LIST OF FIGURES

FIG. NO. TITLE PAGE

NO.

1.1 Basic Model of Fiber 9

1.2 Loose Tube Cable 9

1.3 Fiber Optic System 11

1.4 Snell's Law 12

1.5 Step index multimode fiber 13

1.6 Step index single mode fiber 13

1.7 Graded index fiber 13

1.8 Simplex Fiber Cables 14

1.9 Duplex Fiber Cables 14

1.10 Outdoor Loose Tube Fiber Optic Cables 15

1.11 Submarine cables 15

2.1 Block Diagram of PCM 18

2.2 Line Coding 20

3.1 Time Division Multiplexing 21

3.2 TDM Framing & TDM Framing Showing Wasted Slots 22

4.1 Implementation of PDH system 24

5.1 Matrix Representation of SDH Frame 28

5.2 Truck Analogy 29

5.3 SDH Frame Structure 29

5.4 Multiplexing Structure 30

5.5 Container(C) 31

Page 1
5.6 Virtual Container(VC) 31

5.7 Tributary Unit (TU) 32

5.8 Tributary Unit Group-2 (TUG-2) 32

5.9 Tributary Unit Group-3 (TUG-3) 33

5.10 Virtual Container 4(VC-4) 33

5.11 Inside Virtual Container 4(VC-4) 33

5.12 Administrative Unit Group (AUG) 34

5.13 MUX PRINCIPLE: STM-1(C-12) 35

5.14 2 MBPS Mapping 35

5.15 34 MBPS Mapping 36

5.16 140 MBPS Mapping 36

5.17 Schematic diagram of hybrid communications networks 37

5.18 Regenerator 37

5.19 Terminal Multiplexers 38

5.20 Add/Drop Multiplexer 38

5.21 Digital Cross-Connect 39

5.22 Network Element Manager 39

5.23 A Typical applications of SDH 40

6.1 SDH Rack 42

6.2 NM2100 Software Information 42

6.3 Local NF 43

6.4 Configuration Bar 43

6.5 NE Identification 44

6.6 Local NE-NE Address 44

6.7 Local NE Equipment 45

Page 2
6.8 Local NE-Terminal Point 45

6.9 Local NE-Cross connections 46

6.10 Local NE-Current problem list 46

6.11 Local NE-Current problem list 47

6.12 Local NE-Performance monitoring 47

6.13 Remote NE-NE Address 48

6.14 Remote NE 48

6.15 Remote NE-NE Identification 49

6.16 Remote NE- Terminal point 49

6.17 Remote NE-Cross connections 50

6.18 Remote NE-Current problem List 50

7.1 Mobile Handset 51

7.2 Mobile Handset Soldering with Relay 52

7.3 Mobile Handset with soldered relay 52

7.4 Mobile Handset Circuit Connection 53

7.5 Soldered Mobile Handset and Receiver Mobile 53

7.6 Mobile Handset Connection with SDH System 54

Page 3
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE. TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.

1.1 Colour Coding Scheme 16

1.2 Fiber Colour Chart 17

5.1 SDH Bit Rates 28

5.2 SOH Byte Allocation 36

Page 4
Chapter-1: INTRODUCTION TO OPTIC CABLE

1.1 History Of Optical Fiber

 Data suggests that light has been used in telecommunications since early ages,
like candles between ships or huge torch towers to represent various meanings.
But it was not until the late XVIII century that French inventor Claude Chappe
demonstrated a practical and more complex light-based system which he called
the semaphore system (Figure 1) which spanned across France. The concept of
this semaphore system was to have special towers built with pivots on their top
that were used to encode messages according to the mechanical position of the
pivot and the lights that were emitted. The system was far more efficient than
postal riders, the mainstream usage failed against the electrical telegraph as
privacy and costs were a main disadvantage.

 By the year of 1880, Alexander Graham Bell had patented an optical telephone
device which he called the photo-phone, but his earlier invention, the electrical
telephone was also cheaper and easier to implement. Bell believed the photo-
phone to be his greatest invention, it allowed sound signals to be encoded and
transmitted into a beam of light which varied intensity to represent different tones
and finally the message was decoded back again as sound. Since this optical
devices required a visible line of sight between the emitter and receiver it failed
miserably between their electrical counterparts. During the following years
research on light subjects such as reflection and refraction phenomena,
specifically the total internal reflection solved this problem. Total internal
reflection allows to bouncein and confine light in a material surrounded with
lower refractive By the beginning of the XX century, inventors realized that bent
quartz rods could carry light and were used for microscope illumination. During
the first half of the XX century different kind of people were trying to exploit the
use of the total internal reflection phenomenon. Some examples of this are:

Page 5
 1920: John Logie Baird in England and Clarenee W. Hansell in U.S.A patented
the idea of using arrays of hollow pipes or transparent rods to transmit images for
television or facsimile systems.

 1930: Heinrich Lamm, a Jew medical student in Munich, reported transmitting the
image of a light bulb filament through a short bundle. He is the first person known
to have demonstrated image transmission through a bundle of optic fibers.

 1931: Owens-Illinois devises method to mass-produce glass fibers for Fiberglas.

 1939: Curvlite Sales offers illuminated tongue depressor and dental illuminators
made of Lucite, a transparent plastic invented by DuPont.

 1949: Holger Moller Hansen in Denmark and Abraham C. S. Van Heel at the
Technical University of Delft begin investigating image transmission through
bundles of parallel glass fibers.

 After the first half of the XX century, in 1954 - Neither van Heel nor Hopkins and
Kapany made fiber bundles that could carry light further. The innovation
consisted on including a cladding layer (Figure 3) surrounding the material with
lower than air refractive index which protected the light-beam from noise and
reduced crosstalk between fibers. By 1960, glass-clad fibers had a typical
attenuation of about 1dB/m, fine for medical imaging, but much too high for long
distance communications.

 Another breakthrough in optical communications came as the laser was invented

in 1960 which permitted to emit light in a narrow wavelength spectrum and thus
allowing to work at different frequencies by utilizing the wave properties of light.

 During 1964, a Shanghai engineer named Charles K. Kao had done research on
different materials and was convinced by his research that the attenuation was

Page 6
 caused by impurities and that it should be theoretically possible to reduce the
attenuation to at least 20dB/km, Kao and other members of his group presented a
paper at a London meeting of the IEEE in 1966 and the same year the British post
office funded a research to study fiber loss and attenuation. With Kao's papers
promoting the principle and the huge companies inverting on studies it took four
years to reach the goal of 20dB/km. In September 1970 laboratories announced
single-mode fibers with attenuation at the 633 nm (Helium Neon [HeNe] laser)
below 20dB/km, in the same year Bell labs and a team at the Ioffe Physical
institute built the first semiconductor laser diodes (Figure 4) which allowed
continuous-wave beams to be emitted at room temperature allowing lasers to be
used as light sources more easily.

 Those first generation systems could transmit light for several kilometers, but it
was inevitable for the technology to continue improving looking for higher
bandwidth and even less attenuation. It is important to mention that optical fiber
technology can be used at various wavelengths and some factors affecting the
performance of fiber include material composition, geometry, light-source
technology and physical environment

1.1.1 Overview Of Optical Fiber:-

The use of light for transmitting information from one place to another
place is a very old technique. In 800 BC., the Greeks used fire and smoke
signals for sending information like victory in a war, alerting against enemy,
call for help, etc. Mostly only one type of signal was conveyed. During the
second century B.C. optical signals were encoded using signalling lamps so
that any message could be sent. There was no development in optical
communication till the end of the 18th century. The speed of the optical
communication link w a s l i m i t e d due t o t h e requirement of line of
sight transmission paths, the human eye as the receiver and unreliable nature of
transmission paths affected by atmospheric effects such as fog and rain.

Alexander Graham Bell invented a 'Photo phone' to transmit voice signals

over an optical beam. By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was
identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao for long-range communication devices, the 10

Page 7
or 20 dB of light loss per kilometre standard. Dr. Kao also illustrated the need
for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss. By 1970 Corning Glass
invented fiber -optic wire or "optical waveguide fibers" which was capable of
carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire, through which
information carried by a pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination
even a thousand miles away.

In April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the
world's first live telephone traffic through a fiber-optic system running at 6 Mbps,
in Long Beach, California. They were soon followed by Bell in May 1977,
with an optical telephone communication system installed in the downtown
Chicago area, covering a distance of 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometres). Each optical-
fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice channels. Today more than 80
percent of the world's long-distance voice and data traffic is carried over optical-
fiber cables.

An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a

waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber.
Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits
transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than
other forms of communication. Fibbers are used instead of metal wires because
signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to
electromagnetic interference.

Client terminals are also converging having all capabilities of voice, video,
text, web and multimedia. The network is converging to one by using
architecture of IMS and Next Generation network. Applications which were
accesses network depended are also becoming universally accessible and a
accesses network agnostic. The human interface is also improve presentably
because of manufacturing line terminal incorporating signals of sensory organs
like touch, vision, mind etc.. Today client terminals have improve GUI based
web interface having faster processing multimedia capacity and capability to
communicate to multiple secessions over multiple windows having full mobility
y as well as portability.

Due to competitions and rapid growth of innovation, the world are become
faster and expectations of prominent service delivery are also been
increased .Delay in providing services has also been reduced and overall
connect in becoming P-P i.e. pair to pair [4].

Page 8
1.2 Basic Structure of Optical Fiber:-

The modular design of loose-tube cables typically holds 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 or
even more than 400 fibers per cable. Loose-tube cables can be all-dielectric or
optionally armoured. The loose-tube design also helps in the identification and
administration of fibers in the system.

Figure 1.1 Basic Model of Fiber Figure 1.2 : Loose Tube Cable

In a loose-tube cable design, color-coded plastic buffer tubes house and

protect optical fibers. A gel filling compound impedes water penetration. Excess
fiber length (relative to buffer tube length) insulates fibers from stresses of
installation and environmental loading. Buffer tubes are stranded around a
dielectric or steel central member, which serves as an anti-buckling element.

The cable core, typically uses aramid yarn, as the primary tensile
strength member. The outer polyethylene jacket is extruded over the core. If
armouring is required, a corrugated steel tape is formed around a single jacketed
cable with an additional jacket extruded over the armour. Loose-tube cables
typically are used for outside-plant installation in aerial, duct and direct-buried
applications.

Elements in a loose tube fiber optic cable:

1. Multiple 250um coated bare fibers (in loose tube)

2. One or more loose tubes holding 250um bare fibers. Loose tubes
strand around the central strength member.

Page 9
 3. Moisture blocking gel in each loose tube for water blocking and
protection of 250um fibers
4. Central strength member (in the centre of the cable and is stranded
around by loose tubes)
5. Aramid Yarn as strength member
6. Ripcord (for easy removal of outer jacket)
7. Outer jacket (Polyethylene is most common for outdoor cables
because of its moisture resistant, abrasion resistant and stable over
wide temperature range characteristics.)

1.3 Basic optical fiber communication system:-

Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is

transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the
transmission sequence give below:

(1) Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.

(2) Electrical Signals are converted into light Signal.

(3) Light Travels down the Fiber.

(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.

(5) Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.

- Inexpensive light sources available.

- Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because

low loss fibers are used at high data rates [4].

Page
10
 Figure 1.3: Fiber Optic System

1.4 Working Principle of OFC:-

Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy in vacuum such

as space. Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. Light
travelling from one material to another changes speed, which results in changing
its direction of travel. This deflection of light is called Refraction. The amount that
a ray of light passing from a lower refractive index to a higher one, is bent towards
the normal, but light going from a higher index to a lower one, refracting away
from the normal, as shown in the figures.

The basics of light propagation can be discussed with the use of geometric
optics. The basic law of light guidance is Snell’s law (Fig. 3a). Consider two
dielectric media with different refractive indices and with n1 >n2 and that are in
perfect contact, as shown in Figure 7. At the interface between the two dielectrics,
the incident and refracted rays satisfy Snell’s law of refraction—that is,

n1sinϴ1= n2sinϴ2

In addition to the refracted ray there is a small amount of reflected light in

the medium with refractive index n1. Because n1 > n2 then always Ǿ2 > Ǿ1. As the
angle of the incident ray increases there is an angle at which the refracted ray emerges
parallel to the interface between the two dielectrics (Figure 3(b)). This angle is
referred to as the critical angle, Script, and from Snell’s law is given by

Page
11
 Sinϴn=n2/n1

Figure 1.4 Snell's Law

If the angle of incidence increases amore than the critical angle, the light is
totally reflected back into the first material so that it does not enter the second
material. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal and it is called Total
Internal Reflection [4].

1.5 Different Types of Fiber:-

Three basic types of fiber optic cable are used in communication systems:
 Step-index multimode
 Step-index single mode
 Graded-index
We know that the light or the optical signals are guided through the silica glass
fibers by total internal reflection. A typical glass fiber consists of a central core glass

than the core’s refractive index. The overall diameter of the fiber is about 125 to 200
er light guidance i.e. to retain the light
energy within the core as well as to provide high mechanical strength and safety to the
core from scratches. Based on the refractive index profile we have two types of fibers
(a) Step index fiber (b) Graded index fiber.

 Step index fiber: In the step index fiber, the refractive index of the core is
uniform throughout and undergoes an abrupt or step change at the core
cladding boundary. The light rays propagating through the fiber are in the form

Page
12
 of meridional rays which will cross the fiber axis during every reflection at the
core cladding boundary and are propagating in a zig zag manner as shown in
fig.

Figure 1.5 Step index multimode fiber

Figure 1.6 Step index single mode fiber

 Graded index fiber: In the graded index fiber, the refractive index of the core
is made to vary in the parabolic manner such that the maximum value of
refractive index is at the centre of the core. The light rays propagating through
it are in the

Figure 1.7 Graded index fiber

Page
13
 Form of skew rays or helical rays which will not cross the fiber axis at any time and
are propagating around the fiber axis in a helical (or) spiral manner as shown in figure
6 [4].

1.6 Types of Fiber Optic Cable:-

1. Indoor Cables:-
(1) Simplex Fiber Cables , (2) Duplex Fiber Cables
2. Outdoor Cables:-

1.6.1.1 Simplex Fiber Cables:-

A single cable structure with a single fiber. Simplex cable varieties

include 1.6mm & 3mm jacket sizes.

Figure 1.8: Simplex Fiber Cables

1.6.1.2 Duplex Fiber Cable:-

This cable contains two optical fibers in a single cable structure. Light is not
coupled between the two fibers; typically one fiber is used to transmit signals in one
direction and the other receives.

Figure 1.9: Duplex Fiber Cables

Page
14
1.6.2 Outdoor Cables:-

Tube encloses multiple coated fibers that are surrounded by a gel compound
that protects the cable from moisture in outside environments. Cable is restricted
from indoor use, typically allowing entry not to exceed 50 feet [4].

Figure 1.10 Outdoor Loose Tube Fiber Optic Cables

1.7 Submarine Fiber Optic Cable (Undersea Fiber Optic Cable):-

Submarine cables are used in fresh or salt water. To protect them from
damage by fishing trawlers and boat anchors they have elaborately designed
structures and armors. Long distance submarine cables are especially complex
designed.

Figure 1.11 Submarine cables

Page
15
1.8 Color Coding:-

 Patch cords
 Single fiber cable

The buffer or jacket on patchcords is often color-coded to indicate the type of

fiber used. The strain relief "boot" that protects the fiber from bending at a connector is
color-coded to indicate the type of connection. Connectors with a plastic shell (such as
SC connectors) typically use a color-coded shell. Standard color codings for jackets and
boots (or connector shells) are shown below:

Buffer/jacket Meaning
colour

Yellow Single-mode optical fiber

Orange Multi-mode optical fiber

Aqua 10 gig laser-optimized 50/125 micrometer multi –mode optical fiber

Grey Outdated colour code for multi-mode optical fiber

Blue Sometimes used to designate polarization-maintaining optical fiber

Table 1.1 Colour Coding Scheme

Multi-fiber cables

Individual fibers in a multi-fiber cable are often distinguished from one

another by color-coded jackets or buffers on each fiber. The identification scheme used
by Corning Cable Systems is based on EIA/TIA-598, "Optical Fiber Cable Color
Coding." EIA/TIA-598 defines identification schemes for fibers, buffered fibers, fiber
units, and groups of fiber units within outside plant and premises optical fiber cables.
This standard allows for fiber units to be identified by means of a printed legend. This
method can be used foridentification of fiber ribbons and fiber subunits. The legend will
contain a corresponding printed numerical position no and/or colour for use in [4].

Page
16
EIA598-A Fiber colour chart

Position Jacket colour

1 Blue

2 Orange

3 Green

4 Brown

5 Slate

6 White

7 Red

8 Black

9 Yellow

10 Violet

11 Rose

12 Aqua

Table 1.2 Fiber Colour Chart

Page
17
Chapter-2: PULSE CODE MODULATION

2.1 Pulse Code Modulation:-

It was only in 1938, Mr. A.M. Reaves (USA) developed a Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) system to transmit the spoken word in digital form. Since then
digital speech transmission has become an alternative to the analogue systems. Pulse-
code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog
signals. It is the standard form of digital audio in computers, Compact Discs, digital
telephony and other digital audio applications. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the
analog signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, and each sample is quantized
to the nearest value within a range of digital steps

To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following

processing steps are required:-

1. Filtering
2. Sampling
3. Quantization
4. Encoding
5. Line Coding

Figure 2.1 Block Diagram of PCM

Page
18
1.Filtering:-

 filter the signal to limit the maximum frequency of the signal as it affects the
sampling rate.
 Filtering should ensure that we do not distort the signal, i.e. remove high
frequency components that affect the signal shape

2.Sampling:-

 Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant

 Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude
 Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude value
According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must greater than 2 times the
highest frequency contained in the signal.

3. Quantization:-

 Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying amplitude values ranging

between two limits: a min and a max

 We need to map the infinite amplitude values onto a finite set of known values.
 This is achieved by dividing the distance between min and max

4. Encoding:-

 It is the process of representing each quantized sample by an  bit code word.

 The mapping is one to one so there is no distortion introduced by encoding.

5. Line coding:-

 Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a sequence of signals that
denote the 1’s and 0’s.
 For example a high voltage level (+V) could represent a “1” and a low voltage
level (0 or -V) could represent a “0”.
 Properties: Error detection, Noise and interference, Complexity, Power
Efficiency, Transmission Bandwidth.
 Types of line encoding : Unipolar, Bipolar, Polar[6].

Page
19
Figure 2.2 Line Codin

Page
20
Chapter-3: TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

3.1 Time Division Multiplexing:-

Time division multiplexing (TDM) is a communications process that transmits

two or more streaming digital signals over a common channel. In TDM, incoming signals
are divided into equal fixed-length time slots. After multiplexing, these signals are
transmitted over a shared medium and reassembled into their original format after de-
multiplexing. Time slot selection is directly proportional to overall system efficiency.
Time division multiplexing (TDM) is also known as a digital circuit switched.

Consider an application requiring four terminals at an airport to reach a

central computer. Each terminal communicated at 2400 bit/s, so rather than acquire four
individual circuits to carry such a low-speed transmission, the airline has installed a pair
of multiplexers. A pair of 9600 bit/s modems and one dedicated analog communications
circuit from the airport ticket desk back to the airline data center are also installed.

Figure 3.1 Time Division Multiplexing

Examples of utilizing TDM include digitally transmitting several telephone

conversations over the same four-wire copper cable or fiber optical cable in a TDM
telephone network; these systems may be pulse code modulation (PCM) or
plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) systems. Another example involves sampling
left and right stereo signals using resource interchange file format (RIFF), also referred
to as waveform audio file format (WAV), audio standard interleaves. Also synchronous
Digital Hierarchy (SDH) and synchronous optical networking (SONET) network
transmission standards have incorporated TDM; and these have surpassed PDH.

Page
21
 Figure 3.2 TDM Framing & TDM Framing Showing Wasted Slots

TDM’s tend to waste time slots because a time slot is allocated for each device
regardless of whether that device has anything to send. For example, in a TDM system if
only two of four devices want to send and use frame space, the other two devices will not
have anything to send. They do not require frame space but their time slot is still
allocated and will be transmitted as empty frames. This is not an efficient use of
bandwidth.

Page
22
Chapter-4: PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIRARCHY

4.1 Introduction:-

The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) is a technology used in

telecommunications networks to transport large quantities of data over digital transport
equipment such as fiber optic and microwave radio systems. The term plesiochronous is
derived from Greek plēsios, meaning near, and chronos, time, and refers to the fact that
PDH networks run in a state where different parts of the network are nearly, but not quite
perfectly, synchronised.
PDH is typically being replaced by Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) or
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) equipment in most telecommunications
networks.
PDH allows transmission of data streams that are nominally running at the same
rate, but allowing some variation on the speed around a nominal rate. By analogy, any
two watches are nominally running at the same rate, clocking up 60 seconds every
minute. However, there is no link between watches to guarantee they run at exactly the
same rate, and it is highly likely that one is running slightly faster than the other.

4.2 Implementation:-

The data rate is controlled by a clock in the equipment generating the data. The
rate is allowed to vary by ±50 ppm of 2.048 Mbit/s. This means that different data
streams can be (probably are) running at slightly different rates to one another.

In order to move multiple data streams from one place to another, they are
multiplexed in groups of four. This is done by taking 1 bit from stream #1, followed by 1
bit from stream #2, then #3, then #4. The transmitting multiplexer also adds additional
bits in order to allow the far end receiving multiplexer to decode which bits belong to
which data stream, and so correctly reconstitute the original data streams. These
additional bits are called "justification" or stuffing bit. Because each of the four data
streams is not necessarily running at the same rate, some compensation has to be
introduced. The transmitting multiplexer combines the four data streams assuming that
they are running at their maximum allowed rate. This means that occasionally, (unless the
2 Mbit/s really is running at the maximum rate) the multiplexer will look for the next bit
but it will not have arrived. In this case, the multiplexer signals to the receiving
multiplexer that a bit is "missing". This allows the receiving multiplexer to correctly
reconstruct the original data for each of the four 2 Mbit/s data streams, and at the correct,
different, plesiochronous rates.

Page
23
 The resulting data stream from the above process runs at 8,448 kbit/s (about
8 Mbit/s). Similar techniques are used to combine four × 8 Mbit/s together, plus bit
stuffing, giving 34 Mbit/s. Four × 34 Mbit/s gives 140. Four × 140 gives 565.

Figure 4.1 Implementation of PDH

system

565 Mbit/s is the rate typically used to transmit data over a fiber optic system for
long distance transport. Recently, telecommunications companies have been replacing
their PDH equipment with SDH equipment capable of much higher transmission rates.
2.048 Mbit/s 8.448 Mbit/s 34.368 Mbit/s 139.264 Mbit/s Multiplex levels: Uses Positive
justification to adapt frequency differences Overheads: CRC Defects: LOS, LOF, AIS.

4.3 PDH Working:-

The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) is a technology used in

telecommunication to transport large quantities of data over digital transport equipment
such as fiber optics system .The data rate is controlled by a clock in the equipment
generating the data.PDH is typically being replaced by SDH & SONET equipment in
most telecommunications networks.

Page
24
  The rate is allowed by PDH is 2.048 MbPS.
 In order to move multiple data streams from one place to another, they are
multiplexed in groups of four.
 The resulting data stream from the above process runs at 8.448 kbps (about
8 Mbps). Similar techniques are used to combine 4×8 Mbps together giving
34 Mbps. 4×34 Mbit/s, gives 140.4×140 gives 565.
 DDF can be used by the testing.
 In DDF there is right side for user & left side for equipment.
 User signal comes from broad band or any system & its goes to DDF equipment.
 In DDF There are total 8 blocks.
 In one block there are 8 trans & 8 receive tributary.
 There are two types of DDF 75 & 120 use proper notations/symbols.
 64kbps to 2Mbps signal are terminated at 220 .
 Beyond 2Mbps all signal are terminated at 75 .
 In DDF the signal is in electric form.
 The electric signal is converted in to light by OLT.
 From OLT the light signal goes to FDF & through patch code & pigtail.
 Finally signal is goes to termination box.

4.4 Limitations of PDH:-

 Specialized equipment required for interwork two hierarchy.

 Inability to identify individual channels in a higher order bit stream.
 Insufficient capacity for network management.
 Higher bit rates are difficult to achieve.
 Supports only linear topology.
 No common standards among vendors [1].

Page
25
Chapter-5: SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIRARCHY

5.1 Introduction:-

SDH is an international standard networking principle and a multiplexing method.

The name of hierarchy has been taken from the multiplexing method which is
synchronous by nature. The evolution of this system will assist in improving the economy
of operability and reliability of a digital network.

5.2 Historical Overview:-

In February 1988, an agreement was reached at CCITT (now ITU-TS) study

group XVIII in Seoul, on set of recommendations, for a synchronous digital hierarchy
representing a single world wide standard for transporting the digital signal.

The first attempt to formulate standards for Optical Transmission started in

U.S.A. as SONET (Synchronous Optical Network). The aim of these standards was to
simplify interconnection between network operators by allowing inter-connection of
equipment from different vendors to the extent that compatibility could be achieved. It
was achieved by SDH in 1990, when the CCITT accepted the recommendations for
physical layer network interface. The SONET hierarchy from 52 Mbit per second rate
onwards was accepted for SDH hierarchy.

5.3 Merits of SDH:-

 Simplified multiplexing / demultiplexing techniques.

 Direct access to lower speed tributaries.
 Enhance Operation , Administration & Maintenance.
 Easy growth to higher bit rates in steps with evolution of transmission technology.
 Capable of transporting existing PDH.
 Capable of transporting future ATM.
 Capable of operating multi vendor and multi –operator environment [2] [3].

5.4 SDH Evolution:-

SDH evolution is possible because of the following factors:

 Fiber Optic Bandwidth: The bandwidth in Optical Fiber can be increased and
there is no limit for it. This gives a great advantage for using SDH.

Page
26
  Technical Sophistication: Although, SDH circuitry is highly complicated, it is
possible to have such circuitary because of VLSI technique which is also very cost
effective.

 Intelligence: The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities.

 Customer Service Needs: The requirement of the customer with respect to

different bandwidth requirements could be easily met without much additional
equipment. The different services it supports are :
 Low/High speed data.
 Voice.
 Interconnection of LAN.
 Computer links.
 Feature services like H.D.T.V.
 Broadband ISDN transport

5.5 SDH Standard:-

The S.D.H. standards exploit one common characteristic of all PDH networks
namely 125 micro seconds duration, i.e. sampling rate of audio signals (time for 1 byte in
64 k bit per second). This is the time for one frame of SDH.

The frame structure of the SDH is represented using matrix of rows in byte unit’s
.As the speed increases, the number of bits increases .The Frame structure contains 9
rows and number of columns depending upon synchronous transfer mode level (STM). In
STM-1, there are 9 rows and 270 columns. The reason for 9 rows arranged in every 125
micro seconds is as follows:

For 1.544 Mbit PDH signal (North America and Japan Standard), there are 25
bytes in 125 micro second and for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, there are 32 bytes in
125 micro second. Taking some additional bytes for supervisory purposes, 27 bytes
can be allotted for holding 1.544 Mbit per second signal, i.e. 9 rows x 3 columns.
Similarly, for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, 36 bytes are allotted in 125 micro seconds,
i.e. 9 rows x 4 columns. Therefore, it could be said 9 rows are matched to both
hierarchies.

5.6 SDH Rates:-

 SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s.

Page
27
  The basic unit of SDH is STM-1
 STM-Synchronous Transport Module
 Higher rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is
synchronous.
STM-N

Where N =1,4,16 ,64 n is a multiples of four

SDH Levels Bit rates in Mbps

STM-1 155.520

STM-4 622.080

STM-16 2488.320

STM-64 9953.28

Table 5.1 SDH Bit Rates

5.7 SDH Frame Representation:-

Figure 5.1 Matrix Representation of SDH Frame

Page
28
  As indicated in the figure, the STM – n signal is multiples of frames consisting of
9 rows with 270 bytes in each row.
 The order of transmission of information is first from left to right and then from
top to bottom.
 The first 9 bytes in each row are for information and used by the SDH system itself
.This area is divided into 3 parts:-

 Regenerator Section Overhead(RSOH)

 Multiplex Section Overhead(MSOH)
 Pointers

Figure 5.2 Truck Analogy

5.8 SDH Frame Structure:-

Figure 5.3 SDH Frame Structure

 RSOH: Regenerator section overhead
 MSOH: Multiplex section overhead
 Payload: Area for information transport
 Transport capacity of one Byte: 64 kbit/s

Page
29
  Frame capacity: 270 x 9 x 8 x 8000 = 155.520 Mbit/s
 Frame repetition time: 125 µs

 Number Of Rows = 9
 Number Of Columns = 9+261=270
 Number Of Bytes = 9x270
 Number Of Bits = 9x270x8
 Number Of Bits / Second = 9x270x8x8000
=155520000
=155.520 Mbps (Stm-1)
 Bit Rate Of STM-N = (Nx155.520) Mbps

5.9 SDH Multiplexing:-

The multiplexing principles of SDH follows these terms:

 Mapping - A process used when tributaries are adapted into Virtual Containers
(VCs) by adding justification bits and Path Overhead (POH) information.
 Aligning - This process takes place when a pointer is included in a Tributary Unit
(TU) or an Administrative Unit (AU), to allow the first byte of the Virtual
Container to be located.
 Multiplexing - This process is used when multiple lower-order path layer signals
are adapted into a higher-order path signal, or when the higher-order path signals
are adapted into a Multiplex Section [2] [3].

Figure 5.4 Multiplexing Structure

Page
30
5.9.1 Elements of SDH:-

1. Container (C)
2. Virtual Container (VC)
3. Tributary Unit (TU)
4. Tributary Unit Group (TUG)
5. Administrative Unit (AU)
6. Administrative Unit Group (AUG)
7. Synchronous Transport Module - N (STM – N)

5.9.1.1 Container(C):-

 Input is PDH
 Provides justification for PDH signals
 Output is synchronous

Figure 5.5 Container(C)

5.9.1.2 Virtual Container (VC):-

 35 Bytes – ONE 2 MB

Figure 5.6 Virtual Container (VC)

Page
31
5.9.1.3 Tributary Unit (TU):-

 When pointer is added to the virtual container ,it is called tributary unit ( ONE 2
MB)

Figure 5.7 Tributary Unit (TU)

5.9.1.4 Tributary Unit Group (TUG):-

Figure 5.8 Tributary Unit Group-2 (TUG-2)

TU12 CONTAINS -ONE 2 MB

TUG-2 CONTAINS -THREE 2MB

Page
32
 Figure 5.9 Tributary Unit Group-3 (TUG-3)

 Homogeneous assembly of identical tributary units.

5.9.1.5 Virtual Container 4(VC-4):-

 Virtual container formation

Figure 5.10 Virtual Container 4(VC-4)

 Virtual container 258C + 1C POH+ 2C fixed stuff byte

258+1+2=261Columns

Figure 5.11 Inside Virtual Container 4(VC-

4)

Page
33
5.9.1.6 Administrative Unit Group (AUG):-

 SOH BYTES ARE ADDED

 270C X 9R

Figure 5.12 Administrative Unit Group (AUG)

The following are the different steps in the mapping of 2Mbps stream:-

 Formation of container C12

 Formation of virtual container VC12
 Formation of tributary unit TU12
 Multiplexing of TU12 ‘s to form TUG3
 Multiplexing of TUG3‘s to form VC4
 Formation of administrative unit AU4
 Formation of administrative unit group AUG
 Adding SOH to form STM1

Page
34
Figure 5.13 MUX PRINCIPLE: STM-1(C-12)

Figure 5.14 2 MBPS Mapping

Page
35
 Figure 5.15 34 MBPS Mapping

Figure 5.16 140 MBPS Mapping

Section Overhead:-
 RSOH –Regenerator Section Overhead
 MSOH –Multiplex Section Overhead

Table 5.2 SOH Byte Allocation

Page
36
5.10 N/W Elements of SDH:-

 Below is a schematic diagram of a SDH ring structure with various tributaries. The
mixture of different applications is typical of the data transported by SDH.

Figure 5.17 Schematic diagram of hybrid communications

networks

 Synchronous networks must be able to transmit plesiochronous signals and at the

same time be capable of handling future services such as ATM.

5.10.1 Regenerators:-
 Regenerators, as the name implies, have the job of regenerating the clock and
amplitude relationships of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and
distorted by dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the incoming data
stream. Messages are received by extracting various 64 Kbit/s channels (e.g.
service channels E1, F1) in the RSOH (regenerator section overhead). Messages
can also be output using these channels.

Figure 5.18 Regenerator

Page
37
5.10.2 Terminal Multiplexers:-

 Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous input

signals into higher bit rate STM–N signals as shown in Figure below. On the
tributary side, all current plesiochronous bit rates can be accommodated. On the
aggregate, or line side we have higher bit rate STM–N signals. Terminal
multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous input signals
into higher bit rate STM-N signals.

Figure 5.19 Terminal Multiplexers

5.10.3 Add/Drop Multiplexers (ADM):-

 Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted from or
inserted into high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This feature makes
it possible to set up ring structures, which have the advantage that automatic back-
up path switching is possible using elements in the ring in the event of a fault.

Figure 5.20 Add/Drop Multiplexer

5.10.4 Digital Cross-Connect (DXC):-

 This network element has the widest range of functions. It allows mapping of PDH
tributary signals into virtual containers as well as switching of various

Page
38
 containers up to and including VC-4. It permits switching of Transmission lines
with different bit rates.

Figure 5.21 Digital Cross-Connect

5.10.5 Network Element Manager:-

 Telecommunications management network (TMN) is considered as a further

element in the synchronous network. All the SDH network elements mentioned so
far are software-controlled. This means that they can be monitored and remotely
controlled, one of the most important features of SDH.

Figure 5.22 Network Element Manager

5.11 SDH Application Areas:-

SDH systems are used in almost all areas of telecommunication network. Some of the
applications areas are given below.

 Access Network
 Aggregation Network
 Metro Network
 Long distance National as well as International
 Wireless Backhauling
 SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) [2] [3].

Page
39
Figure 5.23 A Typical applications of SDH

Page
40
Chapter-6: STM-1 NODE CREATION IN OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM

6.1 Introduction:-
 The STM-1 ADM equipment available at RTTC Ahmedabad, is in the rack sub
rack form.
 The sub rack is first fitted to the rack and the power supply is extended to the sub
rack connection field.
 The power supply is extended from the RTTC power plant and its standard value is
-48 ± 2V. Before connecting the power supply to the sub rack its value is verified
using multimeter.
 The metallic part of the sub rack is connected to the RTTC ring earth, which has an
earth resistance value of 0.5Ω .
 The ADM-1 sub rack has 3 identical mother boards and each mother board has 6
slots. Thus altogether 18 slots are available in a sub rack.
 The ADM-1 sub rack has 3 identical mother boards and each mother board has 6
slots. Thus altogether 18 slots are available in a sub rack. A single sub rack can be
configured in different ways. For this present link design the mother board is
equipped In the 1.5 mother board configuration i.e. one and half portion of the
mother board is equipped with cards/ modules. The ADM-1 equipment has three
types of cards they are
 OEO card
 TEX -1 card
 PS card
 The OEO card is also called as aggregate card its name stands for optical-
electrical- optical card. Its main function is optical to electrical and electrical to
optical conversion and mux/demux conversion. This card houses the optical source
and the optical detector. The ADM card has two ports labelled as S1 and S2 and
each port has separate TX. And Rx. Points. The second port also has separate Tx.
and RX. Points. The OEO card can also cater for 21 E1s.OEO card is installed in
15 no. Slot.
 TEX-1 card stands for tributary extension card it is a mux/De mux card. One TEX-
1 card can cater for 21 E1 s. For an ADM-1 system it has 2 such cards. The TEX
cards can be installed in any of the following slots 9,15,17.
 He PS module can be installed in any one of the following slots i.e. slots 1,7,13.
The PS module is a DC to DC converter which converts the -48 V DC into ±12V.
 We commonly used optical fiber PDH systems are 8 Mbps, 34Mbps, and
140Mbps. For the present optical link engineering the 140mbps HFCL (Himachal
Fueristic Corporation Ltd) [8].

Page
41
 Figure 6.1 SDH Rack

6.2 STM-1 Configuration:-

 SDH is a universal standard.

 STM-1 can support 63 PCM.
 STM is software operated system.
 It is configure by the software which is installed in a computer.
 Software use to configure SDH is MM2100 FIBCOM FOCUS AC/1/STM-1/STM-
4. [8].

6.3 NMS Software Information:-

Figure 6.2 NM2100 software Information

Page
42
 Figure 6.3 Local NE

Figure 6.4 Configuration Bar

Page
43
 FIGURE 6.5 NE Identification

FIGURE 6.6 Local NE-NE Address

Page
44
 FIGURE 6.7 Local NE-Equipment

FIGURE 6.8 Local NE-Terminal Point

Page
45
 FIGURE 6.9 Local NE- Cross Connections

FIGURE 6.10 Local NE-Current Problem list

Page
46
 FIGURE 6.11 Local NE Current Problem List

FIGURE 6.12 Local NE-Performance Monitoring

Page
47
FIGURE 6.13 Remote NE-NE Address

FIGURE 6.14 Remote NE

Page
48
FIGURE 6.15 Remote NE-NE Identification

FIGURE 6.16 Remote NE-Terminal Points

Page
49
 FIGURE 6.17 Remote NE-Cross Connection

FIGURE 6.18 Remote NE- Current problem list

Page
50
Chapter-7:Alarm extension over mobile with SDH

7.1:Procedure for alarm extension

As discussed, in legacy SDH there were no provision for alarm extension over mobile
and due to that when maintenance people notice any alarm on alarm panel in transmission
room physically then only they take any appropriate action for resolve the issue. So to
stop the round the clock duty in transmission room we have suggested below idea for
extension of that event on mobile.
Let’s see how it made possible

Step 1: Items needed

1 old phone with speed dial.

1 mobile phone car charger.
1 relays 12 volt
some wire
a small plug and socket. (a phone plugs is ideal)
Some electrical tools and a little electronics knowledge.

Step 2: Modifying the phone

Figure 7.1 : mobile Handset

Page
51
Figure 7.2 Mobile Handset Soldering with Relay

Figure 7.3 Mobile Handset with Soldered Relay

Page
52
Step 3: circuit
Figure 7.4 Mobile Handset Circuit Connection

Figure 7.5 Soldered Mobile Handset and Receiver Mobile

Page
53
We first start with an old nokia phone.
Then removed the case and carefully removed the front panel that sits underneath the
keypad. this was held in place by torx screws.

Then wired two very fine wires to the button contacts under the digit (3) it doesnt matter
to much which button you use but used this number because it’s not used for my phone
number and because it was close to the side of the phone so it was easier to bring the
wires out.

When attached the 2 wires then reassembled the phone and checked it worked ok. by
shorting together the connector with a piece of wire to make sure the phone will activate
the digit 3.

Next we will have to go in to the phone menus and set up a speed dial on button 3 for
your own mobile phone.

After that this shorted the connector again to check the alarm phone will call my mobile.

Step 4: Connecting it all up

Figure 7.6 Mobile Handset connection with SDH System

Page
54
 Then wired 2 wires from the relay contacts to a socket, and plugged the connector from
the phone in to the socket wired to the relay contacts and +12V, Ground wires of relay
has connected with the Physical alarm extension socket of SDH system wherein Pin no.8
is ground which remains open until unless there is no alarm in system but as and when
any alarm occur that pin will be Ground and hence relay will operate and trigger fast
dialing key of mobile and dialed number will get alarm generation information remotely.

After that we are able to check that the circuit will trigger the phone correctly as and
when alarm comes in SDH System.

Page
55
Chapter-8: OBSERVATION AND CONCLUSION

 We had done measurement of Tran’s power with the help of power meter.
 Tx power – (-2dbm to +3dbm)
 Rx power – (-15dbm to -27dbm)
 We had measured various OFC fiber by OTDR
 We found that in PDH indication of the alarm was visual ONLY. No NMS
provision is there.
 All maintenance and cross connections were carried out manually in PDH
 Then we come to know the various limitations of the PDH Technology
 To overcome various limitations of PDH, we learned new technology called
SONET/SDH wherein maintenance and cross connections were carried out with
help of NMS called Network Management System.
 We checked the various alarms by creating some manual faults like fiber break,
partial earthing of E1 link , by breaking the link physically etc in NMS.
 During these activities I have observed that the above fault condition is known by
the maintenance personnel via visual alarms only (i.e. through LEDs)
 Hence, for the operation and maintenance purpose round the clock duty of
maintenance is required in that technology system.
 Therefore we have decided to design such a system which provides us round the
clock alarm generation information on maintenance personal mobile so that round
the clock duty in transmission room can be avoid and we did it successfully
 Overall, it was a nice learning experience. At times, it was tough. The knowledge
and the information gained eventually surely made up for more than what we had
to miss. There is a vast ocean of knowledge out there and we have taken our
plunge. The learning curve was initially steep, but later it became less hazardous
as we progressed.

 To conclude, BSNL gave us a solid foundation on which we would be able to

build a successful career ahead. This project has been a wonderful working
experience and will become an everlasting memory.

Page
56
Chapter-9: REFERENCES

1. BSNL LAB Notes

2. MODULE-3: OPTICAL FIBER CABLES & INSTALLATION
3. MODULE-4:OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM:PDH
4. MODULE-5: OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM :SDH
5. SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL NETWORK BY SOUTHEN TELECOM REGION
CHENNAI
6. TRNSMISSION LINE THEORY BY BSNL-RTTC

Page
57