Full download ebook at ebookname.

com

Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB

3ed. Edition Bassem R. Mahafza

https://ebookname.com/product/radar-systems-analysis-and-
design-using-matlab-3ed-edition-bassem-r-mahafza/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWLOAD NOW

Download more ebook from https://ebookname.com

More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB Second

Edition Bassem R. Mahafza

https://ebookname.com/product/radar-systems-analysis-and-design-
using-matlab-second-edition-bassem-r-mahafza/

Radar Signal Analysis and Processing Using MATLAB 1st

Edition Bassem R. Mahafza

https://ebookname.com/product/radar-signal-analysis-and-
processing-using-matlab-1st-edition-bassem-r-mahafza/

MATLAB simulations for radar systems design 1st Edition

Elsherbeni

https://ebookname.com/product/matlab-simulations-for-radar-
systems-design-1st-edition-elsherbeni/

Object Oriented Systems Analysis and Design Using UML

4th Edition Simon Bennett

https://ebookname.com/product/object-oriented-systems-analysis-
and-design-using-uml-4th-edition-simon-bennett/
Numerical Analysis Using MATLAB and Spreadsheets 2nd
Edition Steven T. Karris

https://ebookname.com/product/numerical-analysis-using-matlab-
and-spreadsheets-2nd-edition-steven-t-karris/

Vibration Simulation Using MATLAB and ANSYS 1st Edition

Michael R. Hatch

https://ebookname.com/product/vibration-simulation-using-matlab-
and-ansys-1st-edition-michael-r-hatch/

Numerical analysis using MATLAB and spreadsheets 2nd ed

Edition Steven T. Karris

https://ebookname.com/product/numerical-analysis-using-matlab-
and-spreadsheets-2nd-ed-edition-steven-t-karris/

Micromechatronics Modeling Analysis and Design with

MATLAB 2nd ed Edition Giurgiutiu

https://ebookname.com/product/micromechatronics-modeling-
analysis-and-design-with-matlab-2nd-ed-edition-giurgiutiu/

Linear Feedback Control Analysis and Design with MATLAB

Advances in Design and Control 1st Edition Dingyu Xue

https://ebookname.com/product/linear-feedback-control-analysis-
and-design-with-matlab-advances-in-design-and-control-1st-
edition-dingyu-xue/
RADAR SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN USING
®
MATLAB
THIRD EDITION

BASSEM R. MAHAFZA
deciBel Research Inc.
Huntsville, Alabama, USA
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB® software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20130417

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-8496-6 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti-
lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy-
ing, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://
www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For
organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
 Table of Contents

Preface
PART I: Radar Principles
Chapter 1: Definitions and Nomenclature, 3
1.1. Radar Systems Classifications and Bands, 3
1.2. Pulsed and Continuous Wave (CW) Radars, 8
1.3. Range, 9
1.4. Range Resolution, 12
1.5. Doppler Frequency, 14
1.6. Coherence, 20
1.7. Decibel Arithmetic, 21
Problems, 23
Appendix 1-A: Chapter 1 MATLAB® Code Listings, 25
Function “pulse_train.m” Listing, 25
Function “range_resolution.m” Listing, 25
Function “doppler_freq.m” Listing, 26

Chapter 2: Basic Pulsed and Continuous Wave (CW) Radar Operations, 27

2.1. The Radar Range Equation, 27
2.2. Low PRF Radar Equation, 31
2.3. High PRF Radar Equation, 35
2.4. Surveillance Radar Equation, 37
2.5. Radar Equation with Jamming, 42
2.5.1. Self-Screening Jammers (SSJ), 42
2.5.2. Burn-Through Range, 44
2.5.3. Stand-Off Jammers (SOJ), 49
2.6. Range Reduction Factor, 50
2.7. Bistatic Radar Equation, 51
2.8. Radar Losses, 52
2.8.1. Transmit and Receive Losses, 53
2.8.2. Antenna Pattern Loss and Scan Loss, 53
2.8.3. Atmospheric Loss, 53

vii
viii Table of Contents

2.8.4. Collapsing Loss, 53

2.8.5. Processing Loss, 55
2.9. Noise Figure, 57
2.10. Continuous Wave (CW) Radars, 63
2.10.1. CW Radar Equation, 62
2.10.2. Frequency Modulation, 64
2.10.3. Linear Frequency Modulated CW Radar, 68
2.10.4. Multiple Frequency CW Radar, 71
2.11. MATLAB Program “range_calc.m”, 72
Problems, 73
Appendix 2-A: Chapter 2 MATALB Code Listings, 78
Function “radar_eq.m” Listing, 78
Program “Fig2_1.m” Listing, 78
Function “lprf_req.m” Listing, 79
Program “Fig2_2.m” Listing, 80
Function “hprf_req.m” Listing, 80
Program “Fig2_3.m” Listing, 81
Function “power_aperture.m” Listing, 81
Program “Fig2_6.m” Listing, 82
Function “ssj_req.m” Listing, 83
Program “Fig2_7b.m” Listing, 84
Function “sir_req.m” Listing, 84
Program “Fig2_8.m” Listing, 85
Function “burn_thru.m” Listing, 85
Program “Fig2_9.m” Listing, 86
Function “soj_req.m” Listing, 86
Program “Fig2_10.m” Listing, 87
Function “range_clac.m” Listing, 88

PART II: Radar Signals and Signal Processing

Chapter 3: Linear Systems and Complex Signal Representation, 93
3.1. Signal Classifications, 93
3.2. The Fourier Transform, 94
3.3. Systems Classification, 95
3.3.1. Linear and Nonlinear Systems, 95
3.3.2. Time Invariant and Time Varying Systems, 95
3.3.3. Stable and Nonstable Systems, 96
3.3.4. Causal and Noncausal Systems, 96
3.4. Signal Representation Using the Fourier Series, 96
3.5. Convolution and Correlation Integrals, 98
3.5.1. Energy and Power Spectrum Densities, 99
3.6. Bandpass Signals, 102
3.6.1. The Analytic Signal (Pre-Envelop), 103
3.6.2. Pre-Envelop and Complex Envelop of Bandpass Signals, 104
3.7. Spectra of a Few Common Radar Signals, 106
3.7.1. Continuous Wave Signal, 106
3.7.2. Finite Duration Pulse Signal, 107
3.7.3. Periodic Pulse Signal, 108
Table of Contents ix

3.7.4. Finite Duration Pulse Train Signal, 109

3.7.5. Linear Frequency Modulation (LFM) Signal, 111
3.8. Signal Bandwidth and Duration, 116
3.8.1. Effective Bandwidth and Duration Calculation, 117
Single Pulse, 117
Finite Duration Pulse Train Signal, 118
LFM Signal, 119
3.9. Discrete Time Systems and Signals, 120
3.9.1. Sampling Theorem, 121
Lowpass Sampling Theorem, 121
Bandpass Sampling Theorem, 123
3.9.2. The Z-Transform, 124
3.9.3. The Discrete Fourier Transform, 125
3.9.4. Discrete Power Spectrum, 126
3.9.5. Windowing Techniques, 127
3.9.6. Decimation and Interpolation, 129
Decimation, 129
Interpolation, 132
Problems, 133
Appendix 3-A: Chapter 3 MATLAB Code Listings, 137
Program “Fig3_6.m” Listing, 137
Program “Fig3_8.m” Listing, 137
Program “Fig3_10.m” Listing, 139
Appendix 3-B: Fourier Transform Pairs, 140
Appendix 3-C: Z-Transform Pairs, 141

Chapter 4: The Matched Filter Radar Receiver, 143

4.1. The Matched Filter SNR, 143
4.1.1. White Noise Case, 145
4.2.2. The Replica, 147
4.2. General Formula for the Output of the Matched Filter, 147
4.2.1. Stationary Target Case, 148
4.2.2. Moving Target Case, 149
4.3. Waveform Resolution and Ambiguity, 151
4.3.1. Range Resolution, 151
4.3.2. Doppler Resolution, 153
4.4. Range and Doppler Uncertainty, 155
4.4.1. Range Uncertainty, 155
4.4.2. Doppler Uncertainty, 158
4.4.3. Range-Doppler Coupling, 159
Range Error Estimate, 159
Doppler Error Estimate, 161
4.4.4. Range-Doppler Coupling in LFM Signals, 162
4.5. Target Parameter Estimation, 163
4.5.1. What Is an Estimator?, 163
4.5.2. Amplitude Estimation, 164
4.5.3. Phase Estimation, 165
Problems, 165
x Table of Contents

Chapter 5: Ambiguity Function - Analog Waveforms, 169

5.1. Introduction, 169
5.2. Examples of the Ambiguity Function, 170
5.2.1. Single Pulse Ambiguity Function, 170
5.2.2. LFM Ambiguity Function, 173
5.2.3. Coherent Pulse Train Ambiguity Function, 177
5.2.4. Pulse Train Ambiguity Function with LFM, 181
5.3. Stepped Frequency Waveforms, 184
5.4. Nonlinear FM, 186
5.4.1. The Concept of Stationary Phase, 187
5.4.2. Frequency Modulated Waveform Spectrum Shaping, 191
5.5. Ambiguity Diagram Contours, 193
5.6. Interpretation of Range-Doppler Coupling in LFM Signals, 194
Problems, 195
Appendix 5-A: Chapter 5 MATLAB Code Listings, 197
Function “single_pulse_ambg.m” Listing, 197
Program “Fig5_2.m” Listing, 197
Program “Fig5_4.m” Listing, 197
Function “lfm_ambg.m” Listing, 198
Program “Fig5_5.m” Listing, 198
Program “Fig5_6.m” Listing, 199
Function “train_ambg.m” Listing, 199
Program “Fig5_8.m” Listing, 200
Program “Fig5_9.m” Listing, 200
Function “lfm_ambg_lfm.m” Listing, 201
Program “Fig5_10.m” Listing, 202
Program “Fig5_15.m” Listing, 202

Chapter 6: Ambiguity Function - Discrete Coded Waveforms, 203

6.1. Discrete Code Signal Representation, 203
6.2. Pulse Train Codes, 204
6.3. Phase Coding, 209
6.3.1. Binary Phase Codes, 209
Barker Code, 210
Pseudo-Random Number (PRN) Codes, 218
Linear Shift Register Generators, 219
Maximal Length Sequence Characteristic Polynomial, 221
6.3.2. Polyphase Codes, 225
Frank Codes, 225
6.4. Frequency Codes, 228
6.4.1. Costas Codes, 228
6.5. Ambiguity Plots for Discrete Coded Waveforms, 230
Problems, 231
Appendix 6-A: Chapter 6 MATLAB Code Listings, 232
Program “Fig6_2.m” Listing, 232
Function “plot_figures_chapter6.m” Listing, 232
Program “Fig6_3.m” Listing, 233
Program “Fig6_8_10.m” Listing, 233
Table of Contents xi

Program “Fig6_15_16.m” Listing, 234

Program “Fig6_17.m” Listing, 235
Function “ambiguity_code.m” Listing, 235

Chapter 7: Pulse Compression, 237

7.1. Time-Bandwidth Product, 237
7.2. Radar Equation with Pulse Compression, 238
7.3. Basic Principle of Pulse Compression, 239
7.4. Correlation Processor, 241
7.5. Stretch Processor, 247
7.5.1. Single LFM Pulse, 247
7.5.2. Stepped Frequency Waveforms, 254
Range Resolution and Range Ambiguity in SFW, 256
7.5.3. Effect of Target Velocity, 261
Problems, 263
Appendix 7-A: Chapter 7 MATLAB Code Listings, 265
Program “Fig7_3.m” Listing, 265
Function “matched_filter.m” Listing, 265
Function “power_integer_2.m” Listing, 267
Function “stretch.m” Listing, 267
Function “SWF.m” Listing, 269
Program “Fig7_20.m” Listing, 270

PART III: Special Radar Considerations

Chapter 8: Radar Wave Propagation, 275
8.1. The Earth Impact on the Radar Equation, 275
8.2. Earth’s Atmosphere, 275
8.3. Atmospheric Models, 277
8.3.1. Index of Refraction in the Troposphere, 279
8.3.2. Index of refraction in the Ionosphere, 280
8.3.3. Mathematical Model for Computing Refraction, 281
8.3.4. Stratified Atmospheric Refraction Model, 283
8.4. Four-Third Earth Model, 287
8.4.1. Target Height Equation, 287
8.5. Ground Reflection, 289
8.5.1. Smooth Surface Reflection Coefficient, 289
8.5.2. Divergence, 293
8.5.3. Rough Surface Reflection, 295
8.5.4. Total Reflection Coefficient, 296
8.6 The Pattern Propagation Factor, 296
8.6.1. Flat Earth, 299
8.6.2. Spherical Earth, 301
8.6.3. MATLAB Program “multipath.m,” 303
8.7. Diffraction, 303
8.8. Atmospheric Attenuation, 310
8.8.1. Atmospheric Absorption, 310
xii Table of Contents

8.8.2. Atmospheric Attenuation Plots, 312

8.9. Attenuation Due to Precipitation, 317
Problems, 318
Appendix 8-A: Chapter 8 MATALB Code Listings, 320
Function “refraction.m” Listing, 320
Program “Fig8_7.m” Listing, 321
Function “ref_coef.m” Listing, 321
Program “Fig8_11_12.m” Listing, 322
Program “Fig8_13_14.m” Listing, 322
Function “divergence.m” Listing, 323
Function “surf_rough.m” Listing, 323
Program “Fig8_17.m” Listing, 324
Function “multipath.m” Listing, 324
Function “airyz01.m” Listing, 326
Program “Fig8_29.m” Listing, 327
Program “Fig8_30.m” Listing, 327
Function “atmo_absorp.m” Listing, 329
Program “Fig8_31.m” Listing, 330
Function “absorption_range.m” Listing, 330
Program “Fig8_33.m” Listing, 331
Function “atmospheric_attn.m” Listing, 332
Program “Fig8_34_35.m” Listing, 332
Program “Fig8_36.m” Listing, 333
Program “Fig8_37.m” Listing, 334

Chapter 9: Radar Clutter, 335

9.1. Clutter Definition, 335
9.2. Surface Clutter, 335
9.2.1. Radar Equation for Area Clutter - Airborne Radar, 337
9.3. Volume Clutter, 339
9.3.1. Radar Equation for Volume Clutter, 341
9.4. Surface Clutter RCS, 342
9.4.1. Single Pulse Low PRF Case, 342
9.4.2. High PRF Case, 348
9.5. Clutter Components, 349
9.6. Clutter Backscatter Coefficient Statistical Models, 351
9.6.1. Surface Clutter Case, 352
9.6.2. Volume Clutter Case, 353
Problems, 355
Appendix 9-A: Chapter 9 MATLAB Code Listings, 356
Function “clutter_rcs.m” Listing, 356
Program “Fig9_9_10.m” Listing, 357
Program “Fig9_12_13.m” Listing, 358
Program “Fig9_14.m” Listing, 359

Chapter 10: Moving Target Indicator (MTI) and Pulse Doppler Radars, 361
10.1. Clutter Power Spectrum Density, 361
Table of Contents xiii

10.2. Concept of a Moving Target Indicator (MTI), 362

10.2.1. Single Delay Line Canceler, 363
10.2.2. Double Delay Line Canceler, 364
10.2.3. Delay Lines with Feedback (Recursive Filters), 367
10.3. PRF Staggering, 368
10.4. MTI Improvement Factor, 371
10.4.1. Two-Pulse MTI Case, 372
10.4.2. The General Case, 374
10.5. Subclutter Visibility (SCV), 375
10.6. Delay Line Cancelers with Optimal Weights, 375
10.7. Pulse Doppler Radars, 377
10.7.1. Pulse Doppler Radar Signal Processing, 381
10.7.2. Resolving Range Ambiguities, 381
10.7.3. Resolving Doppler Ambiguities, 383
10.8. Phase Noise, 387
Problems, 393
Appendix 10-A: Chapter 10 MATLAB Code Listings, 395
Function “single_canceler.m” Listing, 395
Function “double_canceler.m” Listing, 395
Program “Fig10_8.m” Listing, 396
Program “Fig10_9.m” Listing, 396
Program “Fig10_10.m” Listing, 397
Program “Fig10_24.m” Listing, 398
Program “Fig10_25.m” Listing, 398
Program “Fig10_26.m” Listing, 398

PART IV: Radar Detection

Chapter 11: Random Variables and Random Processes, 403
11.1. Random Variables, 403
11.2. Multivariate Gaussian Random Vector, 406
11.2.1. Complex Multivariate Gaussian Random Vector, 408
11.3. Rayleigh Random Variables, 409
11.4. The Chi-Square Random Variables, 410
11.4.1. Central Chi-Square Random Variable with N Degrees of Freedom, 410
11.4.2. Non-central Chi-Square Random Variable with N Degrees of Freedom,
411
11.5. Random Processes, 411
11.6. The Gaussian Random Process, 413
11.6.1. Lowpass Gaussian Random Processes, 413
11.6.2. Bandpass Gaussian Random Processes, 414
11.6.3. The Envelope of a Bandpass Gaussian Process, 415
Problems, 416

Chapter 12: Single Pulse Detection, 419

12.1. Single Pulse with Known Parameters, 419
12.2. Single Pulse with Known Amplitude and Unknown Phase, 422
xiv Table of Contents

12.2.1. Probability of False Alarm, 426

12.2.2. Probability of Detection, 427
Problems, 430
Appendix 12-A: Chapter 12 MATLAB Code Listings, 431
Function “que_func.m” Listing, 431
Function “marcumsq.m” Listing, 431
Program “Fig12_5.m” Listing, 432

Chapter 13: Detection of Fluctuating Targets, 433

13.1. Introduction, 433
13.2. Pulse Integration, 433
13.2.1. Coherent Integration, 434
13.2.2. Noncoherent Integration, 435
13.2.3. Improvement Factor and Integration Loss, 436
13.3. Target Fluctuation: The Chi-Square Family of Targets, 438
13.4. Probability of False Alarm Formulation for a Square Law Detector, 439
13.4.1. Square Law Detection, 441
13.5. Probability of Detection Calculation, 443
13.5.1. Detection of Swerling 0 (Swerling V) Targets, 443
13.5.2. Detection of Swerling I Targets, 445
13.5.3. Detection of Swerling II Targets, 445
13.5.4. Detection of Swerling III Targets, 448
13.5.5. Detection of Swerling IV Targets, 450
13.6. Computation of the Fluctuation Loss, 451
13.7. Cumulative Probability of Detection, 453
13.8. Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR), 456
13.8.1. Cell Averaging CFAR (Single Pulse), 456
13.8.2. Cell Averaging CAFR with Noncoherent Integration, 458
13.9. M-out-of-N Detection, 459
13.10. The Radar Equation Revisited, 460
Problems, 462
Appendix 13-A: The Incomplete Gamma Function, 465
The Gamma Function, 465
The Incomplete Gamma Function, 465
Appendix 13-B: Chapter 13 MATLAB Code Listings, 467
Function “improv_fac.m” Listing, 467
Program “Fig13_2.m” Listing, 467
Function “threshold.m” Listing, 468
Program “Fig13_4.m” Listing, 468
Function “pd_swerling5.m” Listing, 469
Program “Fig13_5.m” Listing, 470
Function “pd_swerling1.m” Listing, 470
Program “Fig13_6.m” Listing, 471
Program “Fig13_7.m” Listing, 471
Function “pd_swerling2.m” Listing, 472
Program “Fig13_8.m” Listing, 473
Program “Fig13_9.m” Listing, 473
Function “pd_swerling3.m” Listing, 474
Table of Contents xv

Program “Fig13_10.m” Listing, 474

Program “Fig13_11.m” Listing, 475
Function “pd_swerling4.m” Listing, 475
Program “Fig13_12.m” Listing, 477
Function “fluct_loss.m” Listing, 477
Program “Fig13_13.m” Listing, 479
Program “Fig13A_1.m” Listing, 479

PART V: Radar Special Topics

Chapter 14: Radar Cross Section (RCS), 485
14.1. RCS Definition, 485
14.2. RCS Dependency on Aspect Angle and Frequency, 487
14.3. RCS Dependency on Polarization, 490
14.3.1. Normalized Electric Field, 490
14.3.2. Polarization, 490
14.3.3. Target Scattering Matrix, 493
14.4. RCS of Simple Objects, 494
14.4.1. Sphere, 495
14.4.2. Ellipsoid, 497
14.4.3. Circular Flat Plate, 500
14.4.4. Truncated Cone (Frustum), 501
14.4.5. Cylinder, 505
14.4.6. Rectangular Flat Plate, 507
14.4.7. Triangular Flat Plate, 510
14.5. RCS of Complex Objects, 512
14.6. RCS Prediction Methods, 513
14.6.1. Computational Electromagnetics, 514
14.6.2. Finite Difference Time Domain Method, 514
14.6.3. Finite Element Method, 518
14.6.4. Integral Equations, 518
14.6.5. Geometrical Optics, 519
14.6.6. Physical Optics, 520
Rectangular Plate, 520
N-Sided Polygon, 521
14.6.7. Edge Diffraction, 522
14.7. Multiple Bounce, 522
Problems, 523
Appendix 14-A: Chapter 14 MATALB Code Listings, 525
Function “rcs_aspect.m” Listing, 525
Program “Fig14_3.m” Listing, 525
Function “rcs_frequency.m” Listing, 526
Program “Fig14_5_6.m” Listing, 526
Program “Fig14_10.m” Listing, 527
Function “rcs_ellipsoid.m” Listing, 528
Program “Fig14_112a.m” Listing, 528
Function “rcs_circ_palte.m” Listing, 529
Function “rcs_frustum.m” Listing, 530
Function “rcs_cylinder.m” Listing, 531
xvi Table of Contents

Program “Fig14_19.m” Listing, 532

Function “rcs_rect_plate.m” Listing, 533
Function “rcs_isosceles.m” Listing, 534
Function “rcs_cylinder_cmplx.m” Listing, 535
Program “fdtd.m” Listing, 536
Program “rectplate.m” Listing, 538
Program “polygon.m” Listing, 539

Chapter 15: Phased Array Antennas, 541

15.1. Directivity, Power Gain, and Effective Aperture, 541
15.2. Near and Far Fields, 542
15.3. General Arrays, 543
15.4. Linear Arrays, 546
15.4.1. Array Tapering, 549
15.4.2. Computation of the Radiation Pattern via the DFT, 551
15.5. Planar Arrays, 559
15.5.1. Rectangular Grid Arrays, 560
15.5.2. Circular Grid Arrays, 562
15.5.3. Concentric Grid Circular Arrays, 569
15.5.4. Rectangular Grid with Circular Boundary Arrays, 570
15.5.5. Hexagonal Grid Arrays, 570
15.6. Array Scan Loss, 586
15.7. Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) - Linear Array, 588
Problems, 591
Appendix 15-A: Chapter 15 MATLAB Code Listings, 593
Program “Fig15_5.m” Listing, 593
Program “Fig15_7.m” Listing, 594
Function “linear_array.m” Listing, 594
Function “circular_array.m” Listing, 596
Function “rect_array.m” Listing, 598
Function “circ_array.m” Listing, 601
Function “rect_to_circ.m” Listing, 604
Program “Fig15_50.m” Listing, 605

Chapter 16: Adaptive Signal Processing, 607

16.1. Nonadaptive Beamforming, 607
16.2. Adaptive Signal Processing Using Least Mean Square (LMS), 611
16.3. The LMS Adaptive Array Processing, 615
16.4. Sidelobe Cancelers (SLC), 623
16.5. Space Time Adaptive Processing (STAP), 624
16.5.1. Space Time Processing, 624
16.5.2. Space Time Adaptive Processing, 627
Problems, 631
Appendix 16-A: Chapter 16 MATLAB Code Listings, 632
Function “LMS.m” Listing, 632
Program “Fig16_4_5.m” Listing, 632
Function “adaptive_array_lms.m” Listing, 633
Table of Contents xvii

Function “la_sampled_wave.m” Listing, 634

Function “Linear_array_FFT.m” Listing, 634
Program “run_stap.m” Listing, 635
Function “stap_std.m” Listing, 635
Function “stap_smaa.m” Listing, 637
Function “st_steering_vector.m” Listing, 638
Function “smaa_st_steering_vector.m” Listing, 638

Chapter 17: Target Tracking, 639

Single Target Tracking
17.1. Angle Tracking, 639
17.1.1. Sequential Lobing, 640
17.1.2. Conical Scan, 641
17.2. Amplitude Comparison Monopulse, 644
17.3. Phase Comparison Monopulse, 647
17.4. Range Tracking, 653

Multiple Target Tracking

17.5. Track-While-Scan (TWS), 655
17.6. State Variable Representation of an LTI System, 656
17.7. The LTI System of Interest, 660
17.8. Fixed-Gain Tracking Filters, 661
17.8.1. The DE Filter, 664
17.8.2. The DEJ Filter, 667
17.9. The Kalman Filter, 677
17.9.1. The Singer DEJ -Kalman Filter, 679
17.9.2. Relationship between Kalamn and DEJ Filters, 681
17.10. MATLAB Kalman Filter Simulation, 685
Problems, 693
Appendix 17-A: Chapter 17 MATLAB Code Listings, 695
Function “mono_pulse.m” Listing, 695
Function “ghk_tracker.m” Listing, 695
Function “ghk_tracker1.m” Listing, 696
Program “Fig17_20s.m” Listing, 697
Function “kalman_filter.m” Listing, 697
Program “Fig17_29.m” Listing, 698
Program “Fig17_30.m” Listing, 699
Function “maketraj.m” Listing, 699
Function “addnoise.m” Listing, 700
Function “kalfilt.m” Listing, 701

Chapter 18: Tactical Synthetic Aperture Radars, 703

18.1. Introduction, 703
18.1.1. Side Looking SAR Geometry, 704
18.2. SAR Design Considerations, 706
18.3. SAR Radar Equation, 711
18.4. SAR Signal Processing, 712
xviii Table of Contents

18.5. Side Looking SAR Doppler Processing, 713

18.6. SAR Imaging Using Doppler Processing, 717
18.7. Range Walk, 717
18.8. A Three-Dimensional SAR Imaging Technique, 717
18.81. Background, 719
18.8.2. DFTSQM Operation and Signal Processing, 719
Linear Arrays, 719
Rectangular Arrays, 721
18.8.3. Geometry for DFTSQM SAR Imaging, 722
18.8.4. Slant Range Equation, 724
18.8.5. Signal Synthesis, 726
18.8.6. Electronic Processing, 727
18.8.7. Derivation of Eq. (18.71), 728
18.8.8. Non-Zero Taylor Series Coefficient for the kth Range Cell, 730
Problems, 732
Appendix 18-A: Chapter 18 MATLAB Code Listings, 733
Program “Fig18_12_13.m” Listings, 733

Bibliography, 735
Index, 743
 Preface

In the year 2000 the first edition of Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®1
was published. It was developed and organized based on my years of teaching graduate level
courses on radar systems analysis and design including advanced topics in radar signal pro-
cessing. At the time, the primary motivation behind the book was to introduce a college-suit-
able comprehensive textbook that provides hands-on experience with MATLAB companion
software. This book very quickly turned into a bestseller, which prompted the publication of its
second edition in the year 2005. The second edition continued in the same vein as its predeces-
sor. It was updated, expanded, and reorganized to include advances in the field and to be more
logical in sequence. New topics were introduced in the body of the text, and much of the MAT-
LAB code was updated and improved upon to reflect the advancements of the latest MATLAB
release.
Since the publication of the first edition, Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MAT-
LAB filled a void in the market by presenting a comprehensive and self-contained text on radar
systems analysis and design. It was the first book on the market to provide companion MAT-
LAB software to support the theoretical and mathematical discussion found within the pages
of the text. These features were also supported with a detailed solutions manual of all end-of-
chapter problems. This book quickly became the standard adopted by many books published
on the subject; none of which, however, matched the clear presentation nor the transparency
offered by this author, particularly when considering the end-of-chapter solutions manual and
the complete and comprehensive set of MATLAB code, which was made available to all of the
book audience without any restrictions. Users of this book were not only able to reproduce all
plots found in the text, but they also had the ability to change the code by inputting their own
parameters so that they could generate their own specific plots and outputs that met their own
unique academic interest.
In addition to my academic tenure and experience in teaching the subject at the collegiate
level, I have also taught numerous industry courses and conducted many seminars on the sub-
ject of radar systems. Based on this teaching experience, the following conclusion has become
very evident to me: The need and the demand for a comprehensive textbook / reference book
focused on all aspects of radar systems design and analysis remain very strong. Add to this the

1. All MATLAB® functions and programs provided in this book were developed using MATLAB R2011a version
7.12.0.635 with the Signal Processing Toolbox, on a PC with Windows XP Professional operating system. MAT-
LAB® is a registered trademark of the The MathWorks, Inc. For product information, please contact: The Math-
Works, Inc., 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA. Web: www.mathworks.com.

xix
xx Preface

fact that many college professors have adopted this book as the primary textbook for their
courses on radar systems. Therefore, my desire to write this third edition was turned into real-
ity and has materialized into this product.
It is my view that the third edition of Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB is
warranted for the following reasons: (1) bring the text to a more modern status to reflect the
current state of the art; (2) incorporate into the new edition much of the feedback this author
has received from professors using this book as a text and from other practicing engineers; (3)
introduce several new topics that have not found much treatment by other authors, and even
when they did, it was not on a level comparable to the comprehensive and exhaustive approach
adopted by this author in the first two editions; (4) add many new end-of chapter problems; (5)
restructure the presentation to be more convenient for users to adopt the text for either three
graduate-level courses, or one senior-level and two graduate-level courses; and (6) take advan-
tage of the new features offered by the latest MATLAB releases.
Note that all MATLAB code provided in this book was designed as an academic standalone
tool and is not adequate for other purposes. The code was written in a way to assist the reader
in gaining better understanding of the theory. The code was not developed, nor is it intended to
be used as part of an open loop or a closed loop simulation of any kind. The MATLAB code
found in this textbook can be downloaded from this book’s web-page on the CRC Press web-
site. Simply use your favorite web browser, go to www.crcpress.com, and search for keyword
“Mahafza” to locate this book’s web page.
Just like the first and second editions, this third edition provides easy-to-follow mathemati-
cal derivations of all equations and formulas present within the book, resulting in a user
friendly coverage suitable for advanced as well as introductory level college courses. This
third edition provides comprehensive up-to-date coverage of radar systems design and analysis
issues. Users of this book will need only one book instead of several, to gain essential under-
standing of radar design, analysis, and signal processing. This edition contains numerous
graphical plots and supporting artwork. The MATLAB code companion of this edition will
help users evaluate the trade-offs between different radar parameters.
This book is composed of 18 chapters and is divided into 5 parts: Part I, Radar Principles,
Part II, Radar Signals and Signal Processing, Part III, Special Radar Considerations, Part IV,
Radar Detection, and Part V, Radar Special Topics. Part I comprises Chapters 1 and 2. Chapter
1, Definitions and Nomenclature, presents the basic radar definitions and establishes much of
the nomenclature used throughout the text. In Chapter 2, Basic Pulsed and Continuous Wave
(CW) Radar Operations, the radar equation is derived for both pulsed and CW radars, while
other related material such as radar losses and noise are also discussed in details. The radar
equation in the presence of electronic counter measures (ECM) is derived, as well as the
bistatic radar equation.
Part II comprises Chapters 3 through 7. The main thrust of this part of the book is radar sig-
nals or waveforms and radar signal processing. Chapter 3, Linear Systems and Complex Signal
Representation, contains a top-level discussion of elements of signal theory that are relevant to
radar design and radar signal processing. It is assumed that the reader has sufficient and ade-
quate background in signals and systems as well as in the Fourier transform and its associated
properties. Lowpass and bandpass signals are discussed in the context of radar applications.
Continuous as well as discrete systems are analyzed, and the sampling theorem is presented.
Chapter 4, The Matched Filter Radar Receiver, is focused on the matched filter. It presents
the unique characteristic of the matched filter and develops a general formula for the output of
Preface xxi

the matched filter that is valid for any waveform. Chapter 5, Ambiguity Function - Analog
Waveforms, and Chapter 6, Ambiguity Function - Discrete Coded Waveforms, analyze the out-
put of the matched filter in the context of the ambiguity function. In Chapter 5 the most com-
mon analog radar waveforms are analyzed; this includes the single unmodulated pulse, Linear
Frequency Modulation (LFM) pulse, unmodulated pulse train, LFM pulse train, stepped fre-
quency waveforms, and nonlinear FM waveforms. Chapter 6 is concerned with discrete coded
waveforms. In this chapter, unmodulated pulse-train codes are analyzed as well as binary
codes, polyphase codes, and frequency codes. Chapter 7, Pulse Compression, contains details
of radar signal processing using pulse compression. The correlation processor and stretch pro-
cessor are presented. High range resolution processing using stepped frequency waveforms is
also analyzed.
Part III comprises three chapters. Chapter 8, Radar Wave propagation, extends the free
space analysis presented in the earlier chapters to include the effect of the atmosphere on radar
performance. Topics such as refraction, diffraction, atmospheric attenuation, surface reflection,
and multipath are discussed in a fair amount of detail. The subject of radar clutter is in Chapter
9, Radar Clutter. Area clutter as well as volume clutter are defined and the radar equation is re-
derived to reflect the importance of clutter, where in this case, the signal to interference ratio
becomes more critical than the signal to noise ratio. A step-by-step mathematical derivation of
clutter RCS is presented, and the statistical models for the clutter backscatter coefficient is also
presented. Chapter 10, Moving Target Indicator (MTI) and Pulse Doppler Radars, discusses
how delay line cancelers can be used to mitigate the impact of clutter within the radar signal
processor. PRF staggering is analyzed in the context of blind speeds and in the context of
resolving range and Doppler ambiguities. Finally, pulsed Doppler radars are briefly analyzed.
In Part IV, radar detection is discussed and analyzed. The material presented in this part of
the book requires a strong background in random variables and random processes. Therefore,
Chapter 11, Random Variables and Random Processes, presents a review of the subject, and is
written in such a way that it only highlights the major points of the subject. Users of this book
are advised to use this chapter as a means for a quick top-level review of random variables and
random processes. Instructors using this book as a text may assign Chapter 11 as a reading
assignment to their students. Single pulse detection with known and unknown signal parame-
ters is in Chapter 12, Single Pulse Detection. Chapter 13, Detection of Fluctuating Targets,
extends the analysis of Chapter 12 to include target fluctuation where the Swerling target mod-
els are discussed. Detailed discussion of coherent and noncoherent integration in the context of
a square law detector is in this chapter. An overview of CFAR, cumulative probability of detec-
tion, and M-out-of-N detection are also discussed.
Part V of this book addresses a few specialized topics in radar systems. In Chapter 14, Radar
Cross Section (RCS), the RCS dependency on aspect angle, frequency, and polarization are dis-
cussed. A target scattering matrix is developed. RCS formulas for many simple objects are pre-
sented. Complex object RCS is discussed, and RCS prediction methods are introduced.
Chapter 15, Phased Array Antennas, starts by developing the general array formulation. Linear
arrays and several planar array configurations such as rectangular, circular, rectangular with
circular boundaries, and concentric circular arrays are discussed. Beam steering with and with-
out using a finite number of bits is analyzed. Scan loss is also presented. A concept of a multi-
ple input multiple output radar system developed by this author is discussed and analyzed. In
Chapter 16, Adaptive Signal Processing, the concept behind conventual and adaptive beam-
forming is discussed. Adaptive signal processing using the least mean square algorithm is ana-
lyzed. Adaptive linear arrays and complex weights computation in the context of the least
xxii Preface

mean square algorithm are presented. Finally, this chapter discusses, space time adaptive pro-
cessing.
Chapter 17, Target Tracking, discusses target tracking radar systems. The first part of this
chapter covers the subject of single target tracking. Topics such as sequential lobing, conical
scan, monopulse, and range tracking are discussed in detail. The second part of this chapter
introduces multiple target tracking techniques. Fixed gain tracking filters such as the DE and
the DEJ filters are presented in detail. The concept of the Kalman filter is introduced. Special
cases of the Kalman filter are analyzed in depth and a MATLAB-based simulation of the
Kalamn filter is developed. The last chapter of this book is Chapter 18, Tactical Synthetic
Aperture Radars. The topics of this chapter include: SAR signal processing, SAR design con-
siderations, and the SAR radar equation. Arrays operated in sequential mode are discussed in
this chapter.
This book is written primarily as a graduate-level textbook, although parts of it can be used
as a senior level course on radar systems. A companion solutions manual has been developed
for use by professors that adopt this book as a text. This solutions manual is available through
the publisher. Based on my own teaching experience, the following breakdown can be utilized
by professors using this book as a text:
1. Option I: Chapters 1-4 (with omission of certain advanced sections) can be used as a
senior-level course. Chapters 5-10 and the omitted sections in the previous course can be
used as a first graduate level course. Finally, Chapters 11-18 can be used as a second
advanced graduate-level course.
2. Option II: Chapters 1-4 can be used as an introductory graduate-level course. Chapters 5 10
can be used as a second graduate-level course, while Chapters 11-18 can be used as an
advanced graduate course on the subject.

Bassem R. Mahafza
Huntsville, Alabama
United States of America
November, 2012
 Part I

Radar Principles

Chapter 1:
Definitions and Nomenclature
Radar Systems Classification and Bands
Pulsed and Continuous Wave (CW) Radars
Range
Range Resolution
Doppler Frequency
Coherence
Decibel Arithmetic
Problems
Appendix 1-A: Chapter 1 MATLAB Code Listings

Chapter 2:
Basic Pulsed and Continuous Wave (CW) Radar Operations
The Radar Range Equation
Low PRF Radar Equation
High PRF Radar Equation
Surveillance Radar Equation
Radar Equation with Jamming
Range Reduction Factor
Bistatic Radar Equation
Radar Losses
Noise Figure
Continuous Wave (CW) Radars

1
2 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

MATLAB Program “range_calc.m”

Problems
Appendix 2-A: Chapter 2 MATLAB Code Listings
Part I - Radar Principles

Chapter 1

Definitions and
Nomenclature

This chapter presents some basic radar definitions and establishes much of the nomencla-
ture used throughout this text. The word radar is an abbreviation for radio detection and rang-
ing. In most cases, radar systems use modulated waveforms and directive antennas to transmit
electromagnetic energy into a specific volume in space to search for targets. Objects (targets)
within a search volume will reflect portions of the incident energy (radar returns or echoes) in
the direction of the radar. These echoes are then processed by the radar receiver to extract tar-
get information such as range, velocity, angular position, and other target identifying charac-
teristics.

1.1. Radar Systems Classifications and Bands

Radars can be classified as ground-based, airborne, spaceborne, or ship-based radar systems.
They can also be classified into numerous categories based on the specific radar characteris-
tics, such as the frequency band, antenna type, and waveforms utilized. Radar systems using
continuous waveforms, modulated or otherwise, are classified as Continuous Wave (CW)
radars. Alternatively, radar systems using time-limited pulsed waveforms are classified as
Pulsed Radars. Another radar systems classification is concerned with the mission and/or the
functionality of the specific radar. This includes: weather, acquisition and search, tracking,
track-while-scan, fire control, early warning, over-the-horizon, terrain following, and terrain
avoidance radars. Phased array radars utilize phased array antennas, and are often called multi-
function (multimode) radars. A phased array is a composite antenna formed from two or more
basic radiators. Array antennas synthesize narrow directive beams that may be steered,
mechanically or electronically. Electronic steering is achieved by controlling the phase of the
electric current feeding the array elements, and thus the name phased arrays is adopted.
Historically, radars were first developed as military tools. It is for this primary reason the
most common radar systems classification is the letter or band designation originally used by
the military during and after World War II. This letter or band designation has also been
adopted as an IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) standard. In recent
years, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) has adopted a new band designation with
easier abecedarian letters. Figure 1.1 shows the spectrum associated with these two letter or
band radar classifications, while Table 1.1 presents the same information in a structured for-
mat.

3
4 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

Mainly military
radars

Figure 1.1. Radar systems band or letter classification.

Table 1.1. Radar systems band or letter classification.

Frequency range in Frequency range in GHz

Letter GHz (IEEE (NATO or New band
designation Standard) designation)
HF 0.003 - 0.03 A
VHF 0.03 - 0.3 A<0.25; B>0.25
UHF 0.3 - 1.0 B<0.5; C>0.5
L-band 1.0 - 2.0 D
S-band 2.0 - 4.0 E<3.0; F>3.0
C-band 4.0 - 8.0 G<6.0; H>6.0
X-band 8.0 - 12.5 I<10.0; J>10.0
Ku-band 12.5 - 18.0 J
K-band 18.0 - 26.5 J<20.0; K>20.0
Ka-band 26.5 - 40.0 K
V & W or Normally >34.0 L<60.0; M>60.0
Millimeter
Wave (MMW)

High Frequency (HF) and Very High Frequency (VHF) Radars (A- and B-Bands):
These radar bands below 300MHz represent the frontier of radio technology at the time during
the World War II. However, in the modern radar era, these frequencies bands are used for early
warning radars. These radars utilize the electromagnetic waves’ reflection off the ionosphere to
detect targets beyond the horizon, and so they are called Over-the-Horizon Radars (OTHR).
Some examples include the United States (U.S.) Navy Relocatable over-the-horizon Radar
(ROTHR) shown in Fig. 1.2, and the Russian Woodpecker radar shown in Fig. 1.3. By using
these low HF and VHF frequency bands, one can use high-power transmitters. At these fre-
quencies, the electromagnetic wave atmospheric attenuation is small and can be overcome by
using high-power transmitters. Radar angular measurement accuracies are limited in these
bands because lower frequencies require antennas with significant physical size, thus limiting
Radar Systems Classifications and Bands 5

the radar’s angle accuracy and angle resolution. Other communication and broadcasting ser-
vices typically use these frequency bands. Therefore, the available bandwidth for military
radar systems is limited and highly contested throughout the world. Low-frequency systems
can be used for Foliage Penetration (FoPen) applications, as well as in Ground Penetrating
(GPen) applications.

Figure 1.2. U. S. Navy over-the-horizon Radar. Photograph obtained

via the Internet (http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/airdef/an-tps-71.htm).

Figure 1.3. Russian Woodpecker OTHR radar. Photograph obtained via the
Internet (http://passingstrangeness.wordpress.com/2010/04/23/the-russian-woodpecker/).
6 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Radars (C-Band): UHF bands are used for very long range
Early Warning Radars (EWR). Some examples include the Ballistic Missile Early Warning
System (BMEWS) search-and-track monopulse radar that operates at 245MHz (see Fig. 1.4),
the Perimeter and Acquisition Radar (PAR), which is a very long range multifunction phased
array radar; and the early warning PAVE PAWS multifunction UHF phased array radar. This
frequency band is also used for the detection and tracking of satellites and ballistic missiles
over a long range. In recent years, ultra wideband (UWB) radar applications use all frequencies
in the A- to C-Bands. UWB radars can be used in GPen applications as well as in see-through-
the-wall applications.

Figure 1.4. Fylingdales BMEWS, United Kingdom. Photograph obtained

via the Internet (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Radar_RAF_Fylingdales.jpg).

L-Band Radars (D-Band): Radars in the L-band are primarily ground-based and ship-
based systems that are used in long range military and air traffic control search operations for
up to 250 (~500Km) nautical miles. Therefore, due to earth curvature their maximum achiev-
able range is limited when detecting low-altitude targets which can disappear very quickly
below the horizon. The Air Traffic Management (ATM) long-range surveillance radars like the
Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR), work in this frequency band. These radar systems are
relatively large and demand sizable footprints. Historically, the designator L-Band was
adopted since the “L” represent with large antenna or long range radars.
S-Band Radars (E- and F-Bands): Most ground- and ship-based medium range radars
operate in the S-band. For example, the Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) used for air traffic
control, and the ship-based U.S. Navy AEGIS (Fig. 1.5) multifunction phased array are S-band
radars, and the Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) shown in Fig. 1.6. The atmo-
spheric attenuation in this band is higher than in the D-Band, and they are also more suscepti-
ble to weather conditions. Radar in this band usually need considerably high transmitting
power as compared to the lower-frequency radars in order to achieve maximum detection
range. Even with the considerable weather susceptibility, the National Weather Service Next
Generation Doppler Weather Radar (NEXRAD) uses an S-band radar, because it can see
Radar Systems Classifications and Bands 7

beyond a severe storm. Special Airport Surveillance Radars (ASR) used at some civilian air-
ports are also in this band where they can detect aircrafts for up to 60 nautical miles. The des-
ignator S-Band (contrary to L-Band) was adopted since the “S” represents the smaller antennas
or shorter range radars.

Figure 1.5. U. S. Navy AEGIS. Photograph obtained via the Internet (http://mostlymis-
siledefense.com/2012/08/03/ballistic-missile-defense-the-aegis-spy-1-radar-august-3-2012/).

Figure 1.6. U. S. Air Force AWACS. Photograph obtained via the Internet (http://
www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/e-3-pics.htm).
8 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

C-Band Radar (G-Band): Many of the mobile military battlefield surveillance, missile-
control and ground surveillance radar systems operate in this band. Most weather radar sys-
tems are also C-band radars. Medium range search and fire control military radars and metric
instrumentation radars are C-band systems. In this band, the size of the antenna allows for
achieving excellent angular accuracies and resolution. Performance of systems operating in
this band suffer severely from bad weather conditions and to counter that, they often employ
antenna feeds with circular polarization.
X- and Ku-Band Radars (I- and J-Bands): In the X-band frequency range (8 to 12GHz)
the relationship between the wave length and size of the antenna is considerably better than in
lower-frequency bands. Radar systems that require fine target detection capabilities and yet
cannot tolerate the atmospheric attenuation of higher-frequency bands are typically X-Band.
The X- and Ku-bands are relatively popular radar frequency bands for military applications
like airborne radars, since the small antenna size provides good performance. Missile guidance
systems use the Ku-Band (I- and J-Bands) because of the convenient antenna size where
weight is a limiting requirement. Space borne or airborne imaging radars used in Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) for military electronic intelligence and civil geographic mapping typi-
cally use these frequency bands. Finally, these frequency bands are also widely used in mari-
time civil and military navigation radars.
K- and Ka- Band Radars (J- and K-Bands): These high-frequency bands suffer severe
weather and atmospheric attenuation. Therefore, radars utilizing these frequency bands are
limited to short range applications, such as police traffic radars, short range terrain avoidance,
and terrain following radars. Alternatively, the achievable angular accuracies and range resolu-
tion are superior to other bands. In ATM applications these radars are often called Surface
Movement Radar (SMR) or Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE) radars.
Millimeter Wave (MMW) Radars (V- and W-Bands): Radars operating in this frequency
band also suffer from severe high atmospheric attenuation. Radar applications are limited to
very short range of up to a tens of meters. In the W-Band maximum attenuation occurs at about
75GHz and at about 96GHz. Both of these frequencies are used in practice primarily in auto-
motive industry where very small radars (~ 75-76GHz) are used for parking assistants, blind
spot and brake assists. Some radar systems operating at 96 to 98GHz are used as laboratory
experimental or prototype systems.

1.2. Pulsed and Continuous Wave (CW) Radars

When the type of waveform is used as a classifier of radar systems, there are two types of
radars; pulsed and Continuous Wave (CW) radar systems. Continuous wave radars are those
that continuously emit electromagnetic energy, and use separate transmit and receive antennas.
Unmodulated CW radars can accurately measure target radial velocity (Doppler shift) and
angular position. Continuous wave waveforms can be viewed as pure sinewaves of the form
cos 2Sf 0 t . Spectra of the radar echo from stationary targets and clutter will be concentrated
around f 0 . The center frequency for the echoes of a moving target will be shifted by f d , the
Doppler frequency. Thus, by measuring this frequency difference, CW radars can very accu-
rately extract target radial velocity. Because of the continuous nature of CW emission, range
measurement is not possible without some modifications to the radar operations and wave-
forms. Simply put, target range information cannot be extracted without utilizing some form of
modulation. The primary use of CW radars is in target velocity search and track, and in missile
guidance operations.
Range 9

Pulsed radars use a train of pulsed waveforms (mainly with modulation). In this category,
radar systems can be classified on the basis of the Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF), as low
PRF, medium PRF, and high PRF radars. Low PRF radars are primarily used for ranging where
target velocity (Doppler shift) is not of interest. High PRF radars are mainly used to measure
target velocity. Continuous wave as well as pulsed radars can measure both target range and
radial velocity by utilizing different modulation schemes. The design, operation, and analysis
of CW and pulsed radar systems are found in subsequent chapters of this book.

1.3. Range
Figure 1.7 shows a simplified pulsed radar block diagram. The time control box generates
the synchronization timing signals required throughout the system. A modulated signal is gen-
erated and sent to the antenna by the modulator/transmitter block. Switching the antenna
between the transmitting and receiving modes is controlled by the duplexer. The duplexer
allows one antenna to be used to both transmit and receive. During transmission it directs the
radar electromagnetic energy toward the antenna. Alternatively, on reception, it directs the
received radar echoes to the receiver. The receiver amplifies the radar returns and prepares
them for signal processing. Extraction of target information is performed by the signal proces-
sor block. The target’s range, R , is computed by measuring the time delay, 't ; it takes a pulse
to travel the two-way path between the radar and the target. Since electromagnetic waves travel
8
at the speed of light, c = 3 u 10 m e s , then

R = c't e 2 Eq. (1.1)

where R is in meters and 't is in seconds. The factor of 1 e 2 is used to account for the two-
way time delay.
In general, a pulsed radar transmits and receives a train of pulses, as illustrated by Fig. 1.8.
The Inter Pulse Period (IPP) is T , and the pulse width is W . The IPP is often referred to as the
Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI). The inverse of the PRI is the PRF, which is denoted by f r ,

f r = 1 e PRI = 1 e T . Eq. (1.2)

During each PRI the radar radiates energy only for W seconds and listens for target returns for
the rest of the PRI. The radar transmitting duty cycle (factor) d t is defined as the ratio
d t = W e T . The radar average transmitted power is

R
Transmitter/ Duplexer
Time Modulator
Control
Signal
Signal
processor
processor Receiver

Figure 1.7. A simplified pulsed radar block diagram.

10 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

transmitted pulses
IPP
pulse 1 W pulse 2 pulse 3 time

't pulse 1 pulse 2 pulse 3

received pulses W echo echo echo time

Figure 1.8. Train of transmitted and received pulses.

P av = P t u d t Eq. (1.3)

where P t denotes the radar peak transmitted power. The pulse energy is
E p = P t W = P av T = P av e f r . Eq. (1.4)

The range corresponding to the two-way time delay T is known as the radar unambiguous
range, R u . Consider the case shown in Fig. 1.9. Echo 1 represents the radar return from a target
at range R 1 = c't e 2 due to pulse 1. Echo 2 could be interpreted as the return from the same
target due to pulse 2, or it may be the return from a faraway target at range R 2 due to pulse 1
again. In this case,

T + 't -
R 2 = c't
-------- or R 2 = c---------------------- . Eq. (1.5)
2 2
Clearly, range ambiguity is associated with echo 2. Therefore, once a pulse is transmitted the
radar must wait a sufficient length of time so that returns from targets at maximum range are
back before the next pulse is emitted. It follows that the maximum unambiguous range must
correspond to half of the PRI,
R u = cT e 2 = c e 2f r . Eq. (1.6)

t = 0 t = 1 e fr

PRI
transmitted pulses W pulse 1 pulse 2 time or range

't
echo1 echo 2 time or range
received pulses
c't
R 1 = --------
2 't

Ru
R2

Figure 1.9. Illustrating range ambiguity.

Range 11

Example:

A certain airborne pulsed radar has peak power P t = 10KW , and uses two PRFs,
f r1 = 10KHz and f r2 = 30KHz . What are the required pulse widths for each PRF so that the
average transmitted power is constant and is equal to 1500watts ? Compute the pulse energy
in each case.

Solution:

Since P av is constant, then both PRFs have the same duty cycle. More precisely,

1500
d t = -------------------3- = 0.15 .
10 u 10
The pulse repetition intervals are
1
T 1 = -------------------3- = 0.1ms
10 u 10
1
T 2 = -------------------3- = 0.0333ms .
30 u 10
It follows that
W 1 = 0.15 u T 1 = 15Ps

W 2 = 0.15 u T 2 = 5Ps

3 –6
E p1 = P t W 1 = 10 u 10 u 15 u 10 = 0.15Joules
3 –6
E p2 = P 2 W 2 = 10 u 10 u 5 u 10 = 0.05Joules .

MATLAB Function “pulse_train.m”

The MATLAB function “pulse_train.m” computes the duty cycle, average transmitted
power, pulse energy, and the pulse repetition frequency; its syntax is as follows:
[dt, pav, ep, prf, ru] = pulse_train(tau, pri, p_peak)
where

Symbol Description Units Status

tau pulse width seconds input
pri PRI seconds input
p_peak peak power watts input
dt duty cycle none output
pav average transmitted power watts output
ep pulse energy joules output
prf PRF Hz output
ru unambiguous range Km output
12 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

1.4. Range Resolution

Range resolution, denoted as 'R , is a radar metric that describes its ability to detect targets
in close proximity to each other as distinct objects. Radar systems are normally designed to
operate between a minimum range R min and maximum range R max . The distance between
R min and R max is divided into M range bins (gates), each of width 'R ,

R max – R min
M = ---------------------------
-. Eq. (1.7)
'R
Targets separated by at least 'R will be completely resolved in range, as illustrated in Fig.
1.10. Targets within the same range bin can be resolved in cross range (azimuth) utilizing sig-
nal processing techniques.
Consider two targets located at ranges R 1 and R 2 , corresponding to time delays t 1 and t 2 ,
respectively. Denote the difference between those two ranges as 'R :

t2 – t1 Gt
'R = R 2 – R 1 = c ------------------ = c ---- . Eq. (1.8)
2 2

Cluster 2
'R 'R
cross range

˜ ˜ ˜
range
Cluster 1

R min Cluster 3
R max

Figure 1.10. Resolving targets in range and cross range.

Now, try to answer the following question: What is the minimum time, Gt , such that target 1
at R 1 and target 2 at R 2 will appear completely resolved in range (different range bins)? In
other words, what is the minimum 'R ?
First, assume that the two targets are separated by cW e 4 , W is the pulse width. In this case,
when the pulse trailing edge strikes target 2, the leading edge would have traveled backward a
distance cW , and the returned pulse would be composed of returns from both targets (i.e., unre-
solved return), as shown in Fig. 1.11a. However, if the two targets are at least cW e 2 apart, then
as the pulse trailing edge strikes the first target, the leading edge will start to return from target
2, and two distinct returned pulses will be produced, as illustrated by Fig. 1.11b. Thus, 'R
should be greater or equal to cW e 2 . And since the radar bandwidth B is equal to 1 e W , then

cW c
'R = ----- = ------- . Eq. (1.9)
2 2B
Range Resolution 13

R1 R2
incident pulse cW
cW
-----
4
reflected pulse return return
tgt1 tgt2
tgt1 tgt2
3
--- cW
2
shaded area has returns from both targets

(a) R1 R2

cW
-----
2
reflected pulses return return
tgt1 tgt2
cW cW
tgt1 tgt2

(b)
Figure 1.11. (a) Two unresolved targets. (b) Two resolved targets.

In general, radar users and designers alike seek to minimize 'R in order to enhance the
radar performance. As suggested by Eq. (1.9), in order to achieve fine range resolution one
must minimize the pulse width. However, this will reduce the average transmitted power and
increase the operating bandwidth. Achieving fine range resolution while maintaining adequate
average transmitted power can be accomplished by using pulse compression techniques.

Example:

A radar system has an unambiguous range of 100Km, and a bandwidth 0.5MHz. Compute the
required PRF, PRI, 'R , and W .

Solution:
8
c- 3 u 10
PRF = -------- = ----------------5- = 1500Hz
2R u 2 u 10
1 - = -----------
PRI = ---------- 1 - = 0.6667ms
PRF 1500
Using the function “range_resolution” yields
8
c 3 u 10
'R = ------- = ------------------------------6- = 300m
2B 2 u 0.5 u 10
u 300
W = 2'R
----------- = 2-----------------
- = 2Ps .
c 3 u 10
8
14 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

MATLAB Function “range_resolution.m”

The MATLAB function “range_resolution.m” calculates range resolution; its syntax is as
follows:

[delta_R] = range_resolution(var, indicator)

where

Symbol Description Units Status

var bandwidth Hz input
OR OR
pulsewidth seconds
delta_R range resolution meters output

1.5. Doppler Frequency

Radars use Doppler frequency to extract target radial velocity (range rate), as well as to dis-
tinguish between moving and stationary targets or objects such as clutter. The Doppler phe-
nomenon describes the shift in the center frequency of an incident waveform due to the target
motion with respect to the source of radiation. Depending on the direction of the target’s
motion, this frequency shift may be positive or negative. A waveform incident on a target has
equiphase wavefronts separated by O , the wavelength. A closing target will cause the reflected
equiphase wavefronts to compress and become closer to each other, resulting in a shorter
wavelength of the reflected waveform. Alternatively, an opening or receding target (moving
away from the radar) will cause the reflected equiphase wavefronts to expand, resulting in a
longer wavelength of the reflected waveform. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.12.

O Oc
closing target

O ! Oc
radar

O Oc
opening target

O  Oc
radar
incident
reflected

Figure 1.12. Effect of target motion on the reflected equiphase waveforms.

Doppler Frequency 15

Consider a pulse of width W (seconds) incident on a target that is moving toward the radar at
velocity v , as shown in Fig. 1.13. Define d as the distance (in meters) that the target moves
into the pulse during the interval 't ,

d = v't Eq. (1.10)

where 't is equal to the time between the pulse leading edge striking the target and the trailing
edge striking the target. Since the pulse is moving at the speed of light and the trailing edge has
moved distance cW – d , then
cW = c't + v't Eq. (1.11)

cW' = c't – v't . Eq. (1.12)

Dividing Eq. (1.12) by Eq. (1.11) yields

cW' c't – v't

------ = ----------------------- Eq. (1.13)
cW c't + v't
which, after canceling the terms c and 't from the left and right side of Eq. (1.13), respec-
tively, one establishes the relationship between the incident and reflected pulses widths as
c–v
Wc = ----------- W . Eq. (1.14)
c+v
In practice, the factor c – v e c + v is often referred to as the time dilation factor. Notice
that if v = 0 , then Wc = W . In a similar fashion, one can compute Wc for an opening target. In
this case,

v+c
Wc = ----------- W . Eq. (1.15)
c–v
To derive an expression for Doppler frequency, consider the illustration shown in Fig. 1.14.
It takes 't seconds for the leading edge of pulse 2 to travel a distance c e f r – d to strike the
target. Over the same time interval, the leading edge of pulse 1 travels the same distance c't .
More precisely,

d = v't Eq. (1.16)

trailing leading
incident pulse edge
edge v
at time t = t 0 L = cW
s = c't
s = c't
d = v't
at time t = t 0 + 't L' = cW'

reflected pulse
leading trailing
edge edge

Figure 1.13. Illustrating the impact of target velocity on a single pulse.

16 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

cW c e fr
v
incident pulse 2 pulse 1
TE LE TE LE

cW' cW d

pulse 1 has already come back

pulse 2 starts to strike the target pulse 1 pulse 2
LE TE TE LE

s – d = c e f r' cW' 2d

reflected pulse 1 pulse 2

LE TE LE TE

LE: Pulse leading edge.

TE: Pulse trailing edge.

Figure 1.14. Illustration of target motion effects on the radar pulses.

c
--- – d = c't . Eq. (1.17)
fr
Solving for 't yields
cef
't = ----------r- Eq. (1.18)
c+v
cv e f
d = -------------r . Eq. (1.19)
c+v
The reflected pulse spacing is now s – d and the new PRF is f r c , where

c cv e f
s – d = ----- = c't – -------------r Eq. (1.20)
fr c c+v
It follows that the new PRF is related to the original PRF by
c+v
f r c = ----------- f r . Eq. (1.21)
c–v
However, since the number of cycles does not change, the frequency of the reflected signal
will go up by the same factor. Denoting the new frequency by f 0 c , it follows that
c+v
f 0 c = ----------- f 0 Eq. (1.22)
c–v
Doppler Frequency 17

where f 0 is the carrier frequency of the incident signal. The Doppler frequency f d is defined as
the difference f 0 c – f 0 . More precisely,

c+v 2v
f d = f 0 c – f 0 = ----------- f 0 – f 0 = ----------- f 0 , Eq. (1.23)
c–v c–v
but since v « c and c = Of 0 , then
2v 2v
f d | ------ f 0 = ------ . Eq. (1.24)
c O
Eq. (1.24) indicates that the Doppler shift is proportional to the target velocity, and, thus, one
can extract f d from range rate and vice versa.
The result in Eq. (1.24) can also be derived using the following approach: Fig. 1.15 shows a
closing target with velocity v . Let R 0 refer to the range at time t 0 (time reference); then the
range to the target at any time t is

R t = R0 –v t – t0 . Eq. (1.25)

The signal received by the radar is then given by

xr t = x t – \ t Eq. (1.26)

where x t is the transmitted signal, and

2
\ t = --- R 0 – vt + vt 0 . Eq. (1.27)
c
Substituting Eq. (1.27) into Eq. (1.26) and collecting terms yields

x r t = x § § 1 + 2v
------· t – \ 0· Eq. (1.28)
©© c¹ ¹
where the constant phase \ 0 is
2R 2v
\ 0 = --------0- + ------ t 0 . Eq. (1.29)
c c
Define the compression or scaling factor J by

J = 1 + 2v e c Eq. (1.30)

Note that for a receding target the scaling factor becomes J = 1 – 2v e c . Utilizing Eq.
(1.30), one can rewrite Eq. (1.28) as
x r t = x Jt – \ 0 . Eq. (1.31)

Eq. (1.31) represents a time-compressed version of the return signal from a stationary target
( v = 0 ). Hence, based on the scaling property of the Fourier transform, the spectrum of the
received signal will be expanded in frequency to a factor of J .
Consider the special case when

x t = y t cos Z 0 t Eq. (1.32)

where Z 0 is the radar center frequency in radians per second. The received signal x r t is then
given by
18 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

R0

Figure 1.15. Closing target with velocity v.

x r t = y Jt – \ 0 cos JZ 0 t – \ 0 . Eq. (1.33)

The Fourier transform of Eq. (1.33) is

1 Z Z
X r Z = ----- § Y § ---- – Z 0· + Y § ---- + Z 0· · , Eq. (1.34)
2J © © J ¹ ©J ¹¹
where for simplicity the effects of the constant phase \ 0 have been ignored in Eq. (1.34).
Therefore, the bandpass spectrum of the received signal is now centered at JZ 0 instead of Z 0 .
The difference between the two values corresponds to the amount of Doppler shift incurred
due to the target motion,
Z d = Z 0 – JZ 0 œ f d = f 0 – Jf 0 . Eq. (1.35)

Z d and f d are the Doppler frequency in radians per second and in Hz, respectively. Substitut-
ing the value of J in Eq. (1.35) yields
2v
f d = ------ f 0 = 2v
------ , Eq. (1.36)
c O
which is the same as Eq. (1.24). It can be shown that for a receding target, the Doppler shift is
f d = – 2v e O . This is illustrated in Fig. 1.16.
In both Eq. (1.36) and Eq. (1.24) the target radial velocity with respect to the radar is equal to
v , but this is not always the case. In fact, the amount of Doppler frequency depends on the tar-
get velocity component in the direction of the radar (radial velocity). Fig. 1.17 shows three tar-
gets all having velocity v : target 1 has zero Doppler shift; target 2 has maximum Doppler
frequency as defined in Eq. (1.36). The amount of Doppler frequency of target 3 is
f d = 2v cos T e O , where v cos T is the radial velocity, and T is the total angle between the
radar line of sight and the target. Thus, a more general expression for f d that accounts for the
total angle between the radar and the target is

2v
f d = ------ cos T Eq. (1.37)
O
and for an opening target
–2 v
f d = --------- cos T Eq. (1.38)
O
where cos T = cos T e cos T a . The angles T e and T a are, respectively, the elevation and azi-
muth angles; see Fig. 1.18.
Doppler Frequency 19

amplitude
amplitude

fd fd

f0 frequency f0 frequency
closing target receding target

Figure 1.16. Spectra of received signal showing Doppler shift.

v
v v
T

tgt1 tgt2 tgt3

Figure 1.17. Target 1 generates zero Doppler. Target 2 generates

maximum Doppler. Target 3 is in between.

v
Ta Te

Figure 1.18. Radial velocity is proportional to the azimuth and elevation angles.
20 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

Example:

Compute the Doppler frequency measured by the radar shown in the figure below.

O = 0.03m
vtarget = 175 m/sec

line of sight

target

vradar = 250 m/sec

Solution:

The relative radial velocity between the radar and the target is v radar + v t arg et . Thus, using Eq.
(1.36), we get
250 + 175
f d = 2 ----------------------------- = 28.3KHz .
0.03
Similarly, if the target were opening the Doppler frequency is
250 – 175
f d = 2 ------------------------ = 5KHz .
0.03

MATLAB Function “doppler_freq.m”

The function “doppler_freq.m” computes Doppler frequency and the associated time dila-
tion factor; its syntax is as follows:
[fd, tdr] = doppler_freq (freq, ang, tv, indicator)
where

Symbol Description Units Status

freq radar operating frequency Hz input
ang aspect angle degrees input
tv target velocity m/sec input
fd Doppler frequency Hz output
tdr time dilation factor ratio Wc e W none output

1.6. Coherence
A radar is said to be coherent if the phase of any two transmitted pulses is consistent, i.e.,
there is a continuity in the signal phase from one pulse to the next, as illustrated in Fig. 1.19a.
One can view coherence as the radar’s ability to maintain an integer multiple of wavelengths
between the equiphase wavefront from the end of one pulse to the equiphase wavefront at the
beginning of the next pulse, as illustrated by Fig. 1.19b. Coherency can be achieved by using a
STAble Local Oscillator (STALO). A radar is said to be coherent-on-receive or quasi-coherent
if it stores in its memory a record of the phases of all transmitted pulses. In this case, the
receiver phase reference is normally the phase of the most recent transmitted pulse.
Decibel Arithmetic 21

(a)

pulse n+1 pulse n

integer multiple of O
O O

(b) distance

Figure 1.19. (a) Phase continuity between consecutive pulses. (b) Maintaining an integer
multiple of wavelengths between the equiphase wavefronts of any two successive pulses
guarantees coherency.

Coherence also refers to the radar’s ability to accurately measure (extract) the received sig-
nal phase. Since Doppler represents a frequency shift in the received signal, then only coherent
or coherent-on-receive radars can extract Doppler information. This is because the instanta-
neous frequency of a signal is proportional to the time derivative of the signal phase. More pre-
cisely,

1 d
f i = ------ \ t Eq. (1.39)
2S d t
where f i is the instantaneous frequency, and \ t is the signal phase.
For example, consider the following signal:

x t = cos JZ 0 t – \ 0 Eq. (1.40)

where the scaling factor J is defined in Eq. (1.30), and \ 0 is a constant phase. It follows that
the instantaneous frequency of x t is

f i = Jf 0 Eq. (1.41)

where Z 0 = 2Sf 0 . Substituting Eq. (1.30) into Eq. (1.41) yields

2v 2v
f i = f 0 § 1 + ------· = f 0 + ------ Eq. (1.42)
© c¹ O
where the relation c = Of is utilized. Note that the second term of the most right-hand side of
Eq. (1.42) is a Doppler shift.

1.7. Decibel Arithmetic

The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit of measurement that represents a ratio of a physical
quantity (such as voltage, power, or antenna gain) to a specific reference quantity of the same
22 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

type. The unit dB is named after Alexander Graham Bell, who originated the unit as a measure
of power attenuation in telephone lines. By Bell’s definition, a unit of Bell gain is

P
log § -----0· Eq. (1.43)
© Pi ¹

where the logarithm operation is base 10, P 0 is the output power of a standard telephone line
(almost one mile long), and P i is the input power to the line. If voltage (or current) ratios are
used instead of the power ratio, then a unit Bell gain is defined as
V 2 I 2
log § -----0· or log § ---0-· . Eq. (1.44)
© Vi ¹ © Ii ¹

–1
A decibel, dB, is 1 e 10 of a Bell (the prefix “deci” means 10 ). It follows that a dB is
defined as
P V 2 I 2
10 log § -----0· = 10 log § -----0· = 10 log § ---0-· . Eq. (1.45)
© Pi ¹ © Vi ¹ © Ii ¹

The inverse dB is computed from the relations

dB e 10
P 0 e P i = 10
dB e 20
V 0 e V i = 10 Eq. (1.46)
dB e 20
I 0 e I i = 10

The decibel nomenclature is widely used by radar designers and users for several reasons,
and perhaps, the most important one is that representing radar-related physical quantities using
dBs drastically reduces the dynamic range that a designer or a user has to use. For example, an
–9
incoming radar signal may be as weak as 1 u 10 V , which can be expressed in dBs as
–9
10 log 1 u 10 = – 90dB . Alternatively, a target may be located at range R = 1000Km ,
which can be expressed in dBs as 60dB . Another advantage of using dB in radar design and
analysis is to facilitate the arithmetic associated with calculating the different radar parameters.
This is true since multiplication in base-10 arithmetic translates into addition in dB-arithmetic,
and division translates into subtraction. For example,

250 u 0.0001 = > 10 log 250 + 10 log 0.0001 – 10 log 455 @dB = – 42.6dB
------------------------------- . Eq. (1.47)
455
In general,

AuB
10 log § -------------· = 10 log A + 10 log B – 10 log C Eq. (1.48)
© C ¹

q
10 log A = q u 10 log A . Eq. (1.49)

Other dB ratios that are often used in radar analysis include the dBsm (dB, squared meters).
This definition is very important when referring to target Radar Cross Section (RCS), whose
2
units are in squared meters. More precisely, a target whose RCS is V m can be expressed in
2 2
dBsm as 10 log V m . For example, a 10m target is often referred to as a 10dBsm target,
2
and a target with RCS 0.01m is equivalent to a – 20dBsm .
Problems 23

Finally, the units dBm (dB, milliwatt) and dBW (dB, Watt) are power ratios of dBs with ref-
erence to one milliwatt and one Watt, respectively.

P
dBm = 10 log § -------------· Eq. (1.50)
© 1mW¹

P
dBW = 10 log § --------· Eq. (1.51)
© 1W¹

To find dBm from dBW, add 30dB, and to find dBW from dBm, subtract 30dB. Other common
dB units include dBz and dBi. dBz is used to measure weather radar reflectivity representing
6 –3
the amount of returned power received by the radar referenced to mm m . The unit dBi (dB,
isotropic) represents the forward gain of an antenna compared to an ideal isotropic antenna that
emits energy equally in all directions.

Problems
1.1. (a) Calculate the maximum unambiguous range for a pulsed radar with PRF of 200Hz
and 750Hz . (b) What are the corresponding PRIs?
1.2. For the same radar in Problem 1.1, assume a duty cycle of 30% and peak power of
5KW . Compute the average power and the amount of radiated energy during the first 20ms .
1.3. A certain pulsed radar uses pulse width W = 1Ps . Compute the corresponding range
resolution.
1.4. An X-band radar uses PRF of 3KHz . Compute the unambiguous range and the
required bandwidth so that the range resolution is 30m . What is the duty cycle?
1.5. Compute the Doppler shift associated with a closing target with velocity 100, 200, and
350 meters per second. In each case, compute the time dilation factor. Assume that O = 0.3m .
1.6. Compute the round-trip delays, minimum PRIs, and corresponding PRFs for targets
located 30Km, 80Km, and 150Km away from the radar.
1.7. Assume an S-band radar, what are the Doppler frequencies for the following target
range rates: 50m/s; 200m/s; and 250m/s.
1.8. Repeat the previous problem for an X-Band radar (9.5GHz).
1.9. A certain L-band radar has center frequency 1.5GHz , and PRF f r = 10KHz . What is
the maximum Doppler shift that can be measured by this radar?
1.10. Starting with a modified version of Eq. (1.25), derive an expression for the Doppler
shift associated with a receding target.
1.11. In reference to Fig. 1.18, compute the Doppler frequency for v = 150m e s ,
T a = 30q , and T e = 15q . Assume that O = 0.1m .
1.12. A pulsed radar system has a range resolution of 30cm . Assuming sinusoid pulses at
45KHz , determine the pulse width and the corresponding bandwidth.
1.13. (a) Develop an expression for the minimum PRF of a pulsed radar. (b) Compute f rmin
for a closing target whose velocity is 400m e s . (c) What is the unambiguous range? Assume
that O = 0.2m .
24 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

1.14. A certain radar is tasked with detecting and tracking the moon. Assume that the aver-
8
age distance to the moon is 3.844 u 10 m , and its average radar cross section is
11 2
6.64 u 10 m . (a) Compute the delay to the moon. (b) What is required PRF so the range to
the moon is unambiguous. (c) What is the moon’s radar cross section in dBsm.
1.15. An L-band pulsed radar is designed to have an unambiguous range of 100Km and
range resolution 'R d 100m . The maximum resolvable Doppler frequency corresponds to
v t arg et d 350m e sec . Compute the maximum required pulse width, the PRF, and the average
transmitted power if P t = 500W .
1.16. A certain target has the following characteristics: its range away from the radar given
in its corresponding x- y- and z- components is ^ 25Km 32Km 12Km ` . The target velocity
vector is v z = v y = 0 , and v x = – 250m e s . Compute the composite target range and range
rate. If the radar’s operating frequency is 9GHz, what is the corresponding Doppler frequency.
Appendix 1-A: Chapter 1 MATLAB Code Listings 25

Appendix 1-A: Chapter 1 MATLAB Code Listings

The MATLAB code provided in this chapter was designed as an academic standalone tool
and is not adequate for other purposes. The code was written in a way to assist the reader in
gaining a better understanding of the theory. The code was not developed, nor is it intended to
be used as part of an open-loop or a closed-loop simulation of any kind. The MATLAB code
found in this textbook can be downloaded from this book’s web page on the CRC Press web-
site. Simply use your favorite web browser, go to www.crcpress.com, and search for keyword
“Mahafza” to locate this book’s web page.

MATLAB Function “pulse_train.m” Listing

function [dt, prf, pav, ep, ru] = pulse_train (tau, pri, p_peak)
% computes duty cycle, average transmitted power, pulse energy, and pulse repetition frequency
%% Inputs:
% tau == Pulse width in seconds
% pri == Pulse repetition interval in seconds
% p_peak == Peak power in Watts
%% Outputs:
% dt == Duty cycle - unitless
% prf == Pulse repetition frequency in Hz
% pa == Average power in Watts
% ep == Pulse energy in Joules
% ru == Unambiguous range in Km
%
c = 3e8; % speed of light
dt = tau / pri;
prf = 1. / pri;
pav = p_peak * dt;
ep = p_peak * tau;
ru = 1.e-3 * c * pri /2.0;
return

MATLAB Function “range_resolution.m” Listing

function [delta_R] = range_resolution (var)
% This function computes radar range resolution in meters
%% Inputs:
% var can be either
% var == Bandwidth in Hz
% var == Pulse width in seconds
% % Outputs:
% delta_R == range resolution in meters
% Bandwidth may be equal to (1/pulse width)==> indicator = seconds
%
c = 3.e+8; % speed of light
indicator = input ('Enter 1 for var == Bandwidth, OR 2 for var == Pulse width \n');
switch (indicator)
case 1
delta_R = c / 2.0 / var; % del_r = c/2B
case 2
delta_R = c * var / 2.0; % del_r = c*tau/2
end
return
26 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

MATLAB Function “doppler_freq.m” Listing

function [fd, tdr] = doppler_freq (freq, ang, tv)
% This function computes Doppler frequency and time dilation factor ratio (tau_prime / tau)
% % Inputs:
% freq == radar operating frequency in Hz
% ang == target aspect angle in degrees
% tv == target velocity in m/sec
% % Outputs:
% fd == Doppler frequency in Hz
% tdr == time dilation factor; unitless
%
format long
indicator = input ('Enter 1 for closing target, OR 2 for opening target \n');
c = 3.0e+8;
ang_rad = ang * pi /180.;
lambda = c / freq;
switch (indicator)
case 1
fd = 2.0 * tv * cos(ang_rad) / lambda;
tdr = (c - tv) / (c + tv);
case 2
fd = -2.0 * c * tv * cos(and_rad) / lambda;
tdr = (c + tv) / (c -tv);
end
return
Part I - Radar Principles

Chapter 2

Basic Pulsed and Continuous

Wave (CW) Radar Operations

2.1. The Radar Range Equation

Consider a radar with an isotropic antenna (one that radiates energy equally in all
directions). Since isotropic antennas have spherical radiation patterns, one can define the peak
power density (power per unit area) at any point in space away from the radar as

Watts
P D = Peak
transmitted power --------------
-.
------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
Eq. (2.1)
area of a sphere m
2
The power density, in Watts e m , at range R away from the radar (assuming a lossless propa-
gation medium) is
2
P D = P t e 4SR Eq. (2.2)
2
where P t is the peak transmitted power and 4SR is the surface area of a sphere of radius R .
Radar systems utilize directional antennas in order to increase the power density in a certain
direction. Directional antennas are usually characterized by the antenna gain G and the
antenna effective aperture A e . They are related by
2
G = 4SA e e O Eq. (2.3)

where O is the radar operating wavelength. The relationship between the antenna’s effective
aperture A e and the physical aperture A is

A e = UA Eq. (2.4)
0dUd1
where U is referred to as the aperture efficiency, and good antennas require U o 1 . In this
book, unless otherwise noted, A and A e are used interchangeably to refer to the antenna’s
aperture, and will assume that antennas have the same gain in the transmitting and receiving
modes. In practice, U | 0.7 is widely accepted.
The gain is also related to the antenna’s azimuth and elevation antenna beamwidths by

4S
G = K ----------- Eq. (2.5)
Te Ta

27
28 Radar Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB®

where K d 1 and depends on the physical aperture shape, and the angles T e and T a are,
respectively, the antenna’s elevation and azimuth beamwidths in radians. An excellent com-
monly used approximation of Eq. (2.5) is

26000
G | --------------- Eq. (2.6)
Te Ta
where in this case the azimuth and elevation beamwidths are given in degrees.

The power density at a distance R away from a radar using a directive antenna of gain G is
then given by

Pt G
P D = ------------
-
2
Eq. (2.7)
4SR
When the radar radiated energy impinges upon a target, the induced surface currents on that
target radiate electromagnetic energy in all directions. The amount of the radiated energy is
proportional to the target size, orientation, physical shape, and material, which are all lumped
together in one target-specific parameter called the Radar Cross Section (RCS) denoted sym-
bolically by the Greek letter V .
The radar cross section is defined as the ratio of the power reflected back to the radar to the
power density incident on the target,
P 2
V = ------r m Eq. (2.8)
PD
where P r is the power reflected from the target. Thus, the total power delivered to the radar
signal processor by its antenna is

P t GV
P Dr = -------------------
- Ae . Eq. (2.9)
2 2
4SR
Substituting the value of A e from Eq. (2.3) into Eq. (2.9) yields
2 2
Pt G O V
P Dr = ---------------------
- Eq. (2.10)
3 4
4S R

Let S min denote the minimum detectable signal power by the radar. It follows that the
maximum radar range R max is
2 2 1e4
§ Pt G O V ·
R max = ¨ -----------------------
3
-¸ . Eq. (2.11)
© 4S S min¹

Eq. (2.11) suggests that in order to double the radar maximum range, one must increase the
peak transmitted power P t sixteen times; or equivalently, one must increase the effective aper-
ture four times.
In practical situations the returned signals received by the radar will be corrupted with noise,
which introduces unwanted voltages at all radar frequencies. Noise is random in nature and can
be characterized by its Power Spectral Density (PSD) function. The noise power N is a
function of the radar operating bandwidth, B . More precisely,
The Radar Range Equation 29

N = Noise PSD u B . Eq. (2.12)

The receiver input noise power is

N i = kT s B Eq. (2.13)
– 23
where k = 1.38 u 10 Joule e degree Kelvin is Boltzmann’s constant, and T s is the total
effective system noise temperature in degrees Kelvin. It is always desirable that the minimum
detectable signal ( S min ) be greater than the noise power. The fidelity of a radar receiver is nor-
mally described by a figure of merit referred to as the noise figure, F . The noise figure is
defined as

SNR Si e Ni
F = ------------------i = --------------
- Eq. (2.14)
SNR o So e No
where SNR i and SNR o are, respectively, the Signal to Noise Ratios (SNR) at the input
and output of the receiver. The input signal power is S i , and the input noise power immedi-
ately at the antenna terminal is N i . The values S o and N o are, respectively, the output signal
and noise powers.
The receiver effective noise temperature excluding the antenna is

Te = To F – 1 Eq. (2.15)

where T 0 = 290K and F is the receiver noise figure. It follows that the total effective system
noise temperature T s is given by

Ts = Te + Ta = T0 F – 1 + Ta = To F – T o + Ta Eq. (2.16)

where T a is the antenna temperature.

In many radar applications it is desirable to set the antenna temperature T a to T 0 and thus,
Eq. (2.16) is reduced to
Ts = To F . Eq. (2.17)

Using Eq. (2.17) in Eq. (2.13) and substituting the result into Eq. (2.14) yields

S i = kT o BF SNR o. Eq. (2.18)

Thus, the minimum detectable signal power can be written as

S min = kT o BF SNR o min . Eq. (2.19)

The radar detection threshold is set equal to the minimum output SNR, SNR o min .
Substituting Eq. (2.19) in Eq. (2.11) gives
2 2 1e4
§ Pt G O V ·
R max = ¨ ------------------------------------------------------
3
¸ Eq. (2.20)
© 4S kT o BF SNR omin¹

or equivalently,
2 2
Pt G O V
SNR o min = ------------------------------------------
3
. Eq. (2.21)
4
4S kT o BFR max
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Juliet started, coloured, and looked round in some
alarm, for Flossie had not thought it necessary to lower her
voice.

"Hush, Flossie! I wish you would not speak in that way.

I am not an angel, or anything like one."

"Now you need not be cross. I meant no harm. You do

look charming, and I think a poor unlucky creature like me
might be allowed to admire the way in which you act the
role of the rich heiress."

"Heiress indeed! What nonsense you are talking! I am

no more an heiress that I am an angel."

"Rubbish, Juliet! You need not try that on with me. Of

course your uncle means to leave you all his money."

"If he does, I am quite unaware of his intention; nor

has such an idea even occurred to me before," said Juliet
disdainfully, whilst the colour deepened in her cheek.

Flossie saw she had made a mistake.

"Well, I am sure your friends would be only too glad if

he did. Algernon was saying yesterday how fitted you were
to grace any position. He says he is glad for your sake; but
he can't help feeling that he shall never see you now. You
will forget your old friends."

"You do not know me, Flossie, if you say that," replied

Juliet, with flashing eyes; "I never forget friends—I am
faithful, whatever else I may be."

"Of course you are. That is what I told him. You are a
darling, Juliet. There is no one like you. You are not to be
tried by ordinary rules."
 Juliet felt impatient of this flow of adulation. She looked
back, and saw her mother coming alone.

"I must go back and meet mother," she said; "I cannot
let her walk home alone. Good-bye, Flossie; I shall see you
again, I hope, when we return from North Devon."

So they parted. On the opposite side of the road

Hannah and Salome were walking with Mrs. Hayes. Juliet
met them as she turned back. Her eyes flashed defiance at
her sisters. Mrs. Hayes looked at the girl with hard scrutiny
as she bowed to her. She was of opinion that Juliet was not
a nice girl.

The following Sunday found Mrs. Tracy and Juliet at

Ilfracombe, delighting in the grandeur of that rocky coast
and the magnificent sea that beats against it. They had not
had such a holiday together for years, and they enjoyed it
most thoroughly. Mrs. Tracy was still young at heart; she
was, in many respects indeed, far younger than either
Hannah or Salome, and she quite enjoyed the novelty of
wandering about, taking irregular alfresco repasts, driving
in a donkey-carriage when the distance was beyond her
walking powers, and almost living out of doors during the
glorious August weather. From Ilfracombe they went to
Lynton, and there Juliet's uncle joined them.

In spite of his thin, cadaverous appearance Mr. Tracy

seemed strong and wiry. He was ready to accompany them
on any excursion they liked to plan. He had no objection to
picnics, as long as he was not urged to forsake his own
regimen. When Juliet and her mother ate sandwiches with
the relish imparted by strong, pure air, he would allow
himself only the refreshment of two Abernethy biscuits and
an acid drop, the latter item being, as he would gravely
assure Juliet, safer and better as a thirst-quencher than a
draught of water, when one could not be sure that that was
absolutely uncontaminated.

Juliet was greatly amused by his fads, which happily he

did not try to persuade her to follow. But Mrs. Tracy was
rendered quite uneasy by them.

"I cannot think how he sustains life on so little," she

would say. "He need be thin. It is a wonder he is as well as
he is. What a profit they must make out of him at the
hotel!"

Juliet was content to leave her uncle's health to his own

care. He must please himself. But she liked him
exceedingly, since he showed himself more and more
charmed by her pretty ways, and more and more desirous
of gratifying her every fancy. With him, she was never
wayward and petulant, but only sweet and winsome and
mischievous. Instinctively she showed him the best side of
her character; and, as her sisters were wont to remark,
Juliet could be very nice to people when she chose.

One lovely evening, the three were walking along the

romantic cliff path at Lynton, which commands such a
glorious view of sea and sky, and terminates at the Castle
Rock. Juliet's quick steps had carried her a little in advance
of the others. She was singing little snatches of song to
herself, and was only half conscious of the beauty about
her, for her mind was busy weaving golden visions of the
future, when round a bend of the narrow path, she came
face to face with a stranger so suddenly that she started
and uttered a nervous cry.

"Oh, I am so sorry I frightened you!" said the

gentleman in concern; and he put forth a hand to steady
her, for the cliff was very precipitous at that point, and she
seemed perilously near the edge.

"Oh, it was silly of me; I was not thinking," Juliet

explained confusedly.

Then as she looked at the grave, kind face bent upon

her she had a puzzling sense of recognition. Where had she
seen before that broad, overhanging brow, those deep-set
grey eyes,—gleaming now with a kind of pleased surprise,
as if he too saw a face not unknown,—and those strong,
rugged features?

Her uncle's voice gave her enlightenment. "Why,

Mainprice!" he exclaimed, hurrying forward. "Who would
have thought of seeing you here?"

Of course. This was Mr. Mainprice, the curate, who

through his chance meeting with her on the green near
Flossie's home had been able to direct her uncle where to
seek her. She had often heard Mr. Tracy speak of him since,
and knew that he held this young clergyman in high
esteem.

"I might reply in similar fashion," said Mr. Mainprice, as

they shook hands. "I have come down from town on my
bicycle. I like touring in that fashion, as you know."

"To be sure. Well, it is healthy exercise. But now let me

introduce you to Mrs. Tracy and my niece, whom you were
the means of my finding. We feel that we owe you a debt of
gratitude for that, do we not, Juliet?"

"I most certainly do," said Juliet gravely.

"Oh, I do not feel that I deserve any gratitude. You

would have found each other sooner or later in any case."
 "I am very glad it was not later," said Juliet significantly.

"Then I am happy that I was the cause of your meeting

when you did," he said with a smile, which Juliet decided
made him look quite handsome.

Mr. Mainprice was easily persuaded to turn back with

them, and they all walked on together towards the Castle
Rock. Juliet did not talk much at first. She was occupied in
observing Mr. Mainprice and listening to what he said. She
liked the frank, easy manner in which he talked and the
sound of his deep, strong voice.

"I am going to the top of the rock," cried Juliet, as they

approached the tall, rugged mass of rock, which like a
castle surmounts the crag and fronts the sea.

"Oh, do be careful, my dear child!" cried Mrs. Tracy

anxiously, as Juliet started to clamber up.

"I will see that she comes to no harm," said Mr.

Mainprice, as he hastened after her.

With an air of relief, Mrs. Tracy seated herself on a rock

to await Juliet's return, and Mr. Tracy remained with her.

To step from rock to rock by a kind of rude stairway to

the top of the pile was a matter of little difficulty, and Juliet
would have none of Mr. Mainprice's help.

To stand on that lofty summit and gaze down on the

waves beating so far below would have severely tried weak
nerves; but Juliet had a steady head, and enjoyed the novel
sensation of being perched on the crag. Both seaward and
landward a glorious prospect offered itself to their view.
 "Oh, I like this!" cried Juliet gleefully, as she struggled
with the breeze which threatened to carry away her hat.
"What a lovely view! And what a glorious wind! If only I had
wings and could soar away on it! Oh, how happy I am!"

"That's right," he said heartily; "it's good to be happy."

"Is it?" she replied, looking at him mischievously. "I

should rather have expected you to say it was good to be
miserable. Salome thinks so, I know."

"Who is Salome?" he asked.

"Oh, my sister," she said, without deeming it necessary

to explain further. Then she added impetuously, "If I am
happy, I owe it to you. I was not happy till uncle came."

"No?" he said, amused at the childlike way in which she

gave him her confidence. "How was that?"

"Oh, my sisters were always trying to make me do what

I did not want to do. They meant me to be a governess, and
I hated the idea. But now uncle has come, there is no
thought of that. He lets me have my own way in everything,
and I do just as I like."

"Is that, then, your idea of happiness—to have one's

own way?"

"Yes," said Juliet, giving her head a little nod, "that is

my idea, and a very good idea it is too."

"I do not agree with you. You are under a delusion.

What you are grasping after as happiness is not happiness,
but only its empty shadow."
 "Then I am content with the shadow," said Juliet. "I
have tried having my own way, and I like it very much."

And her violet eyes flashed mischievous defiance at

him.

"It will not satisfy you long," he said. "Nothing betrays

and disappoints like self-will. There is no peace for us till we
learn that God's way and not ours is the best, and learn to
seek that rather than the gratification of our own desires."

"God's way!" So he wanted to talk religion to her. She

had forgotten that he was a clergyman.

"But I am not sure that I care about peace," she said

perversely; "to me the word has rather an insipid sound. I
am afraid I enjoy strife and excitement. I dread nothing
more than stagnation."

He smiled at her, much as he might have smiled at a

wayward child. Then he pointed to the distant stretch of
ocean shimmering in the sun's level rays.

"Look," he said, "at the sunlit sea, at that bank of cloud

flushed with softest crimson, and the yellow glow where the
sun is just sinking to the horizon. What an air of calm and
hush there is! Does it not all breathe peace? Yet there is no
stagnation there."

She did not answer him, but gazed in silence at the

western sky, till slowly the colours faded and sea and clouds
grew grey. Then she turned and began to scramble quickly
down the rocks. She did not speak again till she was by her
mother's side.

Though Juliet resented Mr. Mainprice's attempt to "talk

religion" to her, his words had gone home. She could not
forget them.

That night, after her uncle had gone away, she lingered
alone in the little garden attached to the house in which she
and her mother were lodging. It was growing dusk. Already
stars were appearing in the clear sky above her head. A
light breeze rustled the trees. Behind her lay the vast,
mysterious moor. In front, far down beneath the trees, out
of sight, but making its presence known by the low, distant
moaning of its waves, was the sea.

All about her God's great, wonderful world. What a poor,

insignificant atom she seemed in comparison! Did it matter
so very much how she lived?

"Yes," the voice of her better self made answer, "it did
matter. It must be better to take God's way, even if it
seemed steep and hard, for it would lead upward."

And her own self-chosen, pleasure-seeking way, where

would that lead? Juliet had a distinct sense of being called
at this hour to make a choice. She could clearly see the two
ways opening before her, one easy and pleasant and
winding, the other straight and steep. A struggle went on
within her. The yearning for goodness she had felt before
awoke again. Oh, to have an inner life as pure and serene
and beautiful as the summer, night! Oh, to know that all
was right with her life, to feel that a Power outside herself,
a Power as loving as it was mighty, was leading, guiding,
controlling all!

Juliet's better self had almost gained the day, when

there came to her the thought of Salome. Could she
become such a one as Salome, so harsh and censorious,
wearing such plain, ill-fitting clothes, denying herself all
amusement, walking in so straight and narrow a way?
 No, anything but that. And self-will asserted itself anew.
She could not try to alter herself. She must follow her own
way, whatever it might lead to. So self-will gained the day,
and Juliet hurried into the house, determinedly closing her
mind against serious thought.

Salome, with all her blindness and self-deception, was

yet sincere in her endeavour to do her duty and lead a
Christian life. How she would have grieved, could she have
known that her austerity had driven Juliet at this critical
moment of her life from the loving Saviour, whose image
she, who called herself His disciple, had so utterly failed to
reflect!

CHAPTER IX
GRATIFIED DESIRES

"WHAT shall we do this afternoon, uncle?"

"Whatever you please, my dear. I am at your service

entirely."

Juliet's eyes brightened. She leaned nearer to her uncle

as he sat in his easy-chair, and laid her hand with a pretty
caressing movement on his shoulder. Such spontaneous
expressions of affection, which she gave with the grace and
freedom of a child, were delightful to him. His niece was
spending the day with him at the comfortable chambers in
Bloomsbury in which he had established himself when he
returned to town in the autumn. He lived there very quietly,
spending much of his time amongst the books in the British
Museum; but it was an understood thing between them that
when Juliet came to see him he must devote himself to her
entertainment, and he thoroughly enjoyed the hours he
spent with her in sight-seeing and other forms of diversion.

"Oh, uncle, there is such a lovely concert at the Crystal

Palace this afternoon. Adelina Patti is to sing. Oh, I should
so like to hear her!"

"Have you never heard her sing?"

"Never. I have never heard anyone. I never go

anywhere," said Juliet plaintively. "Hannah and Salome
always think it wrong to take any pleasure and I cannot go
to places by myself."

"Poor child! You are hardly used," said her uncle, with a
merry twinkle in his eyes; "but now let me hear more about
this concert. How would it do if I were to take you?"

"Oh, uncle! Will you really? How lovely! There is nothing

I should like so much. Oh, it is good of you. And afterwards
the fountains will be illuminated, and there will be splendid
fireworks. Oh, I shall enjoy it!"

"But, my dear, if we stayed to see the fireworks, you

would not get home till very late, and your mother would be
alarmed," said her uncle.

"Oh, of course, I must send her a telegram," was

Juliet's prompt reply. "And there is a little room, half-way up
the stairs, which Mrs. Carroll lets sometimes. She showed it
to me the last time I was here. The best plan would be for
me to sleep there to-night. You would not care to take me
home so late."
 Assuredly he would not. But was there ever such a little
puss for getting her own way? How quick she was to foresee
and provide against every objection that might be made to
that which she proposed!

So to the Crystal Palace they went that afternoon. The

popular resort of Londoners was a novel place to Juliet, and
it was many years since Mr. Tracy had visited it. They were
able to see a good deal of its beauties ere it was time to
take their places for the concert. Mr. Tracy did not mind
paying a handsome price for the tickets, and they could not
have had a better position than they secured.

It was an excellent concert. The prima donna sang

beautifully, and, to Mr. Tracy's delight, she sang simple old
English ditties, which he had known and loved from his
boyhood. He listened entranced to her exquisite rendering
of these, and was scarcely less rapturously delighted than
was Juliet.

But the instrumental music which followed had much

less attraction for him, and whilst it proceeded his eyes
wandered over the audience or marked such details of the
finely proportioned building as came within their range. As
he gazed about thus, he suddenly became aware that a
young man, who with a couple of companions occupied
comfortable seats to the right above their heads, was
leaning forward with his opera-glass levelled at Juliet, and
regarding her with a persistency which quickly excited her
uncle's ire. Juliet soon became aware of the gaze fixed on
her. She looked up, and her face flushed as she recognised
Algernon Chalcombe. When he was aware that she saw him,
he dropped his opera-glasses and looked at her, awaiting
her recognition. She smiled and bowed; he bowed in return,
with such a look of pleasure that Juliet's heart beat high
with elation. But her uncle had observed these salutations
with little pleasure.

"Do you know that gentleman, Juliet?" he asked.

"Yes," Juliet replied, with lowered eyelids; "I went to

school with his sister."

Her uncle made no further inquiry, but he continued to

regard the young man with disfavour. It struck him that the
handsome dark face had a dissipated appearance, and that
he looked too much of a fine gentleman to be the genuine
article. Mr. Tracy wondered if it were indeed a diamond
which flashed conspicuously on the young man's hand.

Juliet did not again turn her pretty head towards the
seat where young Chalcombe sat, but she was aware,
without seeming to be so, that his opera-glasses were often
directed to the spot where she sat. Her uncle observed it
also, and felt enraged with the fellow for his impudence.

When the concert was over, Juliet and her uncle took a
walk in the grounds. Juliet spoke with rapture of the
concert, and the delight with which she had listened to
Adelina Patti.

"Oh, uncle, I would give anything to be a public singer!"

she exclaimed.

"Nonsense, my dear child!" he replied. "You do not

know what that means."

"I do know," she responded excitedly. "It must be a

splendid life. Think what it is to stand before such an
audience and know that every eye is on you, everyone
admiring you and listening spellbound to your voice. Did
you hear that gentleman behind us say, when she had
finished singing 'Home, sweet home,' that he should think
she would make home sweet?"

"Humph," said her uncle slowly, in the tone of one who

will not utter all his mind; "I daresay it seems very fine to
you, my dear, but you speak in ignorance. Such women are
far from being so happy as you suppose. You see the
glamour and glitter, you hear the applause, but you do not
know what lies behind—the heartache and jealousy and
bitterness."

"Oh, of course there are drawbacks," said Juliet loftily;

"but that is the kind of life I should like."

"My dear, I hope that yours will be a far happier lot. I do

not like the idea of a public life for a woman. Home is the
woman's true sphere."

"Oh, uncle, excuse me, but that is a terribly old-

fashioned idea—quite an exploded one, in fact. A woman
has as much right to make a career for herself as a man.
For my part, I have no wish for a happy lot, if it must be a
humdrum and commonplace one. I want to live."

"So you shall, Juliet, but not by acting or singing in

public, I trust. You must be patient, and wait till the prince
comes who shall reconcile you to a home life."

He turned to Juliet with a smile on his wrinkled,

parchment face, and a merry twinkle in his eyes.

But a disdainful frown sat on that young lady's brow,

and she responded impatiently, "Really, uncle! Do you think
I want to be married? I assure you that is the last thing that
enters into my aspirations for the future."
 He felt himself snubbed, and was silent. He was
beginning to find his young niece somewhat of a puzzle, and
even a perplexity. She did not agree with the notions of
womanhood which he had held all his days, without ever
harbouring a doubt of their truth. The wife whose early
death was the most bitter grief of his life, had been a
gentle, loving, domesticated woman, who had had no
ambition beyond that of performing in the best possible
manner those duties of her sex which he believed to be the
whole end and aim of womanhood!

At first, he had been highly entertained by Juliet's self-

will and audacity. He had observed them with amusement,
as we watch the wilfulness of a tiny child or the
frolicsomeness of a kitten. They seemed but childish failings
which she would lose as she grew older. But to-night, for
the first time, he felt misgivings as he thought of Juliet's
future. He had already adopted her in his heart as a
daughter. He had confided to her mother his intention of
leaving Juliet all that he had. Now, however, he reflected
that the command of money might be a fatal gift to one so
pretty and young and wilful. He remembered with
uneasiness the young man whom he had seen watching
Juliet so intently. Yes, money might make her the prey of a
worthless fortune-seeker. He must weigh the matter well,
lest inadvertently, he did harm instead of good to the girl he
loved.

Not only was Ralph Tracy his own medical man, he liked
to be his own lawyer as well. It vexed him to think that the
simple will which he could have drawn up himself would
hardly meet the necessities of the case. To secure the
property to Juliet, and protect it from unscrupulous hands,
it would be necessary to make careful provisions. He hardly
knew if he were equal to framing them himself, but ere he
called in the aid of a solicitor, he would have a try at it, with
the help of sundry large books crammed full of legal
information which was often very hard to digest.

Such was Mr. Tracy's resolve, but he did not

immediately proceed to carry it out. He found it more
agreeable to let the thing slide for a while. It is curious how
reluctant most men are to make provision for the event of
their decease.

Yet he was really uneasy about Juliet when he retired to

rest after their return from the Palace. He was so troubled,
indeed, that he could get little rest. He could hardly have
slept worse or had more frightful dreams, had he supped
intemperately on beef-steak, instead of on the very thin
cocoa and dry biscuits which were all he permitted himself.

And Juliet too passed a restless night, but the dreams

which visited her broken slumbers were of another order.
One gay scene followed another in her visions. There was
laughter and singing and applause, and ever she was the
gayest of the gay, the most admired of the admired, the
cynosure of all eyes. She was singing before the Queen in
Buckingham Palace, and the Princess of Wales was
advancing to present her with a huge bouquet, when the
postman's loud knock resounding through the house woke
her to the consciousness that it was only a dream.

When she came downstairs an hour later, her uncle had

long finished his frugal meal, and was leisurely studying his
newspaper. He laid it aside when she entered, and talked to
her as she ate her breakfast. Juliet would talk of nothing
but the concert. When she had finished her meal, she sat
down at the piano, and began to play snatches of the
melodies she had heard. Although she had made little
progress under Salome's tuition, Juliet had a fine ear for
music. Presently she broke into a good old song, which was
a favourite with her mother, "The oak and the ash and the
bonny ivy tree."

Her uncle listened with pleasure. The familiar words

recalled to him vividly the days of his early manhood. When
she ceased, he thanked her warmly, and not without
emotion.

"That song carries me back over many years," he said.

"Ah, you cannot think what it is to be old, and to have the
scenes of your youth come back to you like dreams. You
have a very nice voice, dear; I like to hear you sing."

"I am glad you like my voice," Juliet said; "but it needs

training sadly. I want some good singing lessons. I am
trying to save money to pay for them."

"You need not save money for that, Juliet. I will pay for
the lessons. Why did you not speak to me about it before?"

"How could I, uncle, when you have already done so

much for me? You are too good, indeed!"

"Nonsense, child! I only want to see you happy. Of

course you shall have lessons, if you wish for them."

"Oh, uncle, you cannot think how happy you make me!
You don't know how I have longed for lessons!"

"Then you shall certainly have your heart's desire,

though that does not invariably bring happiness. All, that
reminds me of a sermon I once heard Mr. Mainprice preach
about the heart's desire. It was very good. I wish you could
have heard it."

"Don't wish that," said Juliet; "I do not like Mr.

Mainprice, and I probably should not have liked his
sermon."

"Not like Mr. Mainprice!" exclaimed her uncle, in

astonishment. "You surprise me, Juliet. Why, he is one of
the best men I know. Indeed, I do not know another young
man like him—so good and earnest and strong in every
way."

"He may be all that," said Juliet; "but I do not like good
young men."

Yet it was not true that she disliked Mr. Mainprice, as in

her perversity she chose to declare. Her real feeling for him
was far removed from dislike, but she disliked to recall
certain words she had heard him utter; she wished to avoid
thinking of the man whose rare personality had so
impressed her that the very thought of him had the force of
a condemnation.

Her uncle looked at her in amazement for a moment;

then he leaned back in his chair smiling, as one smiles at
the quaint sayings of a child.

"You say that because you know so little about them,

Juliet," he remarked.

"I know enough," she returned. "In books they always

die young, and it is the best thing they can do."

"It would be a sad thing for the world if that were

always the fate of the good young men," said her uncle,
smiling. "You are talking nonsense, you foolish child, and
you know it. Nothing is of so much importance as a man's
character. What he does, or what he has, are trifles in
comparison. I see that more and more clearly as I grow
older. What is a man worth to God? That is the supreme
test of his life's value."
 But her uncle's thoughts had taken a turn Juliet had no
wish to pursue. She hastened to bring them back to the
subject which so greatly interested her.

"How soon can I have lessons, uncle?" she asked.

"As soon as it can be arranged," he replied. "Where can

we find a good singing master for you?"

"Signor Lombardi is the best," said Juliet promptly.

"That is a good deal to say for the man," observed her

uncle; "how do you know that he is the best?"

"I have been told so by people who understand all

about music," said Juliet, colouring. "Of course there must
be many good masters in London; but Signor Lombardi is
the one of whom I should like to learn."

It was Algernon Chalcombe who had advised her to

secure, if possible, lessons from Signor Lombardi, of whom
he had spoken as a first-class teacher, and one who had
assisted to train and introduce to the world various musical
stars, Algernon himself being one of the number.

"Very well," said Mr. Tracy good-naturedly; "Signor

Lombardi it shall be. But remember this, Juliet," he added
more gravely, "I will not for a moment countenance the idea
of your becoming a public singer. You must study to develop
your talent for your own pleasure, and the pleasure of
others with whom you are thrown in your home and in
society. Anything beyond that is out of the question for
you."

"Very well, uncle; I understand," said Juliet demurely,

but her little foot as it tapped the ground would have
betrayed her impatience to a keen observer. She felt that it
would be unseemly to argue the question now, when her
uncle was behaving so generously to her. She could only
acquiesce; but if Mr. Tracy imagined Juliet's acquiescence to
mean that she had renounced her cherished desire, he was
making a great mistake.

That very afternoon, a visit was paid to Signor Lombardi

at his rooms in Argyle Place. Fortunately he was "at home,"
and at liberty to see them for "three minutes only," as he
was careful to explain.

The signor was a big, flabby-looking Italian, with fine

dark eyes and very courtly manners. At first, it appeared
that his time was so completely filled up that it was quite
impossible he could take another pupil. But when he had
tested Juliet's voice his manner became more expansive,
and it then seemed just possible that he might be able to
find half an hour for her in his busy week. He went so far as
to admit that Juliet's voice was good, though so untrained
that he was unable to say how it would develop.

Mr. Tracy hastened to explain that his niece was to

study merely as an amateur. The signor bowed gravely, and
said that this was a pity, since such a voice had great
possibilities. He was then persuaded to name his terms,
which were so high as rather to stagger Mr. Tracy.

But Juliet's pleading eyes were not to be resisted. He

could not go back from his word. So the fees were paid, and
Juliet's name was enrolled as one of Signor Lombardi's
pupils. Juliet went away convinced that the signor had
thought her voice a remarkable one, that he had been no
less struck with her personal appearance, and that he
thought it an immense pity that her uncle's old-fashioned
prejudices should prevent her from winning the renown she
would be certain to achieve if she made her début as a
public singer.

When Juliet, on reaching home that evening, told

gleefully the story of her uncle's latest act of kindness to
her, Hannah looked across the tea-table at Salome with
eyes which plainly said, "I told you so."

CHAPTER X
A PERILOUS PATH

JULIET had now her own way to an extent of which a

little while before she could hardly have dreamed as
possible.

She should have been very happy, one might think. But
human happiness does not consist of anything external, and
it will not come even with the realisation of all one's desires.
And Juliet would have said that she was far indeed from
such an attainment. No acquisition satisfied her. She was
ever reaching after something beyond. Her uncle's
indulgence had the effect of making her more of a spoilt
child than ever. Restless, petulant, and perverse, she was
constantly working herself into a fever over something or
other. She continually destroyed the peace of the household
by her irritability and impatience.

Sometimes her mother would be reduced to tears by

her conduct. When Juliet saw her thus grieved, she would
be filled with contrition, even to self-loathing. She would
overwhelm her mother with tender caresses and loving
words. She would make many promises of amendment, and
as long as the remorseful feeling lasted she would be quite
gentle and docile in her ways. But, alas! The softened mood
was never of long continuance. The old spirit would soon
assert itself, and the wilful determination, to take her own
way at any cost, rule her actions again.

At first the singing lessons were a pure delight to her.

Signor Lombardi's words seemed full of encouragement

and even of flattering prophecy. But after a while, he began
to criticise and correct with some sharpness. One day, he
exhibited the utmost impatience because she did not play
properly the accompaniment of her song.

"I did not undertake to teach you the A B C of music,"

he remarked, in scathing tones.

Juliet came home in despair, and cried bitterly as she

told her mother about it. Mrs. Tracy persuaded her to ask
Salome to help her in mastering the difficult
accompaniment. Juliet's pride hated the idea of asking such
help of Salome, but her dread of receiving a second rebuke
from her master was even stronger than her pride. She
humbled herself, and made the request of her sister.

Salome consented, but with a bad grace. She tried to

improve the opportunity by showing Juliet how much she
had missed by not continuing to study music with her. There
is nothing more aggravating than some people's "I told you
so. I knew you would regret it when it was too late."

Juliet could ill brook such comments, and the music

lesson ended in a storm of recriminations which did not
conduce to the harmony of the household.
 Mrs. Tracy had accompanied Juliet when she went to
take her first lesson of Signor Lombardi. On the following
week, too, she went with her; but when the day for the
third lesson came one of her severe headaches made it
impossible for Mrs. Tracy to go out. She was at no time
strong enough to bear much of the excitement and fatigue
going about in London. She hoped that one of Juliet's
sisters would be willing to accompany her. Salome at once
declared that it would be impossible for her to go, since she
was expected at a Dorcas meeting that afternoon, and
Hannah looked annoyed at the suggestion, and said it would
be very inconvenient for her to go, though she did not
refuse to do so.

But when Juliet heard the question raised, she at once

settled the matter in her own way. "I want neither Hannah
nor Salome," she said. "I will go alone. There is no reason
in the world why I should not. Other girls went about in
London alone. It was a foolish and exploded notion that
girls needed always to have a duenna. I have no patience
with it. I hope I know how to take care of myself. I hate to
be treated as a child."

To her mother, it seemed that many girls might be

better trusted to go about alone than Juliet. Not that she
doubted her daughter's discretion. But the girl was so pretty
and striking-looking, she was certain to attract attention
wherever she went, and might possibly be subjected to
impertinence. But it was vain to argue the question with
Juliet. She was bent on doing as she liked, and from that
day she went alone to take her singing lessons.

On the second occasion of her going alone, she met

Algernon Chalcombe on the platform of the station at which
she took the train for the suburb in which she lived. It was
impossible to avoid greeting him, had she been disposed to
do so. His face was radiant with pleasure as she shook
hands with him.

"This is a happy chance for me, Miss Tracy. What a

lucky thing that I missed the earlier train! Let me relieve
you of this."

And he took from her the portfolio of music she was

carrying. The next minute, as the train came up, he opened
the door of an empty compartment, and when she had
entered, stepped in also.

"You have been taking your singing lesson, I see. Do

you always return by this train?"

"When I can catch it," said Juliet. "Sometimes I am

detained, and arrive just in time to see it gliding out of the
station."

"A most aggravating experience. It was mine a quarter

of an hour ago. I felt savage at the moment; but now I am
awfully glad that I missed that train. It is a long time since I
have had the pleasure of seeing you, Miss Tracy."

Juliet's face flushed. It was pleasant to hear him say it,

pleasant, though somewhat embarrassing, to meet the look
that was in his dark eyes. He was certainly a very
handsome man. The fashionable and faultless style of his
dress had its influence on Juliet's impressionable mind. He
was a "perfect gentleman," she told herself again.

And Algernon Chalcombe was observing her with new

pleasure. He had been charmed with her prettiness when he
had seen in her only a "little schoolgirl." It had been
amusing to flirt with her without any serious intention. But
now she was no longer a schoolgirl. She was a very
charming young lady, beautifully dressed, and currying
herself with an air which made people as they passed her
involuntarily turn to look at her a second time.

Moreover, if his sister were right in her conjectures,

Juliet Tracy was an heiress, a fact which had considerable
importance for Algernon Chalcombe, whose life was spent in
a constant endeavour to win money without the trouble of
working for it. He now yielded himself with pleasure to the
fascination which Juliet exerted over him, and determined
that he in his turn would fascinate her. It did not appear
difficult to do this. That there would be serious practical
difficulties in the way of his wooing, he was well aware, but
he had little doubt of ultimate success, since he was not
wont to be troubled with delicate scruples in the prosecution
of his purposes.

"How does the singing progress?" he asked. "Do you

like your master?"

"Yes," Juliet answered, with some hesitation, "I think he

is a good teacher, but so severe. Sometimes I despair of
ever pleasing him."

"Oh, you must not despair," said Algernon; "his severity

is just the highest compliment he can pay you. He is severe
with you because he sees that you are worth taking great
pains with. If you had only mediocre talent, he would be far
less particular with you."

"That explanation is highly gratifying to my vanity," said

Juliet, with a laugh. "I wish I could lay the flattering unction
to my soul."

"You may indeed, for it is true," he replied. "I happen to

know, for Signor Lombardi was speaking to me of you only
the other day. You know that he and I are old friends."
 It was impossible for Juliet to help looking at him with
eager, questioning eyes, though she was too proud to put a
direct question.

"I asked him how you were getting on," said Algernon,
responding to her look, "and he said you were doing well."

"Did he?" exclaimed Juliet, in tones of delighted

surprise. "Now, why could he not have told me that?"

Algernon shrugged his shoulders.

"It is not his way, I suppose. But it is a fact that he

thinks very highly of you. He says you have a beautiful
voice, so clear and flexible. He thinks you might do anything
with such a voice."

"Does he?" cried Juliet rapturously. "Oh, if only I could!"

"You must," he said. "With such a voice it will be a

shame if you are not one of these days the prima donna."

"Oh, do you think so?" exclaimed Juliet, with sparkling

eyes. "What a lovely idea!"

Then suddenly, the light went out of her eyes. "It is

impossible," she said, dropping her voice. "They would
never let me. Uncle has the greatest objection to a public
career for me. And mother is almost as bad."

"But surely you will not always be bound by their

prejudices?" he said. "Your life is your own. They have no
right to spoil it for you. Nothing can be impossible to one of
your spirit and determination."

Juliet's eyes glowed again.

 "Perhaps not," she said softly. "Certainly I manage to
get my own way, as a rule."

"Of course. You ought always to have your own way.

And you will, too. I have not a doubt of it."

"Decidedly I shall try for it," said Juliet, with a little

laugh. "I shall not lightly give up my wish, you may be
sure."

Juliet came into the house that evening wearing so

bright a look that her mother felt sure she must have had a
very pleasant lesson.

But when Juliet was questioned about it, she could not
say that her master had given her much encouragement.
"And yet I do feel encouraged somehow," she added, with a
sunny smile.

It was delightful to hug to herself the secret assurance

that Signor Lombardi thought she might "do anything" with
her voice. The vagueness of the prophecy did not detract
from its value. It rather enhanced it, by giving wider scope
to the imagination.

But when on the following week, she again presented

herself for a lesson, there was nothing in the signor's
manner to suggest that he so highly esteemed her musical
gift. He found little to praise and much to condemn in her
performance, and it was with a sigh suggestive of weary
relief that he finally dismissed her.

Juliet would have felt out of heart but for her

remembrance of what Algernon Chalcombe had told her. To
her surprise, she again encountered that young man at the
railway station. It now appeared that he had an
engagement which brought him into town on this day every
week, and would involve his travelling home by the same
train as Juliet.

Juliet hardly knew whether she were glad or sorry. She

was nervous lest anyone of her acquaintance should see her
as she sat talking with Algernon Chalcombe. She
experienced many a throb of uneasiness, as she thought
how her mother would feel if she saw them thus together.
Yet Algernon made his company so agreeable to her, that
she could not regret having met him. He talked to her again
of her voice, and was able to recall various other laudatory
remarks Signor Lombardi had made concerning it when
talking to him in confidence. And Juliet's vanity drank
eagerly of the cup of nectar thus presented to it.

After this, Algernon Chalcombe never failed to meet

Juliet on her return from Kensington. Juliet's conscience was
uneasy under what seemed so much like a clandestine
arrangement. She had never concealed anything from her
mother before, and she had burning sense of compunction
and shame, when her mother, in her gentle, loving way,
questioned her as her journey to and from the West End.

Yet she had no difficulty in defending her conduct to

herself: She could not help meeting him. Her mother had
never told her not to speak to him. She knew that she had
seen Flossie's brother on the day she went to their house.
She could not help greeting him, if she saw him. It was
impossible to be rude to people.

And since he was travelling by the same train, what

harm could there be in their sitting together of exchanging
a few words as they went along? Of course, the prudish
minds of Hannah and Salome would be shocked; but she
did not care what they thought.
 But, though she professed to herself not to care, it is
certain that Juliet was in the habit of looking anxiously for
her sisters' forms on each suburban platform at which the
train stopped, and that she experienced relief at not seeing
them.

One day her conscience so troubled her, that she

purposely lingered on her way to the station, that she might
miss the train by which Algernon Chalcombe was in the
habit of travelling. But when she came on to the platform,
ten minutes after the train had started, Algernon still stood
there. He came up to her with the air of one who is sure of
his welcome.

"How did you manage to miss your train?" he asked.

"How did you?" she retorted.

"Oh, I—" he laughed. "You do not suppose it was the

train I minded missing?"

Juliet's colour deepened. Her eyes sank beneath his

meaning glance.

"Do you not know what the hope of seeing you is to

me?" he whispered. "Surely you must understand that it is
the one event of the week to me, and I cannot bear to miss
it."

Juliet could not reply. She had felt vexed that he had
waited for her, and she wanted to tell him that he must not
do so again. But she could not say that or anything now.

She turned aside to hide her blushes, and encountered

the hard gaze of Mrs. Hayes, who, accompanied by her
husband, was stepping out of the train which had just come
into the station. Juliet shrank back so dismayed that she
had not the presence of mind to attempt any salutation in
response to that hard stare. She hoped that Mrs. Hayes had
not seen Algernon Chalcombe speaking to her; but
something in that lady's manner seemed to demonstrate
that she had perceived that Juliet had a companion.

Juliet took her place in the train, and Algernon seated

himself beside her. She hardly knew what he was saying as
the train rattled along. She was too thrilled and excited to
listen. There was something intoxicating for her in the idea
that this clever, handsome man was in love with her, and
depended on her for his happiness. It was delightful to feel
that she had such power. The very thought of love made her
breath come more quickly, and her pulses throb. How could
she doubt that her heart responded to the sentiment she
had inspired?

Juliet parted from Algernon Chalcombe hurriedly at the

station where they alighted. She would not let him walk
with her in the neighbourhood of her home.

She hastened home with her mind in a whirl of

excitement. She was wildly elated. She believed herself to
be very happy. Her thoughts went forward into the future,
but they took no definite form. She did not dream of
marrying Algernon Chalcombe. She had already decided
that domestic life was far too humdrum for her taste.

Her visions of the future did not include dreams of

home happiness. No, she could only picture herself a
renowned prima donna, adored by the public, which would
delight to scatter bouquets, laurel wreaths, and costly gifts
in rich profusion at her feet. But it was pleasant to imagine
amidst the crowd of admirers, who had not yet revealed
themselves, this one devoted lover, himself a favourite of
the music halls, who would be closely bound to her by the
spell of her personal magic, who would count himself happy
to serve her, and be ready to obey her every behest, whilst
content to live upon such crumbs of kindness as she might
choose to throw to him. It was not a role which would have
suited Algernon Chalcombe in the least; but what did Juliet
know of his true character?

It is easy to smile at the folly of an ambitious girl's wild

imaginings; but is there not something pathetic too in such
ignorant, blind forecasting of the future? Poor childish Juliet,
giddy and elated, was treading the very verge of a precipice
without the least notion of the chasm which yawned below.
And those who might have saved her from it were
unconscious of her peril, and, all unwittingly, were urging
her nearer and nearer to the fatal brink.

CHAPTER XI
HIS LAST MESSAGE

IT was a cold, gloomy day towards the end of the year.

Juliet, in the worst of her many possible humours, was
lounging in an easy-chair by the fire, a yellow-backed novel
in her hand. Her eyes looked dull and heavy; there was a
flush on her cheeks that was not caused by the heat of the
fire, and when she spoke her voice was very hoarse. She
was suffering from a severe cold on her chest, which, much
to her annoyance, had prevented her from taking her
singing lesson as usual on the previous day.