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Thermal Properties of Matter

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•
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(a) Internal energy (Distinguish between internal energy, temperature and thermal energy)

The internal energy of a body is the sum of the total random kinetic energies and total
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intermolecular potential energies of all the molecules inside it.

• Random – molecular movements are disordered and unpredictable (different from KE of a moving car
or change in GPE of a falling object)

• If energy is transferred to a body, it gains internal energy and its molecules move faster. This is
a

measured as an increased temperature.

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• Thermal energy refers to energy flowing from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.

(b) Heat capacity

Heat capacity C is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 K (or
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1°C).
𝑄
𝐶=
∆𝜃
Specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity c is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a
substance by 1 K (or 1°C).
𝐶 𝑄
𝑐= =
𝑚 𝑚∆𝜃

A substance with a high c heats up more slowly compared to a substance with a lower c (and vice versa)

This is important in heating and cooling systems, e.g. water is used in heating and cooling systems because
it has high c. It can store a large amount of heat and also lose its heat slowly.

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Question 1
Determine the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 100 g of ice from −20°C to −5°C. The
−1 −1
specific heat capacity of ice is 2000 J kg K .

Determining specific heat capacity c of a substance (Calorimetry)

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•
heater)
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Supply a known amount of energy from an electric heater placed inside the substance. (immersion

A joulemeter can be used to measure the energy Q transferred, or the amount of energy can be
calculated using knowledge of electric circuits, from the equation E = VIt or E = Pt)
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• Assumption – all of the substance was at the same temperature and the thermometer recorded the
temperature accurately at the relevant times
• As some energy will be lost to the surroundings, insulation is needed to limit the energy transfers. The
process involves surrounding it with a material that traps air (a poor conductor) and is known as lagging.
• Calorimetry – experiments that try to accurately measure the temperature changes produced by various
physical or chemical processes. Calorimeters are used in these experiments as they are designed to
a

limit thermal energy transfer to, or from, the surroundings.

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Question 2
Determine the specific heat capacity of aluminium, given that a heater rated 30 W takes 5.0 min to raise the
temperature of 450 g of aluminium from 27°C to 50°C.
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Question 3
It takes the same heater 500 s to heat up a piece of iron by 5.0 K, and 200 s to heat up a piece of copper by
10 K. Which piece of metal has the larger mass? Assume no heat loss and that the specific heat capacity of
−1 −1 −1 −1
iron and copper are 460 J kg K and 400 J kg K respectively.

Question 4
A piece of hot coal of mass 50 g at a temperature of 200°C is dropped into 150 g of water at a temperature
of 25°C.
−1 −1
(a) Determine the final temperature reached. (The specific heat capacity of coal and water are 710 J kg K
−1 −1
and 4200 J kg K respectively.)
(b) Suggest why your answer could be inaccurate.

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Question 5
A large metal bolt, of mass 53.6 g was heated for a long time in an oven at 245°C. The bolt was transferred
as quickly as possible from the oven into a beaker containing 257.9 g of water initially at 23.1°C. The water
was stirred continuously and the temperature rose to a maximum of 26.5 °C.
(a) Calculate the energy transferred to the water.
(b) Why was the bolt kept in the oven for a long time?
(c) Why was the transfer made quickly?
(d) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the material of which the bolt is made.
(e) Why was it necessary to stir the water?
(f) Is the value for the specific heat capacity of the bolt likely to be an underestimate or an overestimate
of its true value? Explain your answer.

(d) Change of state

• Thermal energy, which causes a change of state, is known as latent heat. (Latent heat means ‘hidden

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heat’, in the sense that when ice melts, its temperature is constant even when absorbing energy)
• During melting or boiling, additional energy input is used to overcome intermolecular forces in the solid
or liquid. The potential energy of the molecules increase.
• Boiling occurs at a precise temperature – the temperature at which the molecules have enough kinetic

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energy to form bubbles inside the liquid

Melting Melting is the process in which the thermal energy absorbed by a substance changes it
from solid state to liquid state without a change in temperature.
c
Boiling Boiling is the process in which the thermal energy absorbed by a substance changes it
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from liquid state to gaseous state without a change in temperature.

Condensation Condensation is the process in which the thermal energy taken away from a substance
changes it from gaseous state to liquid state without a change in temperature.

Freezing Freezing is the process in which the thermal energy taken away from a substance changes
a

it from liquid state to solid state without a change in temperature.

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(e) Evaporation

• Evaporation occurs when a liquid turns into a vapour. The liquid requires latent heat of vaporization
which is from the liquid or its surroundings. Evaporation therefore results in cooling.
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• Molecules in a liquid have a range of different kinetic energies that are continuously transferred between
them as they collide.
• The molecules at the surface, which have enough kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces that
hold molecules together escape from the surface.
• The average kinetic energy of the molecules remaining decrease resulting in cooling
• Evaporation occurs at the surface of the liquid and at any temperature, with the rate of evaporation
increasing with rising temperature

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Differences between boiling and evaporation

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(f) Latent Heat

a

• The thermal energy involved with changing potential energies during a change of state is known
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as latent heat.
• The latent heat associated with melting or freezing is called latent heat of fusion. The latent heat
associated with boiling or condensation is called latent heat of vaporization.

Specific latent heat (l)

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• The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy transferred when unit mass of the
substance changes state at a constant temperature
𝑄
𝑙=
𝑚

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(h) Latent heat and Molecular behaviour

1. From P to Q, the temperature of solid ice rises

from −15°C to 0°C.
2. From Q to R, the temperature remains steady
at 0°C, even though heat is being absorbed as
ice melts.
3. From R to S, the temperature of melted ice
rises from 0°C to 10°C.
Why is PQ steeper than RS?

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1. From A to B, the temperature of naphthalene
falls from 90°C to 79°C.
2. From B to C, the temperature remains steady
at 79°C, even though heat is being released as
a

solidification occurs.
3. From C to D, the temperature of solid
eg

naphthalene falls from 79°C to room

temperature.
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Question 6
°
2.00 kg of water at 100 C requires 4400 kJ of energy to boil off completely. Determine its latent heat of
vaporisation and specific latent heat of vaporisation.

Question 7
A 1.00 kW heater immersed in 550 g of crushed ice at 0°C is switched on for five minutes. In the five
minutes, the ice melts and the temperature of the melted water rises to 49°C. Assuming that there is no heat
−1 −1
loss to the surroundings and the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg K ,
(a) what is the total energy supplied by the heater?
(b) how much energy is needed to raise the temperature of the water from 0°C to 49°C?
(c) using your answers to (a) and (b), what is the specific latent heat of fusion of ice?

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Question 8

Where does the thermal energy go?

Solution
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During the melting process, there is no change in temperature even though thermal energy is absorbed.
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The thermal energy absorbed is used to overcome intermolecular bonds in order for the solid to melt. The
internal potential energy of the particles increases.

Question 9
a

1 kg of ice at −10°C is heated until it becomes steam at 100°C. State the effect of thermal energy on the
water molecules in the mass of ice at each stage of heating and the amount of energy needed at each
5 −1 −1
stage. (c of ice = 2100 J/(kgK), lf = 3.4 × 10 J kg , c of water = 4200 J/(kgK), lv = 2200 kJ kg )
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Solution
• −10°C to 0°C:
The ice is in solid state and the thermal energy causes the molecules to vibrate more energetically as
temperature increases.
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Q1 =

• At 0°C:
Melting occurs and the thermal energy absorbed is used to overcome/weaken the bonds between the
molecules such that they have greater freedom of motion in the liquid state.
Q2 =

• 0°C to 100°C:
As thermal energy is absorbed by the liquid water, the temperature increases. The kinetic energy of the
molecules increases and the molecules move more quickly.
Q3 =

• At 100°C:
Boiling occurs and the thermal energy absorbed is used to completely break the intermolecular bonds and
provide energy to the molecules to push back on the atmosphere and escape into the air.
Q4 =

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• 100°C to 110°C:
The thermal energy absorbed is used to raise the temperature of the water vapour molecules. The molecules
gain kinetic energy and move with greater speeds.

Q5 =

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(i) Cooling curve summary

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June 1986
a

2.0 kg of ice is placed in a vacuum flask, both ice and flask being at 0 C. It is found that exactly 14 hours
elapse before the contents of the flask are entirely water at 0 C. Given that the specific latent heat of fusion
5
of ice is 3.4 ×10 J/kg calculate the average rate at which the contents gain heat from the surroundings.
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Suggest a reason why the rate of gain of heat gradually decreases after all the ice has melted.
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Nov 81
Liquid nitrogen boils at a very low temperature, at normal atmospheric pressure. Explain why liquid nitrogen
contained in an open vacuum flask in a laboratory boils steadily and continuously? Why does the liquid
nitrogen boil more rapidly when contained in a glass beaker?

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