examination of places of worship, illustrated by the London Central Mosque in Regent’s Park, gives an overview of their significance
in shaping the architectural urban landscape on one hand, and societal, cultural, and political landscapes on the other. Serving as centers of religious
practice and community gathering, these buildings foster a sense of belonging and unity among diverse communities. The evolving nature of religious
architecture reflects both tradition and innovation, as well as the complex interplay between identity and adaptation. There are controversies about the
adaption of religious architecture and how much exactly a visual language can evolve by working with communities to create reinvented forms that still
resonate within the cultural register.

The political dimensions involved in the construction of religious buildings highlight their symbolic importance as expressions of cultural heritage and
assertions of communal identity. Beyond their religious functions, these structures symbolize state efforts to promote tolerance and gain political
legitimacy, demonstrating the complex relationship between religion, power, and governance. However, critical questions arise regarding the intersection
of religious expression with broader societal norms and values, as well as the implications of state involvement in religious affairs. Moving forward, a
nuanced understanding of the socio-political dynamics surrounding places of worship is crucial for navigating the complexities of religious diversity and
promoting inclusive societies. By critically engaging with the intersecting forces of religion, politics, and architecture, we can gain insights into the
intricate fabric of human identity and aspiration, ultimately fostering dialogue, understanding, and coexistence in an increasingly diverse world.
 Bibliography
“London Central Mosque Trust Ltd. & the Islamic Cultural Centre,” n.d. https://www.iccuk.org/.

Kong, Lily. “Ideological Hegemony and the Political Symbolism of Religious Buildings in Singapore.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 11, no. 1
(February 1, 1993): 23–45. https://doi.org/10.1068/d110023.

Mazumdar, Shampa, and Mazumdar, Sanjoy. “Religion and Place Attachment: A Study of Sacred Places.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 24, no. 3 (September
1, 2004): 385–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2004.08.005.

Saleem, Shahed. The British Mosque : An Architectural and Social History. London: Swindon Historic England, 2018.
Shen, Yiling. “Is Religious Architecture Still Relevant?” ArchDaily, May 28, 2018. https://www.archdaily.com/891984/is-religious-architecture-still-relevant.

Verkaaik, Oskar. Religious Architecture : Anthropological Perspectives. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2013. https://doi.org/10.26530/oapen_456162.
Wikipedia contributors. “Qibla - Wikipedia,” February 7, 2024. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla.

List of figures

Figure 1. The Jame Mosque, Leicester. Photograph. The Historic England Blog. 1970s. DP137457.

Figure 2. Saleem, Shahed. The Shahporan Mosque in east London. Photograph. The British Mosque. 2018.

Figure 3. Frederick Gibberd's 1969 competition-winning design for Regent's Park Mosque. Drawing. Frederick Gibberd Partnership. 1969

Figure 4. Sketch showing the structural strategy of Gibberd's proposed building. Drawing, Frederick Gibberd Garden Trust. N.d.

Figure 5. Gibberd's proposed southeastern elevation (c 1973), showing the Qibla wall to the main prayer hall and sunken garden. Frederick Gibberd Partnership.
1973

Figure 6. The main entrance of the mosque viewed from the courtyard, photographed shortly after its completion in 1977. Frederick Gibberd Partnership.
1977.

Figure 7. Study model (c 1972) of Gibberd's winning design showing the glass curtain walling set within concrete four-centred arches, which can be
seen as built with plain glass in Fig 5. Frederick Gibberd Partnership. 1972
Figure 8. Saleem, Shahed. The interior of the library of Regent's Park Mosque, which overlooks the courtyard. The British Mosque. 2018.

Figure 9. Worshippers praying in London Central Mosque’s Prayer Hall. Trip.com. N.d. https://www.trip.com/moments/detail/london-309-
119535766/
Figure 10. London Central Mosque host the London Muslim community's first EcoFair. Photograph. London Central Mosque Trust & The Islamic
Cultural Centre. Feb, 14. 2024. https://iccuk.org/page.php?section=media&page=ecofair