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 Mastering
JUDO
Masao Takahashi and Family

Human Kinetics
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mastering judo / Masao Takahashi ... [et al.].
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-7360-5099-X (soft cover)
1. Judo. I. Takahashi, Masao, 1929-
GV1114.M375 2005
796.815'2--dc22
2004029108
ISBN-10: 0-7360-5099-X (print) ISBN-10: 0-7360-8518-1 (Adobe PDF)
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-5099-9 (print) ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-8518-2 (Adobe PDF)
Copyright © 2005 by Masao Takahashi, Ray Takahashi, June Takahashi, Allyn Takahashi, Philip Takahashi, and Tina
Takahashi
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in
any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.
The Web addresses cited in this text were current as of January 2005, unless otherwise noted.
Acquisitions Editor: Ed McNeely
Developmental Editor: Jennifer L. Walker
Assistant Editor: Mandy Maiden
Copyeditor: Amie Bell
Proofreader: Kathy Bennett
Indexer: Bobbi Swansen
Graphic Designer: Robert Reuther
Cover Designer: Keith Blomberg
Photographer (cover): Bob Willingham, International Judo Federation photographer
Photographers (interior): Barnaba Szluinski, unless otherwise noted. Photo on page viii © Kodokan Institute of Judo.
Photo on page 3 courtesy of Roy Kawamoto. Photo on page 213 © Grace Hayami. Photos on pages 2, 7, 14, 18, 30-33, 36,
44, 68, 74, 78, 79, 81, 91, 108, 112, 114, 117, 118, 119, 125, 160, 163, 213, and 214 courtesy Takahashi family.
Art Manager and Illustrator: Kareema McLendon
Printer: Versa Press
Human Kinetics books are available at special discounts for bulk purchase. Special editions or book excerpts can also be
created to specification. For details, contact the Special Sales Manager at Human Kinetics.
Printed in the United States of America   10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Human Kinetics
Web site: www.HumanKinetics.com
United States: Human Kinetics Australia: Human Kinetics
P.O. Box 5076 57A Price Avenue
Champaign, IL 61825-5076 Lower Mitcham, South Australia 5062
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e-mail: [email protected]
 This book is dedicated to my father, Kukichi Takahashi
who provided us the opportunity to learn and study judo as a way of life.
And to my many teachers who devoted their lives to judo and its philosophies:
Atsumu Kamino, my first teacher,
Yoshio Katsuta, my sensei at the Buddhist temple in Raymond, Alberta,
Ichiro Abe, who guided me with his wisdom and superb technical expertise,
Katsuyoshi Takata, for his samurai spirit,
Keiko Fukuda, for her devotion to the purity of techniques taught through kata,
and many others too many to mention.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge our students, many of whom are now
sensei themselves. It is our hope that they continue to learn and to teach
and that they will surpass us in their ability just as our teachers hoped for us.
This page intentionally left blank.
 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Introduction: Kano’s Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Chapter 1 Evolution From Art to Sport . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2 Traditional Values and Etiquette . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 3 Focus and Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Chapter 4 Training Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Chapter 5 Breakfalls, Posture, and Standing
and Ground Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Chapter 6 Control Grips and Grip Breaks . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Chapter 7 Standing Combinations and Counters . . . 107
Chapter 8 Physical Preparation
and Weight Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Chapter 9 Match Plans, Competitive Strategies,
and Tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Chapter 10 Self-Defense Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Appendix: A Listing of Nage-Waza and Katame-Waza . . . . 195
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

v
 Preface

Mastering Judo focuses on advanced technical instruction for training and performance.
The book encompasses the complex dichotomy of judo as a sport and martial art.
Although many books published on judo are directed toward the beginner judoka,
Mastering Judo is written for the judoka who has already practiced judo and acquired
an introductory level of knowledge (has obtained promotion in belt ranking from
yellow to green or 5th to 3rd Kyu levels). This book is intended for the judoka who
is interested in competing and who also wishes to further his or her knowledge of
judo as both a sport and martial art.
Mastering Judo provides selected techniques that you can apply in competition. The
technical focus is on how you can apply these techniques by utilizing various grips,
movements, setups, and combinations. Information is given on training methods; the
utilization of strategy and tactics; and other considerations, such as weight control
and nutrition and the importance of studying kata. The practicality of judo is depicted
with selected self-defense techniques that you can apply outside the sport.
Mastering Judo is different from other books you may have read on judo instruc-
tion techniques because it is based upon decades of experience from one of the most
successful judo families, the six-member Takahashi family, who among them have
a total of over 200 years of experience and 31 black-belt degrees as competitors and
teachers. The benefits of the book are twofold: First, chapters on history, philosophy,
and self-defense present a broad base of knowledge on judo as a martial art. Second,
the book provides specific information on technical skills and training that will help
you advance to a higher level. We are confident that Mastering Judo will help you
improve your practice, performance, understanding, and enjoyment of judo as an
art and a sport. Your continued progress is valued and expected in keeping with the
spirit of judo.

vi
 Acknowledgments

I want to express my appreciation to my family, all accomplished and dedicated ju-

doka, for their continued support throughout the years. My son, Ray, deserves the
most honorable mention, for patiently compiling all the information and undertaking
the enormous task of writing the initial draft of this book.
Special thanks to Reginald Y. Hayami, for his diligent work on the family and
decorative photos.
Sincere thanks to the expertise of our friend, photographer Barnaba Szluinski, who,
assisted by George Hambleton, graciously took the technical photos.
Thank you to Ed McNeely for the inspiration and opportunity to produce this book,
and to Jennifer Walker for her professional guidance.
Finally, to all the many teachers and outstanding students who have contributed
to making the dojo well-known throughout the judo world.

vii
 Introduction:
Kano’s Art
The evolution of fighting arts was first documented in Japan, with the first samurai
battles recorded around the mid-800s. At this time in history, forms of combat were
designed for the purpose of maiming and killing, both with weapons and without.
Fighting arts used by the samurai were practiced and developed over various types of
terrain and weather conditions. For example, in a prolonged fight in heavy armor, an
advantage could be gained if one’s opponent was made to advance uphill facing the
sun. As the fight descended, possibly to swampy terrain below, the ability to grapple
and hold the opponent to drown him on his back was important. This can be repre-
sented symbolically by techniques still used today.
Takenouchi jujitsu originated around 1532 and evolved from the techniques and
fighting methods used by the samurai, which form the basis for many jujitsu styles
and systems of attack. The art of jujitsu
reached its height in the 16th century,
and numerous styles emerged with
masters and teachers eager to promote
their versions. Many of these styles
were good methods of combat and self-
defense but offered little else. The role
of the samurai began to decline within
Japanese society during the Tokugawa
period. The decline accelerated with
the arrival of Admiral Perry in Tokyo in
Due to rights limitations, this 1853, and the Tokugawa period and the
item has been removed. samurai finally ended in 1868.
Professor Jigoro Kano, the creator of
judo, noticed the inconsistency in the
jujitsu masters’ teachings and realized
no guiding principle could be found
among the vast array of jujitsu tech-
niques. Jujitsu was unsafe to practice
with its kicks, punches, stabs, slashes,
and twists of the limbs, and the fighting
form was abused by those having ill will
toward society (for example, thieves,
ruffians, and prison guards fighting for
Professor Jigoro Kano is considered the creator money). As a result, people thought
of judo. negatively of jujitsu, and it gained a
poor reputation.

viii
 Introduction: Kano’s Art

Inspired by his thirst for knowledge and his background in jujitsu, Professor Kano
believed a more complete version of martial arts could be devised. He realized the
educational value of the practice and study of martial arts techniques. He also envi-
sioned physical and mental training that would have its own philosophy and objec-
tives. At 22 years of age, Jigoro Kano created judo, taking selected techniques from
jujitsu, modifying others, and adding his own. A main feature of judo would be the
ability to engage fully in dynamic fighting without the fear of injury through randori
(free fighting), which was not possible in jujitsu with its many dangerous techniques.
Kano thus mainly developed judo from jujitsu, which had many styles and schools.
The word “judo” can actually be traced to 1724 when Masayori Inoue established Jiki
shin ryo judo, the first school of jujitsu to use the term judo. Professor Kano preserved
techniques he learned from kito ryu jujitsu, which would come to be known in judo
as koshiki no kata (classical forms), that were designed for combat while wearing ar-
mor. He used techniques he learned practicing Tenjinshinyo ryu jujitsu from founders
Masatomo Iso and Hachinosuke Fukuda. Professor Kano chose the term “Kodokan
judo” to differentiate it from jujitsu, which had developed a negative reputation, with
the hope that judo would appeal to a higher class of society.
Initially, followers of jujitsu expressed fierce opposition to judo and threatened its
progress and development. Professor Kano was relentless in promoting judo, how-
ever, and he was able to develop a loyal following that included good fighters, a few
of whom were later dubbed as “the four guardians”: Yoshiaki Yamashita, Sakujiro
Yokoyama, Tsunejiro Tomita, and Shiro Saigo.
A clash between old-style jujitsu and judo came to a head at the 1886 Tokyo
Metropolitan Police Jujitsu Meet, which would decide which martial art would be
used for instruction. The significance of the event would either propel the practice
of judo forward and give it credibility or propel it into oblivion. The 15-man duel
ended with judo fighters winning 13 head-to-head matches against jujitsu fighters,
with the remaining two fights ending as draws. The decisive win gave judo practice
the impetus to spread and take a strong hold as the new martial art of the times.
Thus, within a few years of its creation the technical aspects of Kodokan judo were
well established. By 1922, the Kodokan Bunkakai (Kodokan Cultural Society) formed
two mottos that would guide judo practice: “seiryoku zenyo” (maximum efficiency
with minimum effort) and “jita kyoei” (mutual welfare and benefit).
Professor Kano carefully chose the name “judo” from two Japanese words: “ju” and
“do”. “Ju” can be translated to mean “gentle, supple, flexible, pliable, or yielding.” The
word “ju” is also found in the word “jujitsu”. “Jitsu” or “jutsu” can be translated to
mean “art” or “technique” and represents manipulating the opponent’s force against
himself rather than confronting it with one’s own force. The second word, “do”, gives
judo a unique advantage in concept over jujitsu. “Do” means “the way” or “the path,”
and this part of the word judo implies an accompanying philosophy.
It is difficult to understand the full meaning of judo through a simple translation
of the word. For instance, the word “gentle” to the Westerner may lead to misun-
derstanding of the conceptual definition of “ju”. Although gentle can refer to being
soft or passive, Professor Kano was not opposed to strength in and of itself but rather
to the unnecessary expenditure of strength. Why swing a wooden paddle to hit a fly
when a quick flick of a flyswatter can better do the trick?
“It is not how strong you are but rather how little strength you can use.”
The understanding of “do” is more difficult to grasp. Translated as “the way,”
the meaning of “do” is about more than just the perfection of judo skills and their

ix
 Introduction: Kano’s Art

application. In sport, such as football, the objective is to win the game by scoring
more touchdowns than the opposing team. Players attempt their best to win the
game. The best players are those who are able to perfect the skills of football and
perform them within a competitive environment. Such perfection can be consid-
ered an art—the ability to perform a variety of complex skills and techniques. The
purpose would be to obtain the result of a win or to better one’s statistics such
as yards per run. This is where the sport definition of judo falls short and is not a
“way,” just as jujitsu differentiates itself from judo by only having the objective of
defeating one’s opponent by its application of techniques and holds.
To understand and pursue the “way,” consider both the judo athlete and the non-
competitor. Both can train for perfection and compete to their fullest (that is, to win).
Yet, a difference exists in what a win means to them. The noncompetitor still tries his
hardest to win, although he may not really care if he does actually win. The desired
result in both cases is ultimately to achieve personal satisfaction and learn from the
process of striving to do one’s best. The noncompetitor as well as the judo athlete can
follow the way through understanding the many life lessons that can be learned from
both winning and losing. It is refreshing to see a champion like Yasuhiro Yamashita
(Olympic gold medalist, 1984) following the way through winning and doing his
best to display the utmost respect and humbleness in his many victories. Similarly,
upon Dutch athlete Anton Geesink’s gold medal win at the 1964 Olympics over Akio
Kaminaga (of Japan), a Dutch supporter rushed toward the mat to celebrate. Geesink
waved the fan back to prevent an overt display of victory and to allow Kaminaga the
dignity he deserved upon his defeat.
With a guiding philosophy and a firm establishment of kata (prearranged forms)
and techniques later to be modified and known as the gokyo (1895), a range of
people found judo appealing. Jujitsu gave way to judo, and Professor Kano took full
advantage of this evolution, always taking the opportunity to promote his new art.
Professor Kano was successful ultimately in planting the seeds of judo worldwide.

x
Evolution From
Art to Sport

C h a p t e r
1
 Mastering Judo

T he first dojo of judo, or practice hall, called the Kodokan, was established in
1882 at Eishoji, a Buddhist temple in Tokyo. As membership grew, Profes-
sor Kano, the creator of Kodokan judo, moved the dojo nine times to larger
quarters to accommodate the growth of judo. The word “Kodokan” is derived from
the following: “Ko” means “lecture” or “practice.” “Do” means “the way,” and “kan”
means “a hall.”
The Kodokan was relocated to its final location in the Bunkyo-ku
district in Tokyo in 1958 and is now a modern building distinguished
by a statue of Professor Kano at its entrance. With more than 500
mats in the main dojo, which was rebuilt to commemorate its 100th
anniversary and dedicated in 1984, the Kodokan has lodging, study
and research areas, a library, and a museum. Students from all over the world can
practice at the Kodokan, as it is open to all judoka. The Kodokan is an educational
facility and important symbol for acknowledging what judo is and why it was created.
An analogy to describe the relationship of the Kodokan to judo is the relationship
of Mecca to the Muslim religion.
The International Judo Federation (IJF) recognizes judo as the fighting form cre-
ated by Jigoro Kano. Unlike some martial arts where different federations and styles
are accepted, Kodokan judo is the recognized form that allows for standardization
worldwide. The Kodokan ensures judo is promoted as Professor Kano created it
and upholds its traditions, customs, and etiquette. Kodokan judo teachers stress the
preservation of techniques. Grading is regulated so that every yudansha (black-belt
holder) who is approved is recognized through the standards of the Kodokan.
The Kodokan upholds the traditions of judo as it modernizes in time. Many
people who practice judo are looking for more than just a sport experience. People
are increasingly turning to judo for training in self-defense, physical education, and
sport. But they are also yearning for the old-fashioned traditions and high standards
of etiquette and respect set by the study of Kodokan judo. Figure 1.1 details the
chronology of key events in the evolution of judo, which cannot be covered fully
in this chapter.

The Kodokan Judo Institute is located in the Bunkyo-ku district in Tokyo.

2
 Evolution from Art to Sport

From the Kodokan to the Olympics

As mentioned in the introduction to the book, Professor Kano was tireless in his
desire to see judo accepted in the martial arts community. As a scholar, Professor
Kano was educated, bright, and visionary. He understood that establishing judo as
an Olympic sport would provide the impetus for judo to flourish not only in Japan
but also throughout the world.
The practice of judo as a sport enabled it to gain more public attention outside of
Japan. Contests were being held as early as the 1920s when some European coun-
tries, such as England and Germany, held team competitions. Rules were established
to highlight the spectacular throwing over groundwork so that judo would be ap-
pealing to the spectator. The ability for competitors to engage fully without holding
back out of fear of injury made judo appealing to many people. Many other martial
arts could not replicate dynamic fighting because of their dangerous techniques, and
practitioners of these other forms could only resort to kata-style practice.
Professor Kano became the first Asian member of the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) in 1909. The professor’s persistence over decades paid off, and in
1938 the IOC decided that judo would be included in the 1940 Games scheduled for
Tokyo. Around this time, judo was firmly entrenched in Japan and its practice was
spreading quickly across the continents. Sadly, however, Professor Kano was unable
to witness the fruits of his labor. He died of pneumonia at age 78 during his return
voyage from the IOC meeting in Cairo, and the 1940 Games were cancelled because
of World War II.
The proliferation of judo suffered a fur-
ther setback in 1945 when its practice was
prohibited by the postwar Allied occupation
in Japan. U.S. General Douglas MacArthur
believed judo and its followers threatened
the Allied movement so he banned all judo
and closed down all martial arts dojos (self-
defense schools). MacArthur saw judo as
being too militaristic, and he decreed that
judo was not to be practiced and taught in
schools. As far away as the United States Due to rights limitations, this
and Canada many dojos were closed. As a item has been removed.
result of societal paranoia, 110,000 persons
of Japanese origin were relocated away
from the U.S. west coast and 22,000 were
evacuated outside the 100-mile protected
zone along the west coast of Canada and
many placed in internment camps. Judo
was in jeopardy of losing much of what
it had gained over the years in terms of
development and progress.
In both Canada and the United States
there was discrimination against people
Judoka at POW Camp 101 located in Angler, Canada.
of Japanese decent, many of whom were Left to right: Nobuyoshi Kawano, Sadami Ozaki, Masato Ishibashi,
born on North American soil. In the United and Eiichi Yoshikuni.
States, judo instructors were rounded up

3
 1860 Birth of Jigoro Kano

1882 Kodokan judo created

1886 Tokyo Metropolitan Police Jujitsu Meet

1889 Kodokan enrollment of 1,500 students

1896 Modern Olympic Games held in Athens

1902 Yoshiaki Yamashita travels overseas and teaches President Theodore Roosevelt

1907 Kodokan enrollment of 10,000 students

1909 Kano becomes first Asian on the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

1918 Britain’s Budokwai Dojo is the first dojo to open in Europe

1920 Kano makes first visit to Britain and Budokwai Dojo

1922 Judo mottos established: “maximum efficiency with

minimum effort,” and “mutual welfare and benefit”

1926 Kodokan establishes Women’s Division

1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1950

1932 Kano makes first visit to Los Angeles (United States) and Vancouver (Canada)
Kano gives lecture and demonstration at Los Angeles Olympic Games

1936 Kodokan enrollment about 80,000 students

1938 Kano dies on ship, Hikawa Maru, when returning from IOC meeting in Cairo

1940 IOC accepts judo in the 1940 Olympic program

Olympic Games proposed for Tokyo cancelled due to World War II

1941 United States and Britain declare war with Japan

Germany declares war on United States

1942 Ban of judo in schools, dojos, and related facilities

Figure 1.1 Chronology of key events in judo.

4
1951 International Judo Federation (IJF) established with nine countries

1956 First World Championships held in Tokyo with 21 countries

1961 Japan suffers significant loss when Anton Geesink defeats Koji Sone at third World Championships, Paris

1964 Judo makes its Olympic Games debut in Tokyo

1967 IJF contest rules established

1968 Judo is excluded from the Mexico Olympic program

1972 Munich Olympic Games

1976 Montreal Olympic Games

Koka and yuko scoring introduced in rules

1979 Seven new weight classes established plus open weight

1980 Moscow Olympic Games

First Women’s Worlds held in New York City

1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games

1951 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

1988
Seoul Olympic Games
Women’s demonstration event at Seoul Games
Open weight class eliminated
Taekwondo added as second martial art
  in Olympic program
France provides prize money for winners at
  international tournament

1990 Break up of the Soviet Union (USSR)

1992 Barcelona Olympic Games

1996 Atlanta Olympic Games

1997 111 countries participate in the Paris World Championships

1998 New weight classes to be in effect

  Men: 60, 66, 73, 81, 90, 100, +100
  Women: 48, 52, 57, 63, 70, 78, +78
Blue judogi introduced

2000 Sydney Olympic Games

2003 New rules on penalties keeping shido and keikoku

Ne-waza time reduced and Golden Rule introduced
187 countries affiliated with IJF

2004 Athens Olympic Games

2008 Beijing Olympic Games

5
 Mastering Judo

and sent to internment camps. Although judo was practiced within the confines of
the internment camps, it virtually came to a halt in Canada and the United States.
Interestingly, no internee was ever charged with a crime by the FBI or Royal Cana-
dian Mounted Police (RCMP) during the internment period. And, ironically, many
nissei (second-generation Japanese) fought for the United States while their families
were confined in internment camps for no reason except racism. U.S. Senator Daniel
Inouye won medals for bravery fighting for the United States during World War II
in Italy. He was wounded many times, including losing an arm in battle.
Despite these setbacks, the practice of judo continued to evolve, albeit slowly,
just as Professor Kano would have wished. In 1948 the first postwar All-Japan Judo
Championships were held, and the following year the All-Japan Judo Federation was
established. After the war, judo teachers focused on teaching judo as a sport with an
educational basis, in part to deemphasize the martial art for self-defense aspect and
to ultimately regain inclusion in the Olympic Games.
Judo was also taking hold in many countries in Europe, and in 1951 the Inter-
national Judo Federation (IJF) was established. By this time, regular international
competitions were being held in Europe and spreading elsewhere. The first World
Judo Championships were held in Tokyo in 1956 with 21 countries in attendance.
A turning point to the acceptance of judo into the Olympic Games was the suc-
cessful hosting of the 1958 Asian Games in Japan. The Japanese quickly focused their
efforts to get judo into the 1964 Games. Their efforts were helped by the IJF, who
asked each member country to appeal to its own Olympic Committee to lobby for
the inclusion of judo in the 1964 program.
The teaching of judo as a sport was growing rapidly, and its inception in the 1964
Olympic Games in Tokyo was a significant event. The 1964 Games were the first to be
televised and offered a chance for Japan to show judo to the world and to highlight
Japanese dominance in the sport. After considerable debate on what weight classes to

Spirit Is Victorious
In the years leading up to the 1964 ing thrown by floating around him
Olympics, Japanese traditionalists re- (June 29, 1959).
sisted weight classes, believing instead Because of his size and strength, as
that regardless of weight the most well as his technique, Anton Geesink
skilled judoka would always emerge of Holland dispelled the myth that
victorious. Masao Takahashi embod- strength was immaterial by winning
ied the spirit of the open-weight cat- the 1961 World Championships in Par-
egory. He would often enter the open is by beating Koji Sone of Japan. Many
division, where judoka of any weight believe Sone was the technically better
can enter. In a Detroit tournament in judoka although Geesink was regarded
1959, Takahashi took on the “big highly as well. It would be the last time
men,” and his impressive showing the World Championships would be
was described by Frank Moritsugu an open-weight event. Implementing
in the New Canadian as a triumph of weight classes became a harsh reality
technique over size both in throw- for judo traditionalists, especially when
ing and in avoiding being thrown or it was realized that having them was
pinned by doing the Mifune trick of the only hope of having judo enter the
riding his opponent and avoiding be- Olympic program.

6
 Evolution from Art to Sport

use, four divisions were contested: light (under 68 kilograms [150 pounds]); middle
(under 80 kilograms [175 pounds]); heavy (over 80 kilograms [175 pounds]); and
the open weight class, where any competitor of any weight could enter. Japan took
all weight divisions that year except the open division, which was won by Anton
Geesink of Holland. The bigger and stronger Geesink beat Japan’s Akio Kaminaga
with a smothering kesa-gatame (hold-down).
Anton Geesink’s victory for Holland at the 1964 Games prevented a sweep by Japan
and was important for the further progress of judo. Geesink, who trained in Japan,
was highly respected and did much to promote the sport. His win symbolized the
ability of non-Japanese to excel in judo and provided inspiration for others to follow
suit. The success of other nations in judo, despite the dissatisfaction of the Japanese,
was good for the sport. A Japanese-dominated martial art
created by the Japanese would have more difficulty be-
ing accepted by other nations if others believed that their
success was improbable.
The fast growth of judo outside of Japan was in large
part a result of judo being accepted as an Olympic event.
Many sport federations sought to gain prestige and inter-
national recognition for their home countries as a result.
Although judo was excluded from the 1968 Games in
Mexico, the sport was again included in the Munich Games
of 1972 and has been a part of every Olympics since.
Another key moment in the evolution of judo was the
inclusion of women in the sport. The first World Cham-
pionships for women were held in 1980 in New York City.
Women’s judo gained Olympic status in Seoul as a dem-
onstration sport in 1988. Women competed in judo offi-
cially in the Barcelona Games of 1992. Ingrid Berghmans,
Olympic champion from Belgium is considered among
the best female competitors ever, while Tina Takahashi,
Olympic coach for Canada in 1988, did much to further
promote women’s judo, particularly in Canada.
Some of the biggest changes to judo have occurred as
a result of its inclusion in the Olympics. In fact, judo as
an Olympic event now has to contend with conditions
such as spectator appeal, and the IJF has been continu- In 1984 Tina Takahashi became the first Canadi-
an to win a judo gold medal at a World Champi-
ally modifying judo rules as a result. The differentiation onship event. She is pictured here at the 1984
between judo as sport and judo as martial art became more World University Championships.
prevalent as a result. (See figure 1.2.)

Internationalization of Judo as a Sport

The internationalization of judo is likely one of the most phenomenal of any Olym-
pic sport. Judo is truly practiced worldwide, and this spread has been a direct result
of the rapid development of judo as a sport. The beauty of this spread has been the
dissemination of a judo that is standardized in its teachings. The IJF clearly states
that it recognizes judo as that of Kodokan judo. What this means is that if you visit a
dojo in the United States, France, or China, you will find that the judo being taught
is the same—Kodokan judo. Currently, more than 187 national judo federations are

7
 Mastering Judo

affiliated with the IJF, the official organization for Olympic

participation, making judo one of the largest representa-
tive sports. Professor Kano’s vision of judo becoming an
1882 international sport can truly be acknowledged.
Although Japan is still considered the dominant country
Judo created in judo because of its depth of high-caliber fighters, the
spread of judo has enabled many countries to find suc-
cess as measured through the Olympic Games and World
Championships. The distribution of success throughout all
parts of the world has helped the sport of judo thrive and
continually develop worldwide. It is said that judo is one
of the most practiced sports in the world with more than
20 million participants.
Judo parity can be viewed by how competitive the sport
is from an international perspective. Despite the accepted
Judo dominance of judo by Japan, the medal count by other na-
tions at the Olympic Games indicates parity among coun-
tries. Even in judo’s inauguration at the Tokyo Olympics
in 1964, nine countries collected Olympic judo medals—a
good start, considering that there were only four weight
Sport divisions. In recent times, with the inclusion of women and
the increased number of weight divisions, judo’s global par-
ity is even more apparent. In the 2004 Summer Olympics
in Athens, for example, 26 different countries took home
medals in judo.
The reasons for parity in judo are complex but can be
narrowed to some key factors. When the Soviet Union
broke up in the early 1990s, judo immediately became
Sport more competitive at the elite level because many of the
Soviet republics have strong roots in combative sports.
The sheer number of countries practicing judo (187 plus)
indicates judo is practiced globally, so its competitiveness
is gauged internationally by what’s happening. Coaching
2000 Judo and instruction also have improved along with training
methods that further develop the talent pool. The attrac-
tiveness of judo for children helps in developing a strong
young talent base so the transition to senior levels can be
Figure 1.2 Evolution of judo as a sport. made easier. It is not uncommon for junior-level athletes
to do well in senior competition even at the elite level.

Refocusing for the Future

The teaching of judo as a sport became an effective way to introduce it to the public.
People could understand sport, and judo as a sport spread throughout the world
quickly. As we have seen, from its inception and Professor Kano’s dream to see
judo as an event in the Olympic Games, judo has become increasingly important
Takahashi_E3038_112183_fig 1.1_Kareema_R2
to many national sport federations. Emphasis on elite sport created systems of de-
velopment for judo, including an increased number of international competitions,

8
 Evolution from Art to Sport

better training facilities and centers, higher-quality coaching support, and leagues.
This continued support structure by nations vying for international and Olympic
gold provides a forum in which athletes can be expected to train year round with a
full-time commitment.
It is ironic that Professor Kano promoted judo as a sport so that it would gain ac-
ceptance internationally. But those who love judo must take note that a heavy sport
focus can alter judokas’ behavior so drastically that it can override all other aspects
of judo’s teachings. This attitude is contrary to the very fundamental philosophy
of judo (described next) that Professor Kano believed distinguished it from other
martial arts.
“Jita kyoei,” or “mutual welfare and benefit,” is one of two mottos (the other being
“seiryoku zen’yo,” or “maximum efficiency with minimum effort”) that provide the
basis of direction that ultimately will affect the behavior and actions of the judoka.
One cannot be selfish if operating out of jita kyoei. The judoka must work together
with his or her partner to accrue mutual benefit through judo. In randori training,
for example, which looks like a fight, there is “giving” to one’s uke (partner who
receives the action) so that mutual benefit can be obtained. Even with full resistance,
the dynamic actions of randori resemble an all-out match, yet the attitude of the true
judoka is far from that of winning at all costs. The concept of jita kyoei is confusing
and sometimes difficult for the beginner judoka and Western thinkers to grasp. Un-
derstanding this philosophy reveals much of what jita kyoei is all about.
The sport focus eliminates the need for jita kyoei. In sport, the athlete wants to
win and the elite athlete can obtain that objective with a sport focus that narrows
as it becomes more specialized. In many respects, to obtain elite status, one must be
selfish because everything must be directed to the good of the individual aspiring
athlete. The emphasis on competition narrows the teaching of judo, and the judo
athlete is taught judo only as a sport. As a result, parts of judo are disregarded or de-
emphasized. For example, instances of proper bowing are sometimes neglected in the
tournament environment. Fighters bow with their feet apart and arms dangling from
their sides, and they simulate a bow with a quick forward jerk of the body. The judo
traditionalist would shudder at such a display of disrespect for the very act of show-
ing respect for mutual welfare and prosperity. But, little blame can be placed on the
fighter who is so focused on the fight and was likely never taught to bow properly
and even perhaps will never be corrected.
Michel Brousse and David Matsumoto (Judo. A Sport and Way of Life. Ed. Interna-
tional Judo Federation. 1999. Korea. Pg. 113.) speak about the “sportification” of
judo. They provide the following optimistic statement: “Today the judo world has
matured and the abuses of the sport orientation are now compensated by an equal
interest in the educational aspects of judo.”
In many cases, the value of judo for the education of people is not overlooked. More
and more in Western culture, there is a need for sporting activities that can provide
more than the skills of the game. In fact, many of the qualities that sport judo can
bring out in the individual are the same types of qualities that can be acquired through
the motto “jita kyoei.” Sportsmanship, a Western term, is a concept that mirrors the
teachings of judo on how to act honorably as a result of involvement in sport. (For a
further discussion of attitude, see chapter 3.) George Kerr, a highly respected fighter,
coach, and authority on judo from Scotland and an 8th Dan, provides a cautionary
perspective: “If such courtesy is not maintained and the needs of competition prevail,
judo will suffer and decline, as has happened in other Western sports.”

9
 Mastering Judo

There is no question, however, that the development of judo was a result of the
application of judo as a sport. Traditionalists and modernists struggled with its evolu-
tion, yet it was inevitable that change would occur. However, as Masao Takahashi,
8th Dan, remarks: “Running the dojo for only fighters is not good for judo. You have
to teach judo as a martial art.” Similarly, June Takahashi believes the teachings of the
Kodokan tradition and history should be taught to all judoka. Further discussion of
proper judo etiquette is covered in chapter 2.

The values of judo philosophy and tradition, such as jita kyoei and mutual welfare
and benefit, are crucial. Judoka must learn to respect themselves, their bodies, their
elders and coaches, higher-ranking judoka, and others. Students of judo should not
only learn to be physically fit but also fit in spirit by concentration, dedication, and the
ideals of mutual welfare and benefit. Masao Takahashi emphasizes the wholeness of
judo: “We call judo a sport, but, really, it’s the study of a culture.” Read on to chapter
2 for more information on preserving the traditional values and etiquette of judo.

10
Traditional
Values
and Etiquette

C h a p t e r
2
 Mastering Judo

F rom its inception, judo has upheld traditional values and high standards of
etiquette. Professor Kano emphasized these aspects as an important part of
judo, not only to differentiate it from other martial arts but also to fulfill the
purpose of developing the overall judoka and person. Some rules are closely linked
to etiquette and are implemented within competition.
On and off the mat, etiquette is likely the most important aspect of judo. Etiquette
can be described as rules, customs, or ways to conduct oneself within judo. Much of
judo etiquette involves unwritten rules. Many other sports, some more than others,
implement etiquette. For example, in the sport of golf, etiquette is deemed impor-
tant not only for the players but also for the spectators. When a player tees off it is
customary that spectators stay quiet and still and that they refrain from taking pho-
tographs that can disrupt the player’s concentration. In judo, the bow taken toward
one’s opponent before the match is a visible procedure of etiquette that represents
mutual respect.
Two of the main purposes of etiquette are efficiency and safety. Efficiency refers
to the judoka’s conduct and the ability to operate in an effective manner. The formal
start and finish of practice (bowing in and out), for example, are a form of etiquette
that ensures that everyone is punctual, orderly, and prepared to start the practice
session. The bow also is a show of respect to one’s practice partners as an expression
of thanks for participating in the practice or match so that each partner can improve
skills. Safety etiquette in judo is important, and strict rules limit the risk of injury,
especially in activities such as randori, or free-practice fighting.
Etiquette serves another important role in judo that distinguishes it from other
combative activities and martial arts. The emphasis on etiquette maintains perspec-
tive with regard to the higher aims of judo, which was also created to educate and
develop the overall person within society. This perspective is especially important
today when so much emphasis is placed on winning. Maintaining etiquette in judo
does not necessarily mean that the judoka downplays the importance of striving to
win. True judo champions are those who excel as high-level athletes and who display
the respectful behaviors of Kodokan judo. In some respects, etiquette takes judo to a
higher level than just being a sport in which the objective can be simplified to win-
ning the game. Emphasis should be placed on building one’s character along with
one’s technical ability.

Expectations for Respect and Ritual

in the Dojo
Many dojos have their own rules and most, if not all, have been passed on with the
standardization of Kodokan judo. “Dojo,” or “place where judo is practiced,” originally
comes from the Buddhist terms “do” (means “way or path”) and “jo” (means “place
of enlightenment or worship”). This definition helps us to understand the connection
of the dojo and the practice of etiquette in judo.
There are certain rules that are common to all good dojo that you will be expected
to know and observe. Study these well.

1. Students must be punctual at all scheduled meetings.

2. Students must wear traditional keikogi properly with a belt indicating their
earned rank at all practice sessions.

12
 Traditional Values and Etiquette

3. Students must keep their keikogi clean and in good repair.

4. Students must keep their bodies clean and fingernails and toenails trimmed.
5. Students must not wear jewelry or any sharp objects when exercising.
6. Students must not chew gum or have food of any kind in their mouths while
in the dojo.
7. Students must obey the instructions and respect the discipline of their seniors
and instructors.
8. Students must practice only those techniques that have been formally presented
by their instructor.
9. Students of lower ranks must seek to exercise with higher-ranking partners.
10. Students must not engage in idle talk while in the dojo.
11. Students must remain quiet and attentive when not exercising.
12. Students should always be courteous and helpful to each other. The Budo code
of sportsmanship requires that the less adept in rank or physical condition be
protected.
13. Students should help to keep the dojo clean and in good repair.
14. Students must use the correct form of standing or kneeling bows, when en-
tering or leaving the dojo and to each other at the beginning and end of each
session.
15. Students must sit properly while on the mat.
16. Students must always be serious, sincerely entering into the spirit of the art,
especially during randori and contests. The spirit of fair play, obedience to the
referee’s judgement, and giving as much importance to the attitude of the match
or practice as to the results, are of the greatest importance.
17. Students must know the rules of the contest.
18. Students must not misuse the knowledge of the arts.
The following are examples of expectations of dojo etiquette:
• Good hygiene is expected out of courtesy to others practicing judo. Not only
should you maintain good personal hygiene, but also you are expected to keep your
judogi (cotton uniform) clean and in good condition. You must wear footwear when
leaving the mat, and only clean, bare feet are permitted on the tatami or in the prac-
tice area. Keep your tatami clean, and wash or wipe the tatami after each session.
• Proper sitting in the dojo is important for safety reasons. The two accepted sitting
positions are kneeling (seiza) and cross-legged (anza), a less formal sitting method.
Always face toward the center of the mat or action and avoid facing your back toward
shomen, or the side on which persons of higher social rank or seniority are seated.
Never lie down on the mat or lean back on straight or outstretched arms or legs.
You could suffer serious injury if someone is thrown and happens to land on your
outstretched arms. Another reason you must remain seated properly is to uphold
orderly conduct and better appearance in the dojo.
• Bowing is an expression of respect and gratitude. Judoka partners bow toward
each other before and after they practice. The bow represents expressing apprecia-
tion to your uke because one needs a partner to practice with in order to improve.
Be sure to bow upon stepping on the tatami and upon leaving, and together with the
class before and after the practice session.

13
 Mastering Judo

A Judoka and a Gentleman

Ray Takahashi was thoroughly impressed on approached me on the side of the tatami. As he
meeting Sydney Olympic champion Kosei In- bowed to me, dripping with sweat, you could see
oue of Japan only a few months after Inoue’s the sincerity in his bow and his politeness when
Olympic victory. Takahashi dropped in to Inoue’s Noriaki Kiguchi, a teacher at Tokai, introduced
training practice unexpectedly and was con- me as a guest. I thought to myself that he had
cerned that he was disrupting the Olympic vic- just won the Olympics and had the courtesy to
tor. Takahashi recalls: “Inoue was in the middle show respect to me—a visitor who just wanted
of nage-komi and when asked to come over to to meet him. It was a nice display of judo by a
meet me, he stopped, bowed to his partners, and champion fighter.”

Left to right: Kosei Inoue, Ray Taka-

hashi, and wrestling coach from Japan,
Noriaki Kiguchi. This photo was taken
during practice at Tokai University a
few months after Inoue won gold at the
2000 Sydney Olympics.

Many other forms of etiquette are expected that relate to overall conduct and man-
ners as an individual. You are expected to listen attentively during instruction and to
learn by watching others if sitting on the side. During randori, you must fight hard to
get the most out of practice. You are expected to respect higher-ranking judoka and
your elders. Extend this respect to your fellow judoka as well because in judo one must
cooperate and demonstrate appreciation and give-and-take during judo practice.

Etiquette in Modern-Day Sport

As rules evolved as the sport of judo evolved, an attempt was made to maintain eti-
quette within competitive judo. Respectful conduct is expected whether one follows
etiquette or rules, and both intertwine with each other. Around the 1950s, as judo
was taking hold throughout the world, a conscious decision was made to preserve
the tradition of judo in the construction of rules. It was deemed important that, along

14
 Traditional Values and Etiquette

with maintaining judo traditions (including techniques), three other goals be met.
These goals include keeping judo safe, promoting attacking judo, and maintaining
the fairness between contestants.
Today, with the increased development of judo and the elite athlete, rules have
become complex, particularly if one compares today’s rules to those espoused in
the first duel matches of the 1800s. The first rules established by Professor Kano
reflected the needs of society to modernize while forging a national identity with
emerging Western influence during the Meiji period in Japan. In addition, as the
competitor becomes more sophisticated in adapting to rules, the rules have been
adjusted to promote the active and dynamic judo that spectators demand to see.
The introduction of the blue judogi in 1998, for example, was a significant change
to better promote judo, which was resisted by the traditionalists who preferred
keeping the judogi white to keep with tradition. Many proponents of the blue ju-
dogi (including IOC member Anton Geesink) believed it would provide the change
needed to better expose judo to the media and the public. Those against the change
(largely in Japan) believed it would erode the tradition that judo holds in such high
regard. Traditionalists saw the temptation to change the color of the judogi as un-
necessary and were wary of knee-jerk reactions that could permanently alter the
sport and art.
Likely the most prominent changes in judo have occurred as a result of judo be-
ing practiced as a sport. In the beginning, final matches were as long as 20 minutes
as opposed to today, when final matches last only 5 minutes and are shorter for
women and for those under 20 years of age. Competitors used to kneel when fixing
their judogi, and before 1976 there were only waza-ari and ippon scores (no koka
and yuko). The impetus for change has been initiated largely by judoka in Europe,
who are constantly attempting to improve the sport and make it more appealing to
spectators. Implementing the blue judogi is an example of how the Europeans suc-
ceeded over traditional Japanese judoka who opposed it.
Much of judo etiquette and traditions have been maintained, however, in modern-
day competitive judo. This preservation ensures the link of today’s sport to the origins
of judo. Some of these traditions include the following:

• Bowing. Again, bowing is a demonstration of respect, particularly by the judoka to

the sensei (teacher). Bowing is a must for all competitors and officials in competition,
and a guide to bowing is stated within the IJF rules. Judoka are not only expected to
follow bowing customs in the dojo but also to continue such respectful customs off
the mat.
• Randori. The training method of randori has considerable value that is applicable
off the mat. The dynamic nature of randori’s free movement without direct resistance
to force allows the judoka to choose and pursue physical actions with consequence.
If technical conditions are right, the judoka may be successful in his or her attack.
Conversely, if a poor attack is initiated the judoka can be countered and fail. The
uneducated observer may misinterpret randori as a “fight” and see judo as a violent
activity, especially when both partners are of similar ability and weight and they
fight to the maximum. However, randori actually teaches consideration for others
because, if done correctly, both partners should benefit. If one partner is higher skilled
then he or she should adjust his or her level down to use less strength and focus on
defensive skills, combination, or secondary techniques to equalize randori. There is
little benefit to either if the physically and technically superior partner continually
dominates the other, which also portrays a selfish approach to learning judo.

15
 Mastering Judo

• Belt ranking. Judo is unique to most Western sports in that a ranking system is
in place for each judoka that is designated by the color of his or her belt. A white belt
signifies a beginner, and a black belt indicates high proficiency. Progression can be
based upon contest performance and technical ability. A person’s contributions to the
dojo, judo organization, and to others are also taken into consideration for promotion
to the next rank. Kyu grades are designated for ranking below black belt, and Dan
grades are for black belts. Although different countries may have some variations in
color, the progression typically goes as follows starting with white for beginners and
progressing to black:
• White (6th Kyu)
• Yellow (5th Kyu)
• Orange (4th Kyu)
• Green (3rd Kyu)
• Blue (2nd Kyu)
• Brown (1st Kyu)
• Black (1st Dan through 5th Dan)
• Red and white, or black (6th Dan through 8th Dan)
• Red or black (9th and 10th Dan)
When a judoka achieves a black belt, the person becomes a 1st Dan holder and
can progress upward. When 6th Dan is achieved, a red and white belt or a black
belt may be worn. Ninth and 10th Dan can wear all-red or all-black belts (men
and women must wear a solid-colored belt during competition). Some women,
however, prefer to wear a black belt with a white stripe to preserve tradition and
to distinguish women’s judo from men’s, although women do not wear a white
striped belt in international competition. Performance in competition can be used
to accelerate progression, after which factors such as service, experience, and con-
tribution are valued.
Ranking serves several purposes. First, it clearly shows others the level of rank
by the color of the belt worn. Lower-ranked judoka are expected to show respect
to senior-ranked judoka. This seniority system is part of the etiquette of judo that is
valued in other martial arts as well. Ranking provides a method of evaluating those
judoka who are not fighters and competitively inclined. Placing value on acquiring
technical proficiency is one of the great features of judo as it preserves standardiza-
tion and promotes further study and practice. Within the dojo, ranking can serve
as a safety mechanism by indicating the level of ability of others, which can be
important in practice. A yellow-belt holder, for example, would approach randori
differently with a fellow light-colored belt holder than if she were matched with a
black-belt partner.
• Terminology. Using the Japanese language for various terms, techniques, and
rules standardizes judo terminology. With a consistent terminology, techniques and
original meanings are preserved that otherwise could be altered and adapted over
time, particularly given the international influence on judo. Judoka worldwide,
therefore, are able to know exactly what is meant and expected when one is to
perform, for example, uchikomi (repetitive throw entries) or a specific throw, such
as osoto-gari.
• Conduct during competition. The judoka is expected to display good conduct as
a competitor and as a person, both on and off the mat. Proper conduct includes

16
 Traditional Values and Etiquette

A Case of Mistaken Identity

When Soviet fighters became interest- similar to those of judo, and sambo
ed in judo when it became an Olympic practitioners also wear a jacket and
sport, judo was taught not as a system a belt. Unfortunately, it was reported
with great educational benefits but that the Soviets manipulated the rank-
rather as another sport in which to ing system against the Japanese at one
gain medals. Soviet judo instructors of the earliest international tourna-
had little regard for the traditions of ments by wearing belts of various
judo because it coincided well with colors that did not reflect their true
their own combative self-defense rank. Not surprisingly, they did quite
system called “sambo” (also written well despite their lack of etiquette with
as “sombo”). Sambo had techniques regard to the belt-ranking system.

following etiquette rules such as wearing zori (footwear) when off the mat and
bowing when leaving the mat and to one’s opponent before and after a match. Ac-
ceptable conduct also includes respecting officials and other seniors, such as other
coaches.

Competitive Rules
It is fitting that tradition is upheld in judo competition, and records indicate the “Red
and White” judo matches have been held in Japan since 1884. The Kodokan still
holds the annual tournament, and it is considered the longest-held sporting event in
the world. Although the rules in judo are far different today, Professor Kano estab-
lished rules and had the foresight to document them, and some are still preserved in
traditional competition. Similar to the rules of today, the early rules were established
with objectives to ensure safety and fairness, to encourage action, and to make judo
appealing to spectators.
Most tournaments use weight to classify competitors in categories. In younger
age groups (below 20 years), age and rank are classified. Men and women compete
separately from each other, although most tournaments hold men’s and women’s
championships together so they compete alongside each other. International matches
at the senior level are five minutes in duration, whereas children’s matches can be
as short as two minutes. The number of matches in which a contestant may partici-
pate depends on his or her advancement by winning and the number of competitors
fighting in the same weight class. Usually, a winner may have five or six matches
over the course of a tournament day.
Matches are officiated by a team of three officials. The referee conducts the match
while two judges sit at opposite corners to each other. A “majority of three” is used
for assessing scores, and penalties are recorded on a visible scoreboard operated by the
scorer and timer. All terminology used follows the Japanese language and includes
hand gestures. The contest area is a square and measures at least 8 by 8 meters (about
26 by 26 feet) and is no larger than 10 by 10 meters (about 33 by 33 feet). A 1-meter
(about 3 feet) danger zone (in red) forms the perimeter of the square and is part of
the contest area. A safety zone of at least 3 meters (10 feet) surrounds the contest

17
 Mastering Judo

area and forms the out-of-bounds area. At the start of a match, contestants bow to
each other from designated marks on the tatami. The marks are placed 4 meters (13
feet) apart, with the blue competitor on the referee’s right side and the white com-
petitor to the referee’s left. After bowing, the contestants wait for the referee to start
the match by announcing, “Hajime!” (start).

Scoring
Once ippon (a full point) is scored, the fight is over regardless of the score or who
was winning up to that point. Similar to the knockout punch in boxing, ippon can
occur anytime; in fact, some matches have lasted only a matter of seconds. The
rules of competitive judo have evolved to preserve the action and spectacle that
features ippon judo. Ippon determines the match and is achieved by throwing,
holding, or making one’s opponent submit through an armlock or choke. If ippon
cannot be scored over the course of the five-minute match, the competitor with
the highest scores of waza-ari (half-point), yuko, and koka determine the winner.
Matches that end with no score or a tie continue into an overtime period where
the first score wins.
Ippon judo highlights the fighting attitude that a judoka possesses when competing.
Judoka seeking to score ippon are typically offensive and possess a dynamic fighting
style that is a pleasure to watch. Ippon judo is said to be derived from feudal times
when warriors needed the spirit to end a fight to ensure their survival. Similarly, a
judoka scoring ippon finishes his or her opponent off decisively.
Judo matches can be action packed, aggressive, and full of intensity. Some match-
es, however, vary in their presentation and can take a more defensive or tactical
approach while still maintaining the competitors’ quest to win. To the uneducated
spectator, judo can be difficult to follow because of
the numerous situations in which competitors can
engage during the pursuit of victory. Although close
or low-scoring matches can be exciting, there is pres-
sure from competition-rule-making committees to
make it appealing to spectators regardless of whether
they are knowledgeable of the sport. Spectator ap-
peal, unfortunately, is an important evaluation fac-
tor for Olympic events, and judo has fared poorly in
the past.
Competition rules are constantly being reviewed
to make the sport more attractive to spectators. At
the 1997 World Championships in Paris, the rules as
applied by the officials indicated startling statistics. It
was recorded that for every two technical scores, one
penalty was recorded. This high number of penalties
was largely a result of the interpretation of stalling and
noncombativity.
How to Score Ippon (Full Point)
• Throw your opponent on his or her back with
considerable force and speed.
Allyn Takahashi throwing his opponent with left • Hold (osae-komi) the other contestant for 25
hidari seoi nage for ippon. seconds.

18
 Traditional Values and Etiquette

• Apply an armlock, choke, or hold-down to make the opponent indicate submis-

sion by tapping twice or more or by saying, “Maitta” (“I surrender.”).
• Score two waza-aris, which combine to score ippon (waza-ari awasete ippon)
and can be obtained by scoring a throw or hold-down.
• Your opponent is penalized with hansoku make (disqualification).
How to Score Waza-Ari (Meaning “Technique Exists; Almost Ippon”)
• You throw your opponent with control, but your technique is partially lacking in
one of the other three elements necessary for ippon: largely on the back, speed,
or force.
• You hold your opponent for 20 seconds but less than 25 seconds.
• Your opponent is penalized with keikoku or three shido-level penalties (explained
later).
How to Score Yuko (Meaning “Effective”; Almost Waza-Ari)
• You throw the other contestant with control, but your technique is partially
lacking in the other three elements necessary for ippon: largely on the back,
speed, or force.
• You hold (osae-komi) your opponent for at least 15 seconds but less than 20
seconds.
• When your opponent is penalized with two shidos, you are awarded a yuko.
How to Score Koka (Meaning “Effect, Advantage”; Almost Yuko)
• You throw your opponent onto one shoulder, the thighs, or the buttocks, but
not the back, with speed and force.
• You hold (osae-komi) the opponent for at least 10 seconds but less than 15 sec-
onds.
• Your opponent is penalized with a shido.

Japanese Judo in Jeopardy

After Japan’s questionable perfor- traditional skill and take ippon, Japa-
mance at the 1988 Seoul Olympics nese judo will be okay. Once foreign
there was much talk of the future of players recognize the marvelous Japa-
Japanese judo. Some believed it was nese style of judo, they will adopt the
in jeopardy and would eventually be same route we are taking.”
surpassed by other countries. Others Japan’s domestic tournaments still
believed changes in fighting style and keep traditional rules that do not score
strategies were needed. Most were not the lesser scores of koka and yuko.
happy with how judo was progressing This type of scoring encourages the
to where foreign fighters aim to win judoka to go for ippon. At the Ath-
by accumulating the scores of koka ens Olympics, Japan reestablished
and yuko. After much discussion and itself as a dominant nation, placing
reflection, it was decided that ippon first in judo overall. One of the stars
judo would remain the objective of of the Games was Tadahiro Nomura,
Japanese judo. As 9th Dan Toshiro who won his third Olympics with a
Daigo explains: “As long as we show display of spectacular ippon judo.

19
 Mastering Judo

Judo rules reward the quality of the technical score (for example, throw), so if
waza-ari (almost ippon) is scored it is regarded higher than any number of yuko
or koka scores (lesser technical scores). Similarly, any number of kokas, the lowest
technical score, is not enough to beat a yuko score. Before 1976, waza-ari and ippon
were the only technical scores recorded. The lesser scores of yuko and koka were
added to acknowledge and keep track of any advantages the competitors acquired
throughout the match.

Penalties
One of the main features of judo, the ability to engage fully yet safely, is what helped
elevate it above other martial arts such as jujitsu. Given the combative nature of judo
(throwing someone on his or her back to the tatami, bending back the arm, and so
on), strict rules must be in place to ensure the safety of participants. Infractions to
the rules result in penalties.
In 2003, the IJF Refereeing Commission proposed to simplify the penalties to only
two levels of severity: shido (slight infringements) and hansoku make (grave infringe-
ments). The penalties correspond directly to the “positive” scores of ippon, waza-ari,
yuko, and koka. That is, when a competitor receives a shido, one’s opponent (the
nonoffending judoka) receives the corresponding score of koka. Similarly, a second
shido would result in the awarding of yuko to the nonoffending judoka, and a third
shido would convert to the opponent’s scoring of waza-ari. The fourth and final shido
would result in hansoku make, or disqualification.
Hansoku make (disqualification) Ippon
Shido (slight infringement) Koka
Here are some examples of penalty infractions:
• Shido: “Negative judo,” false attack, stalling, overly defensive posture, squeezing
the opponent’s trunk with leg scissors, applying a choke across the opponent’s chin,
applying a technique outside the contest area, intentionally fleeing the mat

The Rules
The rules, once set, allow the athlete ones have emerged as a result. No
and coach to come up with ways to longer can the term “kuzure,” mean-
best work within the framework to ing variation, be used to encompass all
obtain the goal of winning. In other the changes that have resulted to the
words, when the koka score was in- techniques in modern judo. Toshihiko
troduced it would be a matter of time Koga, who is credited with perfect-
before techniques were designed to ing the “wrong” shoulder technique,
just score koka. Judoka will adapt to sode-tsurikomi-goshi, has a personal
the rules and even manipulate them maxim to follow “a new wind,” or to
to achieve the goal of winning. Tech- maintain the openness to seek chal-
niques have been modified, and new lenges with new approaches.

20
 Traditional Values and Etiquette

• Hansoku make: Intentionally falling backward when the other contestant is

clinging to one’s back, wearing a hard object (such as a ring, bracelet, or braces),
intentionally endangering or injuring the opponent’s neck or spinal vertebrae,
taking actions that may be against the spirit of judo, such as disregarding the
referee’s instructions

Other penalties occur as a result of a judoka’s failure to comply with rules of

etiquette. A judoka who is not wearing a proper uniform or who disregards the ex-
pectation of hygiene can be turned away from competition and his opponent would
then win the contest by “fusen gachi” (win by default) or, if the contest has already
started, by “kiken gachi” (win by withdrawal).

Scoring and Boundary Lines

Considerable action occurs near the edge of the mat. There are many reasons for this.
If one contestant attacks but is unsure of succeeding, the action can be inconsequen-
tial if it goes out of bounds. Some judoka play the edge of the mat and use it to their
advantage (see chapter 9).
The danger zone (red perimeter) is part of the contest
area. Once either contestant steps outside the zone or
14 t
contest area (stepping on line is “in”), it is considered 6m o 16
4 to 1 m 8 t m
out and any technique applied is not valid (see figure 1 1 0 o 1
8 to 0m
2.1). When one contestant throws his or her opponent
outside but stays in long enough for the effectiveness Contest area
3m
of the technique to be clearly apparent, the technique
will be considered in.
Danger area
When a throw is started with both contestants
Safety area m
inside the contest area, but during the action the 3
contestant being thrown moves outside the contest
area, the action may be considered for point-scoring
purposes as follows: when the throwing action con- Figure 2.1 Observing the boundaries of the com-
tinues uninterrupted and the contestant executing petition area is crucial in scoring.
the throw stays within the contest area long enough
for the effectiveness of the action to be clearly apparent.
If a throw such as ouchi-gari is attempted and the sweeping leg goes outside (grazes
the safety area), the throw will be valid for scoring if the attacker did not place any
weight on the foot or leg outside of the contest area. In ne-waza, the action is valid
and may continue so long as either contestant has some part of the body touching
the contest area.

Golden Score Contest

When the match is tied at the end; when the contestants have obtained no scores;
or when kokas, yukos, and waza-aris are the same for each Takahashi_E3038_fig
contestant, the match is
2.1_112783_Kareema_R2
decided by the Golden Score, where the first score or the first penalty awarded wins.
The Golden Score is probably the most exciting recent rule change because it provides
overtime sudden victory. This scoring eliminates the yusei gachi (win by decision)
made by the officials and leaves the final win in the hands of the competitors.

21
 Mastering Judo

Common Terminology of a Judo Match

Hajime Start
Matte Stop, break
Sono mama Do not move, freeze action
Yoshi Carry on, continue
Osae-komi Hold-down is effective
Toketa Hold-down is broken
Sore made That is all, end of the match
Hantei Request for decision
Sogo gachi Compound win (for example, waza-ari plus keikoku)
Jikan Time-out
Maitta “I give up” or “I surrender”
With etiquette and scoring firmly grasped, turn to chapter 3 to enhance your train-
ing with the proper focus and attitude.

22
Focus and
Attitude

C h a p t e r
3
 Mastering Judo

P rofessor Kano was explicit in identifying that mental training in judo is equal
in importance to physical training. Kano intended that judo should be a system
for both moral and educational development. These objectives are relevant to
both the competitive and noncompetitive judoka. Serious study in judo requires a
great deal of dedication, focus, and discipline that must be instilled and maintained
to develop a sound psychological makeup.
Three types of attitude are discussed next: training attitude, competitive attitude,
and personal attitude. First, training attitude refers to your willingness to train and the
work ethic that you develop through regular practice. Second, a competitive attitude
refers to your psychological makeup before, during, and after a competition. And
third, your personal attitude is the overall attitude you develop, which is a reflection
of you as a person both on and off the mat.

Training Attitude
The training attitude reflects the judo “process” that you go through as a judoka.
Much can be learned and acquired through judo’s training process, and the most
important aspect developed is your work ethic. Good judo takes time to develop.
The perfection of technique, the acquisition of timing, and the ability to react in a
dynamic setting take years of practice. Regular training is necessary, and you must
understand that improvement will sometimes come slowly; to improve you must be
patient and consistent. Some judoka enter tournaments without being well prepared
or without regular training. Those with natural ability can do well at first. Eventually,
however, taking a nonchalant attitude toward training will catch up to them, and
they will lose to the better prepared. The adage “hard work pays off” is simple but
must be adhered to with good faith because success is a product of solid preparation.
Without exception, a sensei, or coach, looks for a strong work ethic in a judoka as
one of the most important qualities for judo success.
If you do not work hard, you cannot expect to be successful. Only you know the
level of effort you put out. Hard work may not pay off immediately, but you will
experience some form of success either soon or at a later time. Lack of effort will cost
you in some way, and success may occur when you least expect it.
Many judoka expect results or immediate rewards after a brief stint of hard work.
Unfortunately, progress can be slow to attain; sometimes you may feel as if you are
enduring a plateau or slump. When a training plateau occurs, you must maintain a
positive attitude and have the patience and persistence to work through and out of
it. Often, too, you may feel as if you are not improving even though improvement is
actually taking place. Improvement in judo can be compared to paint drying in the
sun. Paint dries slowly, and in the sun it may even look as if it is still wet. Although
the paint looks wet, it has progressed and is drier; so, too, do you improve slowly
but surely, although sometimes almost imperceptibly. Next are several strategies for
improving the training process.

Practice Regularly
For the best chances to improve, you should engage in regular training. Regular-
ity of practice refers to practicing on a continual basis. To maximize training and
learning, avoid long breaks and irregular attendance. For example, consider the
following:

24
 Focus and Attitude

Case 1: 20 practices spread out evenly per week over 40 days

Case 2: 20 to 25 practices sporadically scheduled “whenever” over 40 to 50 days

In case 1, when practices are spread out consistently over time, you are able to
make adaptations and improvements because it is possible to make your progression
continual after each expected training session. When practices are sporadic and un-
predictable, as in case 2, you follow a haphazard practice schedule where no structure
can be put in place. With irregular practice you are subject to greater inconsistencies
and even injury, even if the total number of practices is similar in number to the
consistent practice schedule in case 1.
It would be a safe assumption to say that all great judo champions have had an
outstanding work ethic. To win at the elite level, hard work and dedication are a must.
Training attitude, however, does not only apply to elite fighters; the noncompetitive
judoka may train with similar dedication but for different objectives. A nonfighter
may focus instead on perfecting other aspects of judo, such as kata or technique. Both
require good training attitudes despite having different goals.
The attainment of perfection by both competitive and noncompetitive judoka
makes judo attractive to many who develop strong training attitudes. Perfection in
judo follows a tangential line so that learning is continual and, some say, impossible
to achieve. Judo is a lifelong endeavor, and a good training attitude is required.

Understand Judo
It is important to know more about judo from all aspects, not just practicing and com-
peting (randori and shiai). Unfortunately, many judoka lack the basic knowledge of
judo history and why tradition is so important. Strive to become better educated in
judo, which in turn will give you a better appreciation of judo as an art and a sport.
Knowing more about judo allows you to approach it in different ways, which can
suit your needs as you become more proficient.

Set Goals
Goals are not just for fighters. Those who compete naturally set competitive goals,
which serve to motivate and provide focus to their training. Nonfighters are equally
apt to aspire to achieve their goals. Whether you are a competitor or a noncompeti-
tor, the act of pursuing your goals will inspire and motivate you to follow through
on what you hope to achieve in your judo.

Learning Is Ongoing
There was a period when there was serve the highest level of 10th Dan. In
no living 10th Dan in judo. Unlike fact, only 14 judoka in the history of
some martial arts in which there are judo have had the privilege to acquire
countless 10th Dan and masters and a Kodokan 10th Dan, 5 of which were
experts everywhere, in judo, practi- awarded posthumously. Such humil-
tioners acknowledge that no one can ity reflects the dedication needed for
achieve total perfection because learn- completeness in judo. The training at-
ing is ongoing. Those in the “waiting” titude represents the mental quality
believed they were not worthy to de- required for aspiring to perfection.

25
 Mastering Judo

Goals should be task oriented and of two main types—short term and long term.
Goals also need to be realistic (get black belt in one year?) and multileveled so that
meeting short-term goals can build toward meeting long-term goals (get brown belt
first!). Performance goals are important but are not always good indicators of progress.
For example, if you win a tournament (a goal) then your goal has been achieved.
However, what if you only beat opponents who were at a considerably lower level?
What if you actually fought poorly? Conversely, what if you didn’t win the tourna-
ment but fought well or were eliminated by drawing the unexpected champion or
was subject to poor officiating?
An alternative would be to establish goals over which you do have control, that is,
goals that are unaffected by external factors. For example, make your goal to attempt
and score on a combination attack—ouchi-gari and tai-otoshi. Or, your goal could be
to control the match by cornering your opponent to fight in the danger zone.

Keep an Open Mind

Be receptive to learning from other sources. Teammates and senior instructors are the
most practical sources of additional information and knowledge. Many good books,
Web sites, and videos are now available. A word of caution is necessary, however; you
must be sensitive to other teaching methods and even techniques, especially if they
contradict what you were taught within the dojo. You can still listen and take infor-
mation in, but understand that your loyalty remains with your dojo and sensei.

Balance Your Lifestyle

Judo is a way of life, but it should not be your life. It is important to maintain perspec-
tive and strive for balance with judo and other important aspects of your daily life. If
you are a student, for example, then your studies should go hand in hand with your
training because athletic and academic pursuits are a balanced approach to healthy
living. Do not be afraid to engage in other athletic pursuits as well.
Balance also refers to proper prioritizing. This means ranking what’s important and
ensuring top-priority items get the attention they deserve. When peaking for a major
competition you may focus more on competing and its preparation. During a slower
off-season period, academic pursuits may take priority. Regular training, however,
is always important. Sporadic training or long periods of inactivity in any endeavor
is not recommended.

Make Sacrifices
You must be willing to make sacrifices, especially if you wish to pursue competition.
You must choose to eat healthy, get adequate rest, and passs on a social event the
day before a tournament.

Competitive Attitude
The psychology of the competitive judoka can be complex and sophisticated. In fact,
many elite competitors use sport psychology as part of their training program and
receive counsel from specialists in the field. At the highest competitive level, major
competitive events such as the World Championships or the Olympic Games, levels
of stress and pressure will no doubt be high. But, in relative terms, even the inex-

26
 Focus and Attitude

perienced competitor can experience similar psychological conditions of stress in a

local tournament. In that respect, all judoka, whether they are experienced fighters
or beginners, should attempt to learn continually from their competitive experience.
Fostering a competitive attitude is important to all who engage or wish to engage in
competition. Next are some tips to keep your competitive attitude at its sharpest.

Believe in Yourself
You must believe that you will win. How can you expect to win if you do not believe
that you can? Believing in yourself gives you a fighting spirit. Many great fighters
speak of this quality. All champions achieved their success with the belief that they
could win. This does not mean that they knew that victory would be easy. And cer-
tainly, if you are not “favored” to win, it can be difficult to believe that you can. But,
in order to win, you must fight to win. As world champion Noboyuki Sato puts it:
“Fight like there’s no tomorrow.”
Having a positive attitude does not mean that you have to view everything in
a positive light. In fact, it may be wise to prepare by looking for things that could
go wrong. By being prepared for challenges, you will not be surprised if difficulties
arise, and you will be better able to deal with them in a more prepared way. Don’t
get caught, however, in a negative mind-set that is self-fulfilling.

Doubt to Defeat
Ray Takahashi recalls vividly how a Yuji Takada, the Japanese defending
negative mind-set led to defeat. At the world champion. Fate would have it
wrestling event at the 1976 Olympics, that he drew Takada first and lost the
his teammate, a world medalist, said fight. In preparing himself for failure,
that the only person he didn’t want to this world medalist had talked himself
draw first round at the Olympics was into defeat.

Prepare for Competitive Stress

There are different names or words that can be used to describe competitive stress.
Nervousness, apprehension, pressure, uneasiness—but, whatever it’s called, all judoka
experience it to some degree, especially on tournament day before a match. Many
say that the difference between the top four place finishers is “all mental” because
all possess the technique necessary to win on a given day.
Even Yasuhiro Yamashita, considered the heavy favorite at the 1984 Olympic
Games, was under a huge amount of personal pressure to win. How can that be? He
was undefeated for seven years leading up to the Games. Yamashita cites in his 1993
book, The Fighting Spirit of Judo: “At the Olympics I was under heavier pressure than
in any other previous competition. Two images of myself came across my mind when
I was alone: One had me waving to a large crowd of spectators with a gold medal,
and the other had me hiding in the changing room after being defeated.”
Stress is normal, and a main reason for stress is because tournaments are very dif-
ferent from training. Even hard randori and matches within the dojo do not elicit the
same stress that tournaments do. Much of it has to do with all the different aspects

27
 Mastering Judo

that are involved in the fighting experience, including traveling, making weight, stay-
ing overnight in a hotel, eating differently, seeing your opponent, being at a strange
new competition site, and fighting in front of spectators. Tournament fighting is filled
with distractions to which you are unaccustomed.
A certain level of stress is needed, however, before stepping out on the mat. You
should be alert and on edge as well as highly focused because a fight requires that
you make tactical decisions as well as engage in intense activity. Some sports, how-
ever, like shooting, require a relaxed psychological state. Here the athlete wants to
slow her heart rate down so maximal focus can be acquired upon pulling the trigger.
Conversely, the Olympic weightlifter must psych himself up to ready the muscles for
a maximal lift. The level of optimal stress varies among individuals, so you will need
to discover by trial and error the level of stress that works best for you. Most judoka
have little difficulty getting emotionally “up” for their matches; controlling the level
of stress so that it is at the most effective level, however, may be the key to using
stress to your advantage.
You will get stressed because you are preoccupied with your performance and the
result of winning or losing. Caring greatly about how you will perform often leads to
feeling pressured. Some of the reasons you may feel stressed in a competition include
the following:

• Self-doubt. You begin to lose self-confidence. Often, this loss of confidence involves
comparing your abilities to those of your opponent. Negative thoughts such as,
I don’t think my throws are as good as his, create doubt, which increases stress. You
can still experience high levels of stress even if you are favored to win but start
thinking that you might not.
• Fitness level. You question your level of conditioning, thinking that you will be
unable to fight hard for the entire length of the match.
• Overall health. You don’t feel 100 percent well. Judoka are notorious for detecting
(or imagining) things that are not quite right—“I didn’t get a good sleep,” “My
back is a little stiff,” “I feel a little sluggish, maybe I cut too much weight.”
• Control. You think about things that are out of your control, worrying about the
myriad of things that can play a factor in the match.
• Outcome. You think only of the match result, that is, winning or losing.

Rather than focusing on these “what ifs,” direct your energies toward things that
you can control. Try using key words or cues to help you stay focused, such as “be
alert,” “get your grip,” “keep moving,” “be calm,” and “stay loose.” If you are able to
shift your focus away from the result to performing the task immediately at hand,
stress may even help. Being stressed will not necessarily affect your performance
negatively as long as you can direct your focus to determining what you have to do
to perform.
The best judoka are able to channel their emotions and focus their thoughts on
what they have to do in a match. Some judoka prefer to stay relaxed whereas others
need more motivation. For example, an easy method for achieving either relaxation
or greater motivation is listening to music that helps you stay focused and achieve a
positive frame of mind. It is also worthwhile to learn about mental rehearsal. Many
of the best athletes are not only more experienced, but also they are better able to
stay in control by focusing on learned routines. Common methods used are positive
imagery (for example, forming an image or picture in your mind of performing a

28
 Focus and Attitude

specific technique well), positive thinking, and preplanned routines. For example,
experienced judoka know exactly how to warm themselves up and find that follow-
ing a warm-up routine helps them to focus. Try out different methods and determine
what method of dealing with competitive stress works best for you.

Personal Attitude
Personal attitude reflects one’s personal character. Your personal attitude is made
evident through your behavior and actions, how you conduct yourself in practice,
and how you conduct yourself off the mat in daily living. Personal attitude is closely
related to the judo motto of jita kyoei—mutual welfare and benefit. Following judo
etiquette is an important way to develop a good personal attitude.
Regular training and punctuality develop discipline and commitment. The give-and-
take between you and your partner formulates cooperation, even when engaged in
hard randori training. Few other sports or activities can boast of the unique relation-
ships that develop between judoka, in spite of the combative nature of the activity.
This is an example of jita kyoei.
Achieving a good personal attitude is one of the main purposes of studying judo.
Professor Kano believed that judo is a form of physical education that exercises the
body and the mind. He encouraged practitioners to “make best use of your energy
and go forward together with your opponent.”
Isao Inokuma, one of the greatest Japanese judoka of all time, shifted his focus
after his competitive days toward kata (formal exercises). Inokuma believed training
attitude can be transferred to daily life and should be applied with the same disci-
pline. After he retired, Inokuma applied the spirit of judo to his daily living, saying:
“I am putting all my enthusiasm and fighting spirit into my current work and keep-
ing up my studies. Judo is not a sport to be engaged in only at the dojo.” (Best Judo.
Inokuma and Sato).

Practice Confidence, Not Arrogance

As noted in chapter 2, the etiquette of judo is compatible with the Western ideal of
sportsmanship; poor sportsmanship is not often displayed by judoka. The impor-
tance of winning, however, and the meaning it has for the elite judoka is powerful.
As noted earlier, you must be confident and believe that you can win. The way
you project confidence, however, may range from confidence that is honorable to
egotistical cockiness or arrogance. Egotistical cockiness can be described as being
“in your face,” stating: “I am the best,” and taking actions that project that im-
age. Highly competitive athletes must believe they are the best, so there’s a fine
line between confidence and cockiness. Those who seem arrogant are sometimes
those who need to think that others believe they are great fighters. Although
such displays of brash self-confidence reflect poorly on the sport, it is hoped that
continued involvement in judo will eventually help such individuals find greater
humility and respect.

Remain Composed
You must be able to control your behavior and direct your energy to the appropriate
area. When competing, you are representing your dojo, team, or even province or
state and country. Equally important, you represent yourself and the sport of judo.

29
 Mastering Judo

It is therefore important for you to portray a positive image both on and off the mat.
Your actions as a senior judoka are observed by others and have a particular effect
on younger judoka, many of whom will emulate their role models.

Respect Wins and Losses

Positive winning is how one handles victory in an honorable and respectful way.
This is closely related to sportsmanship, but the difference lies in not letting victory
“go to your head.” Some judoka fall victim to this attitude, and their personalities
change after winning a major competition. They sometimes feel superior to everyone
else. Positive winning is difficult to learn because it is rarely taught. An example of
positive winning is when Isao Okano used katsu (resuscitation technique) to revive
Lionel Grossain (France), whom he choked unconscious at the 1964 Olympics using
okuri eri jime. Okano’s actions of concern for Grossain’s welfare took precedence
over his immediate urge to celebrate his Olympic victory. It should be noted that the
teaching of positive losing is much more prevalent. In a tournament, you could say
that there is only one winner and the rest are all losers. Positive losing does not only
mean to display good sportsmanship after losing, but also it involves the process of
learning from your mistakes.
As you gain more experience and understand more about judo, you will realize
a greater appreciation of what judo can offer—especially once you are retired from
competing. Some say judo is a “way of life.” Those who have understood the depth
of judo have also allowed judo to provide direction in the development of their
personal attitude. Tina Takahashi describes
how judo kept her “on the right track” in her
teenage years: “Judo gave me something to
strive for and demanded discipline. Although
it wasn’t easy, looking back at the experiences
I had, the people I met, and the places I went
educated me more than any type of formal
education. [Judo] has shaped who I am and
what I do.”

Applications of Judo
in Daily Living
The application of judo beyond training and
the tatami is far reaching. Parents involve their
children in judo because it does not entail the
roughness that other sports do, such as wres-
tling, and many find the focus on discipline and
etiquette appealing. Judo study helps children
Tina Takahashi was Canada’s first world boost their self-confidence and self-esteem and
champion in judo (World Univer- helps them to learn to control aggression by
sity Championships, 1984), the first providing structure, discipline, and physical
Canadian woman to achieve 6th Dan,
and the first Canadian woman to coach activity in a controlled competitive environ-
judo at the Olympic Games (in 1988). ment.

30
 Focus and Attitude

Two-year-old Adam Takahashi Macfadyen at a judo demonstration with his

mother, Tina. Judo is an ideal activity for parent and child.

Judo has been shown to benefit other individuals and groups within society. For
example, judo is especially well suited as a therapeutic activity for individuals with
special needs. One study reported that judo’s dynamic nature of contact with control
is particularly helpful for children who are psychotic and have problems with inter-
personal space. After taking judo, these children began to better tolerate physical
contact and appreciate the consequences of their actions. Judo study by people with
visual impairments has been reported as a favorable activity because the gripping and
contact allow for control, which they otherwise lack in most sports and activities. The
timing and “feel” that are so important in judo movement allow such individuals to
fully experience judo’s dynamic activity.
Many practitioners of judo use its concepts and philosophies to develop their own
personal approach to best contribute within society. Nathalie Gosselin, 5th Dan, echoes
the positive benefits of judo practice through a program called ECLIPSE (Education,
Cooperation, Learning, and Inspiration, a Personal Self-Change Experience). She
found judo significantly improved behavior among youth who had been involved
in delinquent behavior. Gosselin, a Canadian Olympian in 1996 and coordinator of
ECLIPSE, reported that judo helps create positive behaviors that are transferred off the
mat into daily life. The structure and discipline of judo practice is used as a physical
therapy program for youth who are at risk and who need to learn to manage their
anger and aggression.
It is not only those in need, however, who can benefit from judo. Business lead-
ers use judo to guide their strategies and way of thinking. In fact, the term “judo
economics” was coined in the early 1980s as a strategy for smaller companies to
battle bigger companies in order to defend from a takeover and to survive in the
business world. Judo economics includes using tactics such as leverage, rapid move-
ment, and flexibility—elements used on the mat by the judoka. James Kendrick,
PhD, 6th Dan, and former Canadian National team member, combines his expertise

31
 Mastering Judo

in judo and business administration to teach

top North American executives to raise the
bar to tackle tough leadership issues in an
extremely competitive and volatile business
environment.
Judo instills a way of thinking that guides
your actions on and off the mat. It could be
said that some political leaders who have
practiced judo have gained from its perspec-
tive, including Vladimir Putin, president of
Russia, and former prime minister of Canada,
Pierre Elliot Trudeau. Prime Minister Trudeau
practiced judo at the Takahashi School of
Martial Arts in Ottawa, as did his three sons.
Prime Minister Brian Mulroney enrolled his
children as well.
Judo as a form of physical activity and
exercise lends itself well to daily living.
Honorable behavior, appreciation for oth-
ers, and the etiquette of judo transfer well
off the mat. For example, the meditation of
“mokuso” before the start and the end of class,
Former Canadian prime minister Pierre although short in duration, helps reduce the
Elliot Trudeau, 2nd Dan, engages in stress of the day and clear the mind. Coopera-
randori with Allyn Takahashi during a tion is always tested to the fullest with your
Canada Day celebration, July 1, 1983.
Trudeau helped to popularize judo in uke where “give-and-take” must occur, and
Canada. then conversely in randori, where contestlike
conditions are necessary.

Judo For Women

Judo can offer many benefits both mentally and physically for girls and women of all
ages and stages in life. The practice of judo develops almost all of the muscles in the
body, giving the practitioner strength, power, flexibility, agility, and cardiovascular
improvement. Girls and women learn how to move their bodies in both standing and
lying positions in order to attack or defend attacks. They learn to overcome fears of
physically aggressive attacks such as chokes thanks to the practices in judo. Because
judo is practiced with a fully resisting opponent, a realistic experience is gained.
Mental and physical training empower girls and women with more confidence, as-
sertiveness, and concentration. Achievement in rank or belts and winning a compe-
tition further builds one’s self-esteem and can often develop short- and long-term
goal-setting skills.
Many women compete in the sport of judo. There can be great rewards as well
as sacrifices that help build character from these experiences. Judo can push one to
the limit both physically and mentally and sometimes emotionally, particularly in
competitions when adrenaline levels are high. A fighting spirit and mental tough-
ness can evolve by learning to withstand pain and to fight back. This is an especially
unique concept for girls and women, as they often do not get this kind of exposure
in their daily lives.

32
 Focus and Attitude

Female participation in judo is

now very popular in Asia and Eu-
rope and is gaining rapid popularity
in the rest of the world. With the
inclusion of women in the Olympic
judo program in 1988 many positive
changes for women’s judo have oc-
curred at the domestic level in many
countries as well as internationally,
such as increased refereeing, fund-
ing, and competitive opportunities.
The development of women’s judo
has been relatively rapid compared
to many other sports, especially
combative sports. The older sport of
wrestling, for example, only gained
women’s entrance into the Olympic
Games in 2004 in Athens.
June Takahashi, 5th Dan, has been
heavily influenced by Keiko Fukuda,
9th Dan, the highest rank achieved
thus far by a woman. Fukuda is the
granddaughter of Hachinosuke Fuku-
da, the jujitsu teacher of Jigoro Kano.
Keiko Fukuda instructs kata (ju no kata) with
Takahashi believes many judoka do
June Takahashi during her visit to the Takahashi
not see the totality of judo because Martial Arts School.
of the emphasis on competition. She
says: “Judo teaches us to be better
people—that’s the main objective—not winning.” Takahashi was one of the first
Canadian women to be promoted to black belt and is still active teaching kata and
techniques at the family-operated dojo.
In the early 1900’s, judo was once regarded as a practice appropriate only for
women in the upper class. These women took part in randori, kata, the learning of
techniques and etiquette, as well as the study of judo theory. The extensive training
women received provided judoka such as Keiko Fukuda a complete perspective on
judo, more so than many men who focused their energies on competition. Fukuda’s
motto reflects her philosophy of judo: “Be gentle, kind, and beautiful, yet firm and
strong, both mentally and physically.”
Career women, moms, seniors, and young girls all undertake judo for varied rea-
sons. Whether learning to fall properly and safely, getting a great workout, stress
relief, learning katas, honing a realistic self-defense technique, or perfecting the many
ground and standing techniques, judo offers women of all ages countless benefits and
satisfactions. Judo can be done recreationally, for fun, competitively, for fitness, and
for self-defense. Judo teaches humility, respect, courage, and so many other virtues.
The spirit of judo, the etiquette, the camaraderie, and the philosophies make this an
attractive form of activity for all women.

33
This page intentionally left blank.
Training
Methods

C h a p t e r
4
 Mastering Judo

O ne of the most difficult parts of any athletic activity is determining effective

training methods so that one can ultimately perform the skills and techniques
successfully in competition. Competition is actually the best form of training
because the judoka is doing exactly what is needed. To use competition only as a
method of training, however, is impractical; in competition it is difficult to regulate
and control factors such as intensity, volume of work, and level of competition. Too
much competition can lead to risk of injury, unneeded stress, and incomplete technical
training. Likewise, too much randori, or free fighting, can produce the same problems
of training because randori closely mimics the dynamism of competition.
Training methods in judo have become more complex and sophisticated as the sport
has evolved. There was a time when unorthodox and even excessive training methods
in sport were more prevalent. Examples of excessive training methods include the
judoka performing 1,000 push-ups a practice, the karate competitor breaking blocks
of ice, and the wrestler carrying his partner while climbing up stairs. Even so-called
sport-specific drills, such as thousands of uchikomi, form the mainstay of good, old-
fashioned judo training. Despite the truth in the need for an exceptional work ethic,
proper training is essential for any elite athlete, whether a judoka or otherwise.
Much of the success of Japanese judoka is still rooted in two necessary ingredi-
ents—hard training and depth of technique. Even so, effective training methods are
essential for developing the judoka if one aspires to reach one’s performance potential.

Secret to Success
Doug Rogers of Canada, who sur- After spending five years training
prised many with his silver medal at in Japan, Rogers realized that the
the Olympic Games in 1964, was the Japanese had no secret weapon but
first Westerner to be trained by the that their success was rooted in hard
famous fighter, Masahiko Kimura. training.

Left to right: Masao Takahashi,

Katsuyoshi Takata, and Doug
Rogers at a special Kodokan
training session.

36
 Training Methods

And Japanese judo is still admired for its waza, or technical quality, which forms the
benchmark of judo today.
This chapter focuses on specific judo training methods. Other training methods
such as off-mat conditioning, although briefly discussed here, are covered in greater
detail in chapter 8. The training methods presented in this chapter follow an impor-
tant training principle—the specificity of training.
The specificity principle means that specific training produces a specific acquisition
of results. That is, the judoka who does seoi-nage (for example, through uchikomi) will
perfect those actions. A similar but different action, such as swinging an axe (which
simulates throwing over the shoulder) will not train the muscles to act as efficiently as
seoi-nage, but will train the muscles well for swinging an axe. If, therefore, you want
to be good at judo or specific techniques, then you have to replicate the same type of
training in practice. For example, in wrestling, it is common to see some facilities that
use throwing dummies for the practicing of throws (koshi-guruma). Although this
allows the full application for throwing (nage-komi), using throwing dummies does
not replicate the specific actions because a throwing dummy does not feel and react
the same way a person does (it is not realistic). Interestingly, throwing dummies are
virtually never used in judo and are almost nonexistent in judo training, which spe-
cializes in throwing. Can those in the sport of wrestling learn anything from this?
Technical judo can only be acquired through judo-specific activities, such as randori
and its related training methods. You should devote considerable time to these train-
ing methods and understand how they contribute to one’s overall judo development.
Off-mat training should be regarded as supplemental training and should not be used
to replace your on-mat training methods.
A word of caution about off-mat training methods: In a weight-class sport, such as
judo, and over an intense five-minute match, you can gain a significant advantage if
you are more physically fit than your opponent. Off-mat training methods to improve
one’s physical fitness, such as running, do have their place in judo (see chapter 8).
For example, weight training will improve strength, a needed component in judo
because many actions engage large muscle groups against a resisting opponent. And,
without a doubt, every elite judo competitor does some form of weight training. It
has long been debated to what degree strength training should be part of a judoka’s
training, particularly if it allows less time for other training methods such as randori,
uchikomi, and nage-komi. As mentioned in chapter 1, some judo purists believe
strength hinders proper judo development and point to specific judo systems that
emphasize a strength style of fighting, such as in Eastern European countries, where
Neil Adams, one of Great Britain’s best in the 1980s, remarks: “Perhaps nowadays
there is a little too much emphasis placed upon physical preparation and condition-
ing, and with everyone rushing to get physically stronger, not enough energy is de-
voted to developing rhythm, balance, timing, proper positioning, and the use of your
opponent’s reactions” (Modern Judo. Techniques of East and West. Peter Seisenbacher
and George Kerr. 1991. The Crowood Press. Wiltshire). The challenge for you is to
obtain a healthy balance between proper technical developments and sound physical
training to produce “good judo.” It is well accepted that maximum development is
best acquired when technical development has been achieved first. Be sure therefore
to place an emphasis in your training on technical development.
The following example contrasts two methods of randori development. In case 1,
technical aspects are developed first and then subsequently supplemented by exten-
sive physical training. Once the technical aspects of judo have been developed, they
are enhanced by the physical components, for example, strength and speed, and the

37
 Mastering Judo

judoka will reach his or her full potential. Emphasizing first your technique and then
your physical fitness will allow you to acquire many of the fine-motor skills involved
in techniques along with the timing and reactions that take years of practice.

Case 1: Technical → Physical = Potential

Case 2: Physical → Technical < Potential

It is true, however, that you can obtain faster performance success by first improving
your physical attributes. This initial success occurs because significant physiological
improvements can be made within six weeks (for example, improved strength), and
physical training is “easier” than technical training in that little actual skill or talent
is required. Case 2 indicates, however, that without a sound technical base one’s full
potential cannot be reached.

Wrestling and Judo

Ray Takahashi comments: “Generally, the preciseness required in the tech-
wrestlers have a hard time making a niques of judo. Although they do well
transition to judo. Not only because initially, at higher levels it catches up
of the differences in the sport but also to them. And, for some reason they
because wrestlers rely too much on have difficulty refining technique to
the physical and get frustrated with reach their true potential.”

Progressive Steps for Technical Training

The challenge lies in bridging the gap from learning a specific technique to being able
to apply it in competition. Many judoka become frustrated when they have learned
how to do a particular technique but find that they are unable to perform it in a
dynamic resistive setting like competition. The spectrum from technique learning to
competitive application is huge. This gap can only be bridged through specific training
methods that initially must be followed in a progressive fashion as follows:

Stage 1: Technical Learning

• Learn a specific technique, its movements, actions, and body positioning.
Stage 2: Repetitions (Uchikomi)
• Replicate actions, focusing on proper technique.
• Develop speed and rhythm.
• Progress to moving uchikomi to develop timing and kuzushi (breaking oppo-
nent’s balance).
Stage 3: Repetition in Dynamic Setting
• Execute the technique repetitively in a dynamic setting under controlled
resistance to further develop timing, kuzushi, and movements (yakusoku-
renshu).
Stage 4: Throwing Practice (Nage-Komi)
• Execute a throw in its entirety.

38
 Training Methods

Stage 5: Dynamic Action Not Predetermined (Randori)

• Use minimal resistance.
• Use higher resistance.
• Use full resistance.
Note: You can practice situations where a certain part of a technique can be iso-
lated. For example, practice the finishing phase of the throw by starting already in
position (tsukuri phase). Depending on the resistance and the extent of the situation
practiced, the drill can favor the tori (person practicing technique) or the uke (person
technique is practiced on) once it becomes live.
Stage 6: Competition (Shiai)
• Perform the skill in a competitive environment.
As you develop and progress, the application of techniques in later stages should
replicate closer and closer how you will perform them in competition. In particular,
proper technical application is very important, so initial stages are no less important
than later stages. Here are key applications you must master:

• When increasing speed of attack, ensure that the quality of the technique is not
compromised.
• As you improve, variations and additional movements can be practiced, such as
changing grips, angles, and positions of attack.
• Practice the throw using preliminary movements (tai-sabaki, kuzushi) and finish
to its completion.
• Develop the ability to follow up and flow into other techniques or link into dif-
ferent situations.

Uchikomi Training to Develop

Speed and Technique
Uchikomi can be described as drilling practice or repeating techniques over and over
to develop speed and proper movements. The speed of repetitions can be altered
depending on the objective. Numerous repetitions are possible because the focus is
on the entry of the attack rather than the throwing action, allowing high numbers
of repetitions. The main purpose of uchikomi is to acquire technical ability, although
it can also serve as a specific physical-conditioning practice (to develop power and
aerobic conditioning).
Uchikomi does not involve finishing the throw but rather only the kuzushi and
tsukuri phases of the throw. Uchikomi training develops automation of the throw,
so it is important to repeat the throws as correctly and identically as possible. Doing
so will ensure you acquire the proper technique and your muscles follow the exact
movements used in the technique. Practice your repetitions smoothly and rhythmi-
cally. Gradually, as you become more familiar with the technique, you can increase
your speed and intensity and eventually replicate it as you would in competition. A
well-trained judoka should be able to execute a repetition every second. Speed train-
ing will help power because speed is a component of power. So by training speed,
you will also improve power.

39
 Mastering Judo

The “10 and 10 rule” means it takes about 10 years of practice, or about 10,000
hours, to become proficient at a technique. Try writing your signature as fast as you
can with your eyes closed. Years of training have allowed you to duplicate your
signature so that it can be done fast and automatic. Now sign your name with your
nondominant hand and compare. You can probably see that it takes a tremendous
amount of practice to teach your body to move instinctively. The specific actions need
to be learned by the body’s nervous system and must then be practiced. The key is
to perform the actions properly, so you must take special care in learning proper
technique.
Uchikomi remains an integral training method for judo. Classical application of
techniques is important for learning basic fundamental movements. Variations to
techniques used in competition are sometimes difficult to reproduce. For example,
some require certain resistances from your uke, which are difficult to repeat over
and over to replicate a precise situation. In these cases, attempt to replicate situ-
ations where movement and resistances can be practiced together. Rather than
practice only a static throw, therefore, create the dynamism of a match situation
and perform the technique as you would in competition. This replication is neces-
sary to make a link between the techniques practiced in the dojo and those applied
in competition.
Following are five uchikomi drills along with photo illustrations.
Static Uchikomi
In static uchikomi, you attack from a static position (no preliminary movement).

a b c
At the start, break the grip. Kuzushi plus entry. Downward pull. Uke helps tori
return to start position by push-
ing with the abdomen.

40
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
die Haut vor dem Kehlkopfe durch einen Messerstich quer
aufgeschlitzt worden war, so dass es aussah, wie wenn der Versuch
einer Halsdurchschneidung gemacht worden wäre. An inneren
Körpertheilen sind solche Aufschlitzungen nicht selten, so haben wir
einen Messerstich gesehen, der zwischen der 7. bis 8. Rippe in der
Axillarlinie eingedrungen war, die linke Kuppe des Zwerchfells und
den unteren Rand der linken Lunge aufgeschlitzt, an der Hinterfläche
des Herzens beide Kammern eröffnet und das Septum durchtrennt
hatte, so dass in keinem der verletzten inneren Organe ein
eigentlicher Stichcanal, sondern rinnenförmige Trennungen gefunden
wurden. Stichwunden, die einen grösseren Körpertheil, z. B. die
Brust, vollkommen durchdringen, sind selten. Es kommt dies nur bei
sehr langen Stichwaffen, z. B. Degen, Bajonetten, ganz
ausnahmsweise auch bei langen Küchenmessern vor, nicht gar selten
aber bei peripheren Körpertheilen, insbesondere an den
Extremitäten, wenn sie mehr tangential getroffen werden. Auch
kann dann das Instrument noch in einen anderen Körpertheil
eindringen. P i l z bildet solche Fälle ab, die eine besondere
Bedeutung auch dadurch besitzen, dass die Ausgangs-, respective
secundären Oeffnungen für ebensoviele isolirte Stichwunden
gehalten werden können.
Endlich haben wir in zwei Fällen von Messerstichen in’s Gehirn
statt eines eigentlichen Stichcanals eine hämorrhagische Höhle
gefunden, die offenbar durch das aus verletzten grösseren
Hirnarterien ausströmende Blut in ähnlicher Weise durch Zerwühlung
der Hirnsubstanz entstanden war, wie dies nach spontaner Berstung
dieser Gefässe zu geschehen pflegt. Ein Steckenbleiben
abgebrochener Klingen oder deren Spitzen in Knochen kommt häufig
vor, besonders am Schädel. Sie heilen mitunter ohne Schaden ein,
häufiger kommt es, und zwar manchmal erst nach längerer Zeit, zu
Erweichungen, Abscessbildung etc. und zum Tod.

4. Schussverletzungen.
 An einer Schusswunde kann man in der Regel die
Eingangsöffnung (Einschuss) und den Schusscanal unterscheiden,
welcher entweder blind endet oder in eine Ausgangsöffnung
(Ausschuss) mündet.
Die Beschaffenheit der E i n g a n g s ö f f n u n g
hängt vorzugsweise von der Entfernung ab, Nahschüsse.
aus welcher geschossen wurde. Bei Schüssen aus unmittelbarer
Nähe wirkt ausser dem Projectil (und dem Propf) auch die
unmittelbare Gewalt der Explosionsgase und die Pulverflamme.
In Folge der combinirten Wirkung des Projectils und der directen
Gewalt der Pulvergase ist der Einschuss in der Regel
unverhältnissmässig gross und desto grösser, je mehr Pulver geladen
war, daher wir nach Schüssen aus Gewehren oder Pistolen ungleich
grössere, mitunter colossale Eingangsöffnungen finden, als nach
einem Revolverschuss, und nach Schüssen aus sogenannten
Taschenrevolvern kleinere als nach jenen, die aus Revolvern
grösseren Kalibers abgefeuert wurden.
Die Oeffnung erscheint entweder als
Substanzverlust und dann meist vollkommen Wirkung der
Explosionsgase und der
rund, wie mit einem Locheisen Pulverflamme.
ausgeschlagen (Fig. 56 und 58) oder
unregelmässig sternförmig eingerissen (Fig. 57 und 59). Letztere
Form findet sich ungleich häufiger bei Pistolen- oder
Gewehrschüssen als nach solchen aus Revolvern, und am häufigsten
dann, wenn der Schuss eine Stelle traf, an welcher die Haut nahe
über Knochen (Schädel, Rippen) gespannt gewesen war. Die Bildung
solcher Lappen und Einrisse kommt wahrscheinlich dadurch zu
Stande, dass die Explosionsgase sofort nach erfolgter
Durchlöcherung der Haut durch das Projectil des geringeren
Widerstandes wegen zwischen dieser und der festeren Unterlage
sich ausbreiten, wodurch die Haut aufgehoben und vom Lochschuss
aus zum Bersten gebracht wird. Dafür spricht die Thatsache, dass
die Ränder sowohl der lappenförmig eingerissenen, als der runden
Eingangsöffnungen fast immer mehr weniger unterminirt sind, und
dass entsprechend diesen unterminirten Partien das
Unterhautgewebe im weiten Umfange vom Pulver geschwärzt
erscheint. In seltenen Fällen erfolgt eine einfache lineare Berstung
der Haut, bei welcher die Spaltbarkeit derselben eine Rolle zu spielen
scheint (Fig. 60).
Fig. 56.

Runde Eingangsöffnung eines aus

unmittelbarer Nähe gegen das Herz
abgefeuerten Pistolenschusses.
(Selbstmord.) Nat. Gr.
Fig. 57.

Pistolenschuss. (Selbstmord.) Grosse

sternförmig zerrissene Eingangsöffnung.
⅔ nat. Gr.
 Die Wirkung der Pulverflamme äussert sich durch Versengung der
Haare oder Härchen in der nächsten Umgebung der
Eingangsöffnung, eventuell auch durch Verbrennung der
Kleidungsstücke. Auch die an der Leiche gewöhnlich als lederartiger,
vertrockneter Saum sich präsentirende Zone der Einschussöffnung
bringt man mit einer Verbrennung der Haut durch die Pulverflamme
in ursächlichen Zusammenhang, sie als „Brandsaum“ bezeichnend.
Doch verdankt derselbe nicht nur einer Verbrennung, sondern auch
der Contusion und Aufschürfung der die Eingangsöffnung
begrenzenden Hautpartie seine Entstehung. Man sieht einen solchen
„Brandsaum“ besonders bei rundlichen und kleinen Schussöffnungen
und kann dann, wie Fig. 58 zeigt, in der Regel zwei, meist scharf von
einander getrennte Zonen unterscheiden, eine innere,
verhältnissmässig schmale und dunkler gefärbte und eine äussere,
viel breitere. Letztere entspricht offenbar der Basis des Luftdruck-,
respective Flammenkegels, der die betreffende Hautpartie getroffen
hatte, ersterer dagegen dem Umfange des Projectils, welches die
Haut kegelförmig nach einwärts stülpte und an der Spitze des Kegels
durchriss. Dieser Saum, dessen Bildung man sehr schön verfolgen
kann, wenn man gegen Kautschukplatten schiesst, entsteht somit
nur durch Quetschung und Aufschürfung der betreffenden
Hautpartie und kommt auch bei Fernschüssen zur Entwicklung.
 Fig. 58.

Schuss in der Herzgegend mit einem

Revolver mittlerer Gattung.
(Selbstmord.) Runde Eingangsöffnung.
Nat. Gr.
Fig. 59.

Sternförmige Eingangsöffnung von einem

gegen die Stirn abgefeuerten
Revolverschusse. (Selbstmord.) Nat. Gr.
Ein weiterer Effect der Pulverflamme ist Pulverschwärzung.
die Schwärzung der Umgebung des
Einschusses, die theils durch den Pulverschmauch, theils durch
eingesprengte, halbverbrannte Pulverkörner (Pulverkohle) bewirkt
wird. Ersterer lässt sich abwischen, letztere aber nicht. Die
eingesprengten Pulverpartikelchen sind meist schon mit freiem Auge,
noch deutlicher aber mit der Loupe oder unter dem Mikroskop zu
erkennen (Fig. 61). Die Schwärzung ist natürlich am deutlichsten,
wenn die Waffe an den nackten Körper angelegt worden war, kann
aber auch in diesem Falle mitunter sehr unscheinbar ausgebildet
sein, dann nämlich, wenn die Mündung des Laufes fest angedrückt
gewesen war und so der ganze Schuss sofort in das Innere
eindrang. Dafür ist dann die Schwärzung unter der Haut und in der
vorderen Partie des Schusscanals desto stärker. War die betreffende
Stelle von Kleidungsstücken bedeckt gewesen, so ist die Schwärzung
um den Einschuss desto weniger entwickelt, je dicker die ersteren
gewesen waren. Schwärzung und der sogenannte „Brandsaum“ sind
um die Einschussöffnung, wenn der Schuss senkrecht auf den
betreffenden Körpertheil abgefeuert wurde, concentrisch
angeordnet, excentrisch dagegen, wenn die Waffe schief aufgesetzt
war. In diesem Falle bildet Schwärzung und Brandsaum ein mehr
weniger lang-gezogenes Oval, dessen grösserer Antheil jenseits der
Schussöffnung liegt und die Pulvereinsprengungen erscheinen mehr
weniger beistrichförmig, mit dem dickeren Ende gegen die Mündung
der Schusswaffe gekehrt (P o i x , Étude médico-légale sur les plaies
d’entré par coups de revolver. Lyon 1885).
 Fig. 60.

Schlitzförmige Schusswunde bei einem Selbstmörder, der sich mit

einer kleinen Pistole in’s Herz geschossen hatte. Darunter eine
nachträglich mit einem conischen Stichel gemachte schlitzförmige
Oeffnung, deren paralleler Verlauf mit dem durch den Schuss
bewirkten Wundschlitz beweist, dass auch bei diesem die Sprengung
der Haut in der localen Spaltbarkeitsrichtung erfolgte. Nat. Gr.
Schliesslich kann, wie A. P a l t a u f [225] Spaltförmiger Einschuss.
berichtet, auch der Kohlenoxydgehalt der
Pulverflamme, der namentlich bei den feineren und kohlenreicheren
Pulverarten ein ansehnlicher ist, durch Röthung des extravasirten
Blutes und das für Kohlenoxydhämoglobin charakteristische spectrale
Verhalten sich bemerkbar machen.
Nach Schüssen aus einiger Entfernung
wird desto mehr nur das Projectil die Fernschüsse.
Beschaffenheit der Eingangsöffnung bedingen und es wird desto
mehr die Wirkung der anderen oben erwähnten Einflüsse entfallen,
je grösser die Entfernung war, aus welcher gefeuert wurde.
Zuerst entfällt die unmittelbare Wirkung der Explosionsgase,
deren Druck schon bei geringen Distanzen und desto früher sich
nicht mehr geltend macht, je geringer die Pulverladung gewesen,
 Fig. 61.

Eingangsöffnung einer mit

einem Taschenrevolver
erzeugten Schusswunde
unter der ersten Brustwarze
nach Wegwischung des
Pulverschmauches.
Eingesprengte Pulverkörner.
(Selbstmord.) Nat. Gr.
also bei Revolvern früher als bei Pistolen.
Dann verschwindet die wegwischbare Zündende Wirkung der
Pulverflamme.
Schwärzung durch Pulverschmauch, sowie
die sengende und zündende Wirkung der Pulverflamme, und zwar
auch diese bei Revolvern früher als bei Pistolen und bei diesen
früher als bei Gewehren. To u r d e s [226] konnte mit Pistolenschüssen
(Sattelpistole) noch auf eine Distanz von einem halben Meter ein
Papier entzünden, und wir haben nach Schüssen mit einem Revolver
von 9 Mm. Durchmesser noch auf eine Entfernung von 10–15 Cm.
ein Versengtwerden der Haare constatirt. Bei Pistolen und Gewehren
kann ein Brandeffect auch durch den mitgerissenen brennenden
Pfropf veranlasst werden, und zwar bei Gewehrschüssen noch auf
ziemlich weite Distanzen. Zuletzt schwindet die Schwärzung der Haut
durch eingebrannte Pulverkörner. Letztere stellen gewissermassen
winzige Projectile dar, die ziemlich weit getragen werden können und
einen Zerstreuungskegel bilden, wie wir dies im Grossen bei den
Schrotschüssen sehen. To u r d e s fand, wenn er mit einer
gewöhnlichen Sattelpistole schoss, noch bei einer Entfernung von 2
Metern Pulverkörner eingesprengt, bei einem grösseren
(amerikanischen) Revolver noch bei einer Entfernung von 1 Meter,
nicht mehr aber, wenn diese 1½ Meter betrug; bei einem
gewöhnlichen sechsläufigen Revolver Schwärzung blos bis zu 40 Cm.
Mit letzterer Angabe stimmen auch unsere Versuche überein.
Bezüglich der Schüsse aus Gewehren ist anzunehmen, dass die
Pulverkörner ungleich weiter getragen werden.
Bei grösseren Entfernungen wirkt blos
das Projectil, und es hängt, allerdings nicht Schüsse aus grösseren
Entfernungen. Form der
ausnahmslos, so doch in der Regel von Eingangsöffnung.
seiner Form ab, wie die Form der
Eingangsöffnung ausfällt. Die Kugelschüsse erzeugen meist
rundliche, mit Substanzverlust einhergehende Wunden, während
sich, wenn mit Spitzkugeln geschossen wurde, häufig schlitzförmige
Eingangsöffnungen finden. Letztere Form trifft man insbesondere bei
Revolverschüssen, und bei diesen kann, namentlich wenn das
Projectil klein war, mitunter eine ganz unbedeutende schlitzförmige
Trennung der Haut entstehen, welcher selbst eine Aehnlichkeit mit
einer Stichwunde zukommen kann. In der That ist die Verletzung des
V i c t o r N o i r , der, wie bekannt, durch P e t e r B o n a p a r t e mit einem
Revolver erschossen wurde, anfangs für eine Stichwunde gehalten
worden, und B r a u n [227] berichtet über eine Spitzkugelschusswunde,
deren Eingangsöffnung wie eine Kratzwunde aussah und per primam
heilte, wie er auch bei angestellten Versuchen fand, dass die mit
Spitzkugeln erzeugten Wunden mitunter so aussehen, als wären sie
mit der Lancette gemacht worden. Auch C a s p e r -L i m a n [228] betonen
die Verschiedenheit der Eingangsöffnung bei Schüssen mit
gewöhnlichen Kugeln und solchen mit Spitzkugeln und erwähnen
(pag. 289) eines Falles, wo die durch einen Spitzkugelschuss
veranlasste Eingangsöffnung wie ein Stich aussah. Uns sind derartige
Fälle wiederholt vorgekommen, sowie auch ein Fall, in dem die durch
einen Taschenrevolver erzeugte Wunde der behaarten Kopfhaut ihrer
Kleinheit wegen ganz übersehen und erst bei der Section entdeckt
wurde. Die Fig. 62 bis 67 zeigen die verschiedenen Formen der
Eingangsöffnungen bei Revolverschusswunden, insbesondere die
Fig. 65, 66 und 67 Beispiele von solchen, die für Stichwunden
gehalten werden könnten.
Fig. 62.

Revolverschuss.
Rosettenförmige
Eingangsöffnung.
Nat. Gr.
Fig. 63.

Revolverschuss.
Dreieckige, von einem
contundirten Hof
umgebene
Eingangsöffnung. Nat.
Gr.
Sowohl bei den Kugel- als bei den Spitzkugelschüssen kommt die
Dehn- und Spaltbarkeit der Haut in Betracht, welche der Grund ist,
warum die Oeffnung gewöhnlich kleiner ist als das Projectil. Es ist in
dieser Beziehung, wie auch die Versuche von B u s c h [229] mit
Schüssen gegen Kautschukplatten ergaben, anzunehmen, dass jedes
Projectil zunächst die Haut kegelförmig vor sich hertreibt und
dieselbe an der Spitze des Kegels durchbohrt, worauf sich die Haut
wieder retrahirt. B u s c h fand, wenn er mit einem Chassepotgewehr
gegen eine Kautschukplatte schoss, nur ein winziges Loch, welches
kaum ein Drittel des Durchmessers der Chassepotkugel hatte, aber
einen schwärzlichen, dem Caliber der Kugel entsprechenden Hof
besass. Letzterem Befund entspricht, wie bereits oben erwähnt, die
Hautaufschürfung und Contusion, die als innerste Zone die
Eingangsöffnungen von Kugel- sowohl als Spitzkugelschüssen
einzusäumen pflegt.
 Fig. 64.

Revolverschuss. Breite
schlitzförmige Eingangsöffnung.
Nat. Gr.
Fig. 65.

Revolverschuss. Feine
schlitzförmige, von einem
contundirten Hof umgebene
Eingangsöffnung. Nat. Gr.
 Fig. 66.

Stichwundenähnliche
Eingangsöffnung einer
Revolverschusswunde. Nat. Gr.
Fig. 67.

Revolverschuss. Schmale
schlitzförmige, einem
Messerstich ähnliche, von einem
„Brandsaum“ umgebene
Eingangsöffnung. Nat. Gr.

Auch die Beschaffenheit des Schusscanal.

S c h u s s c a n a l s gestaltet sich, wenn aus
unmittelbarer Nähe geschossen wurde, in der Regel anders, als
wenn der Schuss aus grösserer Entfernung kam. Im ersteren Falle
wirkt ausser dem Projectil auch die Pulverflamme, welche
Schwärzung des Schusscanals in centripetal abnehmendem Grade
bedingt, und die zertrümmernde Gewalt der Explosionsgase. Letztere
meist in noch intensiverer Weise als an der Haut, weil sich die
Explosionsgewalt kegelförmig verbreitert und weil nun auch die etwa
mitgerissenen Gegenstände, wie insbesondere häufig die von den
zunächst getroffenen Theilen herrührenden Knochensplitter,
ebenfalls sich geltend machen. Ueberhaupt ist die Unterlage der
zunächst getroffenen Stelle von wesentlichem Einfluss auf die
Beschaffenheit einer aus unmittelbarer Nähe beigebrachten
Schussverletzung. Wird diese Unterlage von Knochen gebildet, wie
z. B. am Kopfe, so werden entweder Stücke des Knochens lochförmig
herausgerissen und vorwärtsgetrieben oder die Knochen werden
durch den Explosionsdruck auseinandergesprengt, wozu, wenn der
Schuss gegen die Schädelhöhle abgefeuert wurde, auch der
hydraulische Seitendruck des plötzlich auseinander getriebenen
Inhaltes der Schädelhöhle hinzukommt, welche Momente in ihrem
Zusammenwirken desto grössere Verwüstungen anrichten, je grösser
die Pulvermenge gewesen ist, mit welcher geladen war, daher wir,
z. B. nach Pistolenschüssen, sehr gewöhnlich den ganzen Schädel
sammt den weichen Schädeldecken auseinandergesprengt und
selbst das ganze Schädeldach abgerissen finden. Unter solchen
Umständen ist ein eigentlicher Schusscanal gar nicht zu
unterscheiden, und man hat mitunter Mühe, die Stelle zu erkennen,
die vom Schuss zunächst getroffen wurde. Mit Revolvern werden so
hochgradige Verwüstungen seltener erzeugt und nur, wenn Revolver
grösseren Calibers benützt wurden. Die kleinen Taschenrevolver
bewirken, auch wenn sie gegen den Schädel abgefeuert wurden, in
der Regel nur einen Lochschuss, obgleich auch bei dieser häufig von
der lochförmigen Oeffnung im Knochen abgehende Risse beobachtet
werden.
Auch bei Nahschüssen gegen die Brust begegnen wir, wenn aus
Pistolen oder grossen Revolvern geschossen wurde, bedeutenden
Verwüstungen der inneren Organe, doch pflegt sich häufig die
Gewalt in den zunächst liegenden Organen zu erschöpfen, so dass
schliesslich doch nur das Projectil wirkt und, einen mehr weniger
langen Schusscanal bildend, entweder irgendwo stecken bleibt oder
penetrirt.
 Bei Schüssen aus einiger Ferne wird der Schusscanal nur durch
das Projectil veranlasst; allerdings ist aber auch in einem solchen
Falle der Effect keineswegs immer der gleiche.
Werden blos Weichtheile getroffen, so findet sich in der Regel ein
einfacher Schusscanal, der entweder blind endet oder zu einer
Ausgangsöffnung führt. Wurden Knochen getroffen, so kommt es
wohl mitunter zu einem einfachen Lochschuss, ungleich häufiger
aber finden sich entweder von einem Lochschuss ausgehende
Sprünge und Risse der Knochen, oder es werden letztere mehr
weniger gesplittert und die Splitter mitgerissen, wodurch die weitere
Beschaffenheit des Schusscanals wesentlich beeinflusst wird.
Bedeutende Splitterungen der Knochen werden
Splitterungen am Knochen.
vorzugsweise durch die modernen Hinterlader,
insbesondere durch die jetzigen Militärgewehre,
verursacht. Bekanntlich waren die Erfahrungen, die man in dem deutsch-
französischen Kriege gegenüber dem Chassepotgewehre machte, derart, dass
anfangs gegen die Franzosen die Beschuldigung erhoben wurde, dass sie mit
Explosionskugeln geschossen hätten. Versuche aber, die sowohl mit dem
Chassepotgewehre, als mit anderen Hinterladungsgewehren von B u s c h [230],
W a h l [231], K ü s t e r [232], R i c h t e r [233], H e p p n e r , G a r f i n k e l [234] und später von
K o c h e r (Virchow’s Jahrb. 1881, II, 319) angestellt wurden, haben ergeben, dass
durch jene von diesen Gewehren, denen eine besonders hohe Propulsionskraft
zukommt, wenn aus nicht sehr weiten Distanzen (20 Schritte, B u s c h ) geschossen
wird und die Kugel noch mit voller lebendiger Kraft aufschlägt, mitunter colossale
Verwüstungen, z. B. Auseinanderreissungen des Schädels, erfolgen können.
Bezüglich der Ursache solcher Zerstörungen sind Einzelne (B u s c h ) der
Meinung, dass das, meist aus weichem Blei bestehende Projectil vermöge seiner
Geschwindigkeit beim Durchtritt durch den festen Körper (Knochen) so erwärmt
werde, dass von ihm, das schon in Folge der Reibung im Laufe und in der Luft
erhitzt anlangt, Theilchen abschmelzen, die in einem Zerstreuungskegel
auseinanderfahren. Manche lassen solche Theilchen mechanisch absplittern,
während Andere, insbesondere K o c h e r , sich die Verwüstungen aus dem enorm
schnellen Rotiren der Kugel erklären, dessen centrifugale Wirkung sich
vorzugsweise im Gehirne, beziehungsweise im Knochenmark geltend macht und
Schädel- und Röhrenknochen durch plötzlichen hydraulischen Druck
auseinandersprengt. Höchst interessante und sinnreiche Versuche von R e g e r (Die
Gewehrschusswunden der Neuzeit. Strassburg 1884), worüber derselbe auch in
der Berliner Naturforscherversammlung berichtete, und von B e c k (Ueber die
Wirkung neuerer Gewehrprojectile etc. Leipzig 1885) bestätigen K o c h e r ’s
Anschauung, sowie die Thatsache, dass die Zerstörungen proportional sind mit der
Weichheit des Geschossmaterials. Diese Beobachtungen haben insbesondere
deshalb eine forensische Bedeutung, da man aus so bedeutenden Verwüstungen
leicht schliessen könnte, dass der Schuss aus unmittelbarer Nähe gekommen sei.
Es wäre jedoch anderseits irrig, zu meinen, dass Derartiges nur bei modernen
Gewehren vorkommen könne. Auch Gewehre alten Systems können mitunter auf
ziemlich weite Distanzen ungewöhnliche Zertrümmerungen, z. B.
Auseinandersprengungen des Schädels, bewirken. Beweis dessen der in Fig. 68
abgebildete Fall, wo die hochgradige Zertrümmerung des Schädels bei einem Duell
auf 30 Schritte durch den Schuss aus einer glatten Sattelpistole alten Systems mit
fast haselnussgrosser Rundkugel zu Stande kam.

Eine besonders hohe Durchschlagkraft besitzen

die neuen K l e i n k a l i b e r - G e w e h r e . So nach P. Militärgewehre.
B r u n s („Die Geschosswirkung der neuen Kleinkaliber-
Knochenzertrümmerung
Gewehre.“ Tübingen 1889) das Mauser-Gewehr der durch Fernschuss.
belgischen Armee. Das 8 Mm. breite, aus einem
Weichbleikern und einem Mantel aus Kupfernickelblech bestehende Geschoss
vermag auf 100 Meter Distanz durch 4–5, auf 800–1200 Meter durch 2–3 Glieder
einer Compagnie durchzudringen, selbst wenn hierbei die stärksten Knochen
getroffen wurden. Doch sind die Erscheinungen von Sprengwirkung entschieden
seltener und weniger ausgesprochen wie bisher und lassen die Schüsse auf den
Schädel die höchsten Grade der Höhlenpressung wahrnehmen. Der Einschuss ist
kreisrund und auch bei Nahschüssen (12–100 Meter) kleiner als der Durchmesser
des Projectils, der Ausschuss stellt meist einen Hautriss dar, der bei Nahschüssen
eine Länge von bis 15 Cm. erreichen kann. — Analoge Beobachtungen bezüglich
des österr. 8 Mm. Mannlicher-Stahlmantelgeschosses wurden von dem k. u. k.
Regimentsarzt Dr. H a b a r t (Wien 1892) veröffentlicht.[235]
 Fig. 68.

Hochgradige Zertrümmerung des Schädels durch einen aus der Entfernung

von 30 Schritt abgefeuerten Pistolenschuss.

Die Richtung des Schusscanals entspricht Richtung des

nicht immer der Schussrichtung, da das Schusscanals.
Projectil, wenn es auf Knochen aufschlägt,
entweder unter einem Winkel ricochetiren oder im Bogen abgelenkt
werden und selbst entlang dieser um ganze Körpertheile
herumgehen kann (Bogen-, Contour-, Ringelschuss). Eine solche
Ablenkung kann unmittelbar unter dem Einschuss, aber auch erst im
weiteren Verlaufe des Schusscanals stattfinden. Letzteres ist
innerhalb des Schädels an dessen Concavität nicht selten der Fall.
Ebenso ist die Möglichkeit nicht zu übersehen, dass ein Schuss gar
nicht gegen die betreffende Person abgefeuert, sondern die Kugel
irgendwo abgeprallt und gegen den Körper gelenkt worden sein
konnte. Auch kann das Projectil in Folge seiner eigenen Schwere sich
nachträglich senken.
 Nicht unwichtig ist es ferner, zu wissen,
dass am Schädel auch ausserhalb des Indirecte Schussfractur.
Bereiches des Schusscanals Läsionen sowohl der Weichtheile als der
Knochen durch sogenannten Contrecoup sich bilden können, und
zwar sowohl bei Schüssen aus unmittelbarer Nähe, als bei solchen
aus grösserer Entfernung. Von den Verletzungen der Weichtheile
erwähnen wir vorzugsweise die oberflächlichen Contusionen des
Gehirns, die z. B. bei einem Schusse quer durch die Schläfe an der
Spitze der Stirn- oder Hinterhauptlappen sitzen können, von den
indirecten Knochenverletzungen namentlich die indirecten und
isolirten Fracturen der Orbitaldächer. Solche entfernte Verletzungen
bilden sich durch den plötzlich erhöhten Seitendruck im Innern des
Schädels, der bei Schüssen aus der Ferne durch die centrifugale
Rotationswirkung des Projectils, bei Nahschüssen ausserdem durch
die seitliche Expansion der Pulvergase entsteht. Ueber solche
indirecte Schussfracturen des Schädels hat M e s s e r e r (Centralbl. f.
Chir. 1884, Nr. 19) geschrieben und zu den in der Literatur
bekannten 17 Fällen einen neuen hinzugefügt. Unseren
Beobachtungen zufolge sind dieselben, wenigstens bei Nahschüssen,
keine Seltenheit.
Am blinden Ende eines Schusscanals
findet sich das Projectil. Hatte der Formveränderung
Projectils.
des

Betreffende die Kugel längere Zeit im Leibe

getragen, so kann sich dieselbe senken und an einer ganz anderen
als der ursprünglichen Stelle gefunden werden. Aber auch in frischen
Fällen ist dieses möglich. So haben wir bereits in zwei Fällen von
Revolverschüssen quer durch das Gehirn das Projectil nicht im
Schusscanal, sondern im Hinterhorn des dem Ende des ersteren
näheren Ventrikels gefunden. Das aufgefundene Projectil zeigt sich
selten in seiner ursprünglichen Form erhalten, sondern in der Regel
mehr weniger verändert, und zwar immer dann, wenn es Knochen
durchbrochen hatte oder in Knochen stecken geblieben war.[236] Die
Kugel wird in dem Augenblicke, in dem sie den Knochen berührt,
plattgedrückt, woraus sich erklärt, dass die Schussöffnungen im
Schädelknochen fast immer grösser sind als das Projectil, wie wir
denn auch ein von einem Revolverschuss herrührendes Präparat
besitzen, wo die kuchenförmig plattgedrückte Kugel dem Stirnbeine
aufsitzt und letzteres darunter eine kreisförmige Fissur der äusseren
Tafel von gleichem Durchmesser zeigt, welcher eine kreisförmige,
jedoch noch einmal so grosse Absprengung der Glastafel entspricht.
In anderen Fällen wird das Projectil nicht blos plattgedrückt, sondern
halbirt oder gar in mehrere Stücke getheilt, wodurch, indem jedes
Fragment weiterdringt, zwei oder mehrere Schusscanäle durch
einen Schuss entstehen und dadurch, sowie durch die
abgesprengten Knochenfragmente grosse Verwüstungen angerichtet
werden können.
In einem 1877 obducirten Falle war eine Kellnerin von ihrem Liebhaber mittelst
einer durch’s Fenster abgeschossenen Pistole getödtet worden. Die Kugel war in
der linken seitlichen Stirngegend eingedrungen, hatte die betreffenden Knochen
zertrümmert, sich aber gleichzeitig halbirt und die eine Hälfte der Kugel war
zwischen den weichen Schädeldecken und dem Stirnbein bis zum rechten
Stirnhöcker vorgedrungen, woselbst sie unter der Haut stecken blieb, während die
andere in die Schädelhöhle eindrang und, beide Stirnlappen schief durchsetzend,
an der Innenfläche des rechten Stirnbeines gefunden wurde. Einen analogen Fall,
in welchem der Befund auf zwei Schüsse bezogen wurde, vide Annal. d’hygiène
publ. 1887, pag. 465. Mehrere Oeffnungen können auch durch ein einziges
Projectil dann entstehen, wenn dasselbe nach Penetration eines Körpertheiles in
einen anderen eindringt. Am häufigsten geschieht dies, wenn zuerst Extremitäten
getroffen wurden. Bei einer Frau, welche von ihrem Manne mit einem einzigen
Revolverschuss aus grösserer Distanz getödtet worden war, fanden wir in der
Herzgegend drei Oeffnungen. Das Projectil war nämlich durch die hängende
Mamma und dann in die Brust eingedrungen.

Uebergänge zur völligen Spaltung findet man nicht selten, indem

z. B. das zum Theile gespaltene Projectil auf irgend einer
Knochenkante „reitet“. Ausser in dieser Richtung ist die
Formveränderung des Projectils in gerichtsärztlicher Beziehung
deshalb von Bedeutung, weil dadurch die mitunter wichtige
Diagnose, ob mit einer Kugel, Spitzkugel oder mit gehacktem Blei
geschossen wurde, erschwert werden kann. Doch sind die
Spitzkugeln in der Regel trotz hochgradiger Formveränderung
dennoch leicht als solche zu erkennen, da sich meist die basale Delle
und der sie umgebende Ring erhält (Fig. 69). Ebenso ist auf die
 Fig. 69.

Deformirtes Spitzgeschoss eines

Militärgewehres, welches den
Oberschenkel zersplittert hatte.
(Nach J. B a a z , Wr. med. Presse,
1881, pag. 44.) a Delle, b
umgekrämpter Rand.
nachträgliche Formveränderung Rücksicht zu nehmen, wenn es sich
um die Entscheidung handeln sollte, ob das gefundene Projectil aus
einer bestimmten Schusswaffe abgeschossen worden sein konnte.
[237]

Von anderen Dingen, die im Schusscanal

gefunden werden können, sind ausser Pfropf.
mitgerissenen Stücken der Kleider etc. bei Nahschüssen
eingesprengte Pulverkörner und der Pfropf zu erwähnen. Letzterer
Befund ist von besonderer Wichtigkeit, da derselbe nicht blos
beweist, dass aus nächster Nähe geschossen wurde, sondern weil
das Material des Pfropfes und etwaige besondere Merkmale, die
derselbe an sich trägt, zur Entdeckung des Thäters beitragen
können. Es ist daher angezeigt, jedesmal den gefundenen Pfropf,
ebenso wie das Projectil, näher zu beschreiben und dann dem
Gerichte zu übergeben.
Hat ein Schuss einen Körpertheil
durchdrungen, so erwächst die Aufgabe, zu Ausgangsöffnung
Schusswunden.
von

bestimmen, welche von den zwei

Oeffnungen, die der Schusscanal verbindet, die Eingangs- und
welche die A u s g a n g s ö f f n u n g (der Ausschuss) sei. In dieser
Beziehung ist Folgendes zu beachten:
Bei Schüssen aus unmittelbarer Nähe ist der Einschuss in der
Regel durch die Versengung und Verbrennung der Nachbarschaft,
durch die Schwärzung der Umgebung, insbesondere durch die
eingesprengten Pulverkörner so gekennzeichnet, dass schon in
diesen Befunden der Beweis liegt, dass die entgegengesetzte
Oeffnung die Ausgangsöffnung sei. In diesem Falle ist auch der
Einschuss in der Regel ungleich grösser als der Ausschuss, da
ersterer nicht blos durch das Projectil, sondern auch durch die
unmittelbar wirkenden Explosionsgase erzeugt worden ist, während
beim Ausschuss entweder blos das Projectil oder ausser diesem nur
die mitgerissenen Knochensplitter sich geltend machen. Eine
Ausnahme von diesem Verhalten zeigen natürlich jene aus
unmittelbarer Nähe entstandenen Schussverletzungen, durch welche
ganze Körpertheile abgerissen oder unregelmässig zersprengt
worden sind, bei welchen es eben der ausgebreiteten Zerstörung
und des Mangels eines eigentlichen Schusscanals wegen, wenn nicht
die Pulverschwärzung Aufschluss gibt, mitunter nicht leicht ist, die
Stelle zu bestimmen, wo der Schuss eingedrungen ist.
Bei Schüssen aus der Ferne ist die
Ausgangsöffnung meistens grösser als der Ein- oder Ausschuss?
Einschuss. Dies ist fast immer der Fall, wenn Knochen getroffen
wurden, indem einestheils Knochensplitter mitgerissen werden,
anderseits das Projectil, indem es plattgedrückt oder anderweitig in
seiner Form verändert wird, an Breite gewinnt.
 Fig. 70.

Eingangsöffnung einer
Revolverschusswunde im Stirnbein. ⅓
Gr.
Fig. 71.

Hintere Seite der in Fig. 70 abgebildeten

Oeffnung. ⅓ Gr.
Sehr grosse Ausgangsöffnungen können insbesondere nach
Schüssen aus Gewehren vorkommen, denen, wie z. B. den
Militärhinterladern, eine grosse Propulsionskraft zukommt; der
Schusscanal kann dann von der Stelle, wo die Kugel auf Knochen
aufschlug, nach Art eines Kegels sich erweitern, dessen Basis eben
die Ausgangsöffnung darstellt. Aber auch bei blossen
Weichtheilwunden hat man bei den genannten Gewehren nach
Schüssen aus nahen Distanzen eine kegelförmige Erweiterung des
Schusscanals beobachtet. Bei Schüssen aus Vorderladern kann,
wenn keine Knochen getroffen wurden, die Ausgangsöffnung ebenso
weit und selbst kleiner ausfallen als der Einschuss, da die
Eingangsöffnung häufig mit Substanzverlust verbunden ist, während
die Ausgangsöffnung blos durch Berstung und nicht durch
Substanzverlust entsteht (P i r o g o f f , S c h m i d t ’s Jahrbuch. 1850, II,
116).
Die Angabe D e v e r g i e ’s, dass die Ränder der Eingangsöffnung eingestülpt,
jene der Ausgangsöffnung aber nach auswärts gekehrt sind, mag wohl für viele
Fälle zutreffen, doch gewiss nicht immer. So haben C a s p e r und L i m a n (l. c. II,
280) darauf hingewiesen, dass sowohl durch sich hervordrängendes Fett, als durch
den Fäulnissprocess die Ränder einer Eingangsöffnung nach auswärts gestülpt
werden können. Wir können Gleiches aus eigener Erfahrung bestätigen und
möchten noch hinzufügen, dass bei Schüssen aus unmittelbarer Nähe die Ränder
der Eingangsöffnung dann fast immer nach auswärts gestülpt sind, wenn unter
der getroffenen Stelle Knochen lagen, weil sich in diesem Falle, wie oben erwähnt
wurde, die Explosionsgase zwischen Haut und harter Unterlage ausbreiten,
dadurch erstere nach auswärts drängen und mitunter sogar auf diese Art zum
Platzen bringen.
 Verhältnissmässig leicht lässt sich an
Lochschusswunden der Knochen, Schussöffnungen
Knochen.
im

insbesondere am Schädel erkennen, wo das

Projectil ein- und wo es ausgedrungen ist, und diese Frage lässt sich
sogar beantworten, wenn nur eine der im Schädel entstandenen
Oeffnungen vorliegt. Jede dieser Oeffnungen ist nämlich auf der
Seite, wo die Kugel zuerst aufschlug, kleiner als auf der
entgegengesetzten und besitzt auf ersterer vollkommen scharfe, auf
letzterer stark abgeschrägte Ränder, weil durch das Projectil aus
begreiflichen Gründen ein flach kegelförmiges Knochenstück
herausgeschlagen wird (Fig. 70 bis 72).
Das Gesagte gilt vorzugsweise von
Kugelschüssen. Nächst diesen kommen am Schrot-, Prell- und
Streifschüsse.
häufigsten Schrotschüsse vor. Aus
unmittelbarer Nähe erzeugen dieselben noch grössere Zerstörungen
als gewöhnliche Schüsse. Kam der Schuss aus einiger Entfernung,
dann finden wir eine grössere oder geringere Zahl kleiner, mehr
weniger auseinanderstehender Schussöffnungen, welche sich in die
entsprechenden Schusscanäle fortsetzen. Da die Schrotladung in
dem Momente, in welchem sie die Mündung des Gewehrlaufes
verlässt, in einen langgestreckten Zerstreuungskegel
auseinanderfährt, so ist es begreiflich, dass unter sonst gleichen
Verhältnissen desto weniger Schrote den Körper treffen und die
Eingangsöffnungen desto weiter auseinanderstehen werden, je
grösser die Distanz gewesen war, aus welcher geschossen wurde.
Dieses Verhalten schliesst jedoch die Möglichkeit nicht aus, dass
auch auf grössere Distanzen mehrere Schrote beisammen bleiben
können, wie denn nicht zu übersehen ist, dass die Dispersion der
Projectile sich in den peripheren Partien des Zerstreuungskegels viel
stärker bemerkbar machen wird als in den centralen.
Von anderweitigem Schussmaterial und gewissen atypischen
Schussverletzungen werden wir bei Besprechung des Selbstmordes
durch Erschiessen reden.
 Fig. 72.

Ausgangsöffnung eines in den Mund

abgefeuerten Pistolenschusses am
Scheitel. ⅓ Gr.
Hier sei nur noch der Prell- und der Streifschüsse erwähnt.
Erstere entstehen durch das meist stumpfwinklige Anschlagen
matter Geschosse, wodurch Contusionen veranlasst werden können.
Gröbere äussere Verletzungen werden wohl, wenigstens bei
Kleingewehrprojectilen, zu den grössten Seltenheiten gehören; bei
groben Geschossen sind sie wiederholt beobachtet worden.[238]
Dagegen sind Prellungen innerer Organe in der Nachbarschaft des
Schusscanals nichts Seltenes. Hierher gehören ausser Contusionen
am Herzen und der Lunge insbesondere die von uns wiederholt
gesehenen Rupturen der Intima grösserer Arterien, namentlich der
Aorta an jener Stelle des Gefässrohres, an welcher das Projectil
knapp vorbeigefahren war. Es sind dies einfache oder mehrfache
Querrupturen von verschiedener Ausdehnung, die sich nicht
wesentlich von jenen unterscheiden, die nach Ligatur von Arterien
oder in den Carotiden durch Strangulation zu Stande kommen.
 Streifschüsse können entweder blosse Excoriationen oder
rinnenförmige Schusscanäle erzeugen, die sich bilden, indem das
Projectil blos tangential eine Körperstelle trifft. Ein solcher
rinnenartiger Schusscanal könnte möglicher Weise eine Riss- oder
selbst Schnittwunde vortäuschen. Bezüglich der sogenannten
Luftstreifschüsse haben G r o s s m a n n und P e l i k a n (Schmidt’s Jahrb.
1858, 97, pag. 265) Versuche mit schweren Geschossen angestellt,
jedoch keine oder eine mir ganz geringe Wirkung constatirt.
Umsoweniger hat demnach die Sache bei Kleingewehrkugeln eine
Bedeutung.
Zu den Schusswunden im weiteren Sinne gehören
Verletzungen durch
auch die durch Sprengstoffe, insbesondere
Sprengstoffe.
Nitroglycerin und seine Präparate (Dynamit, Dualin
etc.), verursachten Verletzungen. Dass mit diesen Mitteln nicht immer blos
zufällige Verletzungen, beziehungsweise Tödtungen veranlasst werden, beweisen
ausser dem bekannten Falle T h o m a s in Bremen und den Attentaten in Russland,
England etc. die von B l u m e n s t o k publicirten Fälle (Friedreich’s Blätter f. gerichtl.
Med. 1877, pag. 171), deren einer einen Mord durch eine auf die Brust gelegte
Dualinpatrone, der andere eine Tödtung durch eine vielleicht absichtlich in den
Ofen gesteckte Dynamitpatrone betrifft. Auch ein Selbstmord mittelst Dynamit
wird erwähnt und auch uns ist ein solcher Fall bekannt. — Vor Kurzem obducirten
wir eine Frau, welche in einer Kapselfabrik durch Explosion von Knallquecksilber
verunglückt war. Sie hatte letzteres auf einer Zinktasse getragen, als die Explosion
erfolgte. Stirnhaare und Wimpern waren versengt, das ganze Gesicht wie von
Rauch geschwärzt und nach dem Abwischen zahlreiche punktförmige schwärzliche
Einsprengungen zeigend. Die rechte Hand fast vollständig abgerissen, der Stumpf
geschwärzt. In der rechten Leistengegend eine handflächengrosse Wunde, aus
welcher ein Convolut mehrfach eingerissener Dünndarmschlingen und ein über
handflächengrosses, verbogenes, scharfrandiges Zinkblech hervorragte, welches
fest in der Wunde stak und die Art. iliaca ext. unmittelbar vor dem Schenkelring
quer durchtrennt hatte. An der Vorderfläche des rechten Oberschenkels ein
fingerweiter und eben so langer Canal mit einem Zinkblechstück im blinden Ende.
Die abgerissene Hand lag in etwa 30 geschwärzten Trümmern vor. Bei Behandlung
mit Wasser setzte sich ein Theil der schwärzenden Substanz als schwarzes Pulver
ab, welches mikroskopisch keine Quecksilberkügelchen zeigte, aber, chemisch
untersucht, Quecksilber ergab.

B. Qualification der Verletzung im Sinne des Strafgesetzes.

 N i c h t t ö d t l i c h e Ve r l e t z u n g e n .

Bei der forensischen Beurtheilung der nicht tödtlich gewordenen

Verletzungen wäre die Aufgabe des Gerichtsarztes eine
verhältnissmässig leichte, wenn es genügen würde, vom rein
ärztlichen Standpunkte aus die vorübergehenden oder bleibenden
Folgen auseinanderzusetzen, die eine Verletzung nach sich gezogen
hat. Leider ist dies nicht der Fall. Da nämlich das Strafgesetz je nach
der Art und den Folgen einer Verletzung bestimmte
Verletzungskategorien unterscheidet, eine Unterscheidung, die aus
allgemein strafrechtlichen sowohl als processualischen Gründen
nothwendig erscheint, aber ihrer Natur nach ärztliche Mitwirkung
fordert, so wird vom Gerichtsarzte verlangt, dass er eine concrete
Verletzung nicht blos vom rein medicinischen Standpunkte
begutachte, sondern auch im Sinne der strafgesetzlichen
Unterscheidung classificire, eine Forderung, welche der
gerichtsärztlichen Beurtheilung von Verletzungen einen ganz
specifischen Charakter verleiht und sie wesentlich von der rein
klinischen unterscheidet.
Das Princip, welches der strafrechtlichen Classification der
Verletzungen zu Grunde liegt, ist nicht überall das gleiche. Während
z. B. das französische Strafgesetzbuch (Code pénal) eine Verletzung
blos nach der Dauer der Gesundheitsstörung oder Berufsunfähigkeit
taxirt und das deutsche Strafgesetz vorzugsweise die Folgen einer
Verletzung zum Ausgangspunkte seiner Classification nimmt, sehen
wir im gegenwärtig in Oesterreich zu Recht bestehenden Strafgesetz
und im Strafgesetz-Entwurf beide Principien zur Anwendung
kommen, wobei wir überdies ausser der Wirkung, die eine
Verletzung thatsächlich hatte, auch jene, welche möglicherweise
hätte erfolgen können, in Betracht ziehen müssen, da auch dem
Instrumente, mit welchem eine Verletzung beigebracht wurde und
der mit dessen Gebrauche etwa verbundenen Lebensgefahr ein
Einfluss auf die strafrechtliche Qualification einer Verletzung vindicirt
worden ist.
 Eine Uebereinstimmung des österr. Strafgesetzes und des
Strafgesetz-Entwurfes mit dem deutschen Strafgesetz besteht auch
darin, dass in allen der Ausdruck „schwere Verletzung“ vorkommt,
gewissermassen die Grösseneinheit bildend, welche der gesammten
strafrechtlichen Eintheilung der Verletzungen in Kategorien zu
Grunde liegt.
Während jedoch im gegenwärtigen österr. Strafgesetz die
„schwere Verletzung“ nur einen Bestandtheil des strafrechtlichen
Begriffes der „schweren körperlichen Beschädigung“ bildet und nicht
näher definirt wird, so dass dieser Begriff eine verhältnissmässig
weite, jedenfalls nicht scharf begrenzte Anwendung zulässt,
begegnen wir im österr. Strafgesetz-Entwurfe und im deutschen
Strafgesetze der „schweren Körperverletzung“ in ungleich engerer
Fassung, da unter diesen Begriff blos solche Verletzungen subsumirt
werden, welche gewisse, vom Gesetze ausdrücklich angegebene
Folgen nach sich gezogen haben, so dass alle anderen fortan als im
strafrechtlichen Sinne „leichte Verletzungen“ bezeichnet werden
müssen, obgleich darunter eine grosse Reihe solcher sich findet, die
als „schwere Verletzungen“ im Sinne des gegenwärtigen österr.
Strafgesetzes zu erklären kein Gerichtsarzt Bedenken tragen würde.
Diesen Verhältnissen zufolge scheint es uns oportun, zunächst
die einschlägigen Bestimmungen des gegenwärtigen österr.
Strafgesetzes zu besprechen und diesen die Behandlung der
Bestimmungen des österr. Strafgesetz-Entwurfes und des deutschen
Strafgesetzes folgen zu lassen.

Gerichtsärztliche Beurtheilung der nicht

tödtlichen Verletzungen im Sinne des österr.
Strafgesetzes.
Von den hierher gehörigen gesetzlichen Bestimmungen sind jene
der §§. 152, 155 und 156 die wichtigsten. Der erstgenannte
Paragraph enthält gleichsam die Definition des strafrechtlichen
Begriffes der „schweren körperlichen Beschädigung“, die §§. 155
und 156 aber die Umstände, namentlich jene Folgen, bei deren
Vorhandensein das österr. Strafgesetz höhere Strafsätze bestimmt,
als bei einer nicht durch solche complicirten, also einfachen
„schweren körperlichen Beschädigung“. Wir wollen dieselben der
Kürze wegen als die erschwerenden Umstände bezeichnen.

Die schwere körperliche Beschädigung.

Nach §. 152 ist der Thatbestand einer „s c h w e r e n k ö r p e r l i c h e n

B e s c h ä d i g u n g “ vorhanden, wenn aus einer in feindseliger Absicht
gegen einen Menschen unternommenen Handlung entweder a) eine
Gesundheitsstörung oder Berufsunfähigkeit von mindestens
zwanzigtägiger Dauer oder b) eine Geisteszerrüttung oder c) eine
schwere Verletzung desselben erfolgte.
Ad a) Gesundheitsstörung oder
Gesundheitsstörung.
Berufsunfähigkeit von mindestens
Berufsunfähigkeit.
z w a n z i g t ä g i g e r D a u e r. Der strafrechtliche
Begriff der G e s u n d h e i t s s t ö r u n g ist keineswegs identisch
mit
Heilungsdauer. Da nämlich das Gesetz die Gesundheitsstörung von
der Berufsunfähigkeit trennt, letztere aber ohne Vorhandensein einer
organischen Störung nicht gedacht werden kann, so wäre, wenn der
Gesetzgeber unter Gesundheitsstörung die Heilungsdauer
verstanden hätte, die specielle Anführung der Berufsunfähigkeit
neben der Gesundheitsstörung überflüssig und ein reiner
Pleonasmus.[239] Es folgt daraus, dass Gesundheitsstörung
gleichbedeutend mit „Krankheit“, mit einer Störung des
Allgemeinbefindens, wie sie sich durch Fieber, Unwohlsein, Schmerz
u. dergl. kundgibt, genommen werden muss, da im gegentheiligen
Falle so manche unbedeutende Verletzung, z. B. eine einfache
Sugillation, die häufig mehr als zwanzig Tage zum völligen
Verschwinden braucht, schon als Gesundheitsstörung erachtet
werden müsste, was sowohl den Intentionen des Gesetzes, als der
vulgären Auffassung des Begriffes „Gesundheitsstörung“
widersprechen würde, während es wohl denkbar ist, dass eine
verhältnissmässig unbedeutende Verletzung, ohne eine Krankheit zu
bedingen, während ihres Bestandes mit Berufsunfähigkeit verbunden
sein kann, so z. B. gewisse Verletzungen der Finger bei Individuen,
welche derselben zu feiner Händearbeit (Nähen, Schreiben,
Telegraphiren, Violinspielen etc.) bedürfen.
Unter „B e r u f s u n f ä h i g k e i t “ ist die Unfähigkeit zur gewohnten
oder pflichtmässigen Arbeit zu verstehen, insbesondere zu
derjenigen, welche das betroffene Individuum bisher behufs
Erwerbes ausgeübt hatte. Berufsunfähigkeit ist daher nicht
Unfähigkeit zur Arbeitsleistung überhaupt, sondern zu einer
speciellen Art von Arbeit, die nach dem Stande und der bisherigen
Beschäftigung des Individuums eine verschiedene sein kann („Travail
personnel“ des Code Napoléon).
Es folgt daraus, dass, wenn die Berufsunfähigkeit eines
Individuums in Frage steht, einestheils die Art seiner Berufsarbeit
und die dazu nothwendigen Organe oder Glieder in Betracht
gezogen werden müssen, anderseits zu erwägen sein wird, ob die
betreffende Verletzung eine solche ist, dass sie den Gebrauch jener
Organe oder Glieder vollständig hindert, oder in der Art erschwert,
dass die betreffende Arbeitsleistung nicht mit der nöthigen
Kraftentwicklung oder Ausdauer erfolgen kann. Es gibt demnach
eine vollständige und eine blos theilweise Berufsunfähigkeit; aus der
Fassung des Gesetzes ist aber nicht zu entnehmen, ob dasselbe nur
erstere oder auch die zweite im Auge hat, ein Umstand, der
erfahrungsgemäss geeignet ist, die Begutachtung einschlägiger Fälle
zu erschweren. Trotzdem wird der Gerichtsarzt nicht anstehen, jede
wesentliche Erschwerung der betreffenden Arbeitsleistung als
Berufsunfähigkeit zu erklären, da es doch nicht darauf ankommen
kann, ob etwa das Individuum noch im Stande ist, mit Anstrengung
und grosser Ueberwindung seinem Berufe nachzugehen und da eine
absolute Berufsunfähigkeit verhältnissmässig selten vorhanden sein
dürfte. In minder schweren Fällen erübrigt nichts Anderes, als dem
Richter auseinanderzusetzen, in welchem Grade die Berufsfähigkeit