Lab – 2 ECE 101L – Fall 2024

Fundamental Circuit Theory Theorems

Description & Objectives:
Three theorems fundamental to the study of circuit theory are explored in this laboratory. The first two are classic
engineering models designed to represent lumped linear non-ideal voltage and current sources. These are known as
the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the non-ideal voltage source, and Norton equivalent circuit for the non-ideal
current source. We will then use these engineering models to consider what optimum load resistance is required for
maximum power to flow from a non-ideal source into a resistive load that experimentally confirms the maximum
power transfer theorem.

General Discussion:

Thevenin and Norton Engineering Models

The basic toolbox needed for lumped circuit analysis includes only ideal linear components and elements. These
include: passive resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage and current sources. Non-ideal lumped circuits can then
be designed with suitably constructed engineering models composed only of these basic ideal linear blocks 1.
Probably the most fundamental of these are the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Fundamental Thevenin (left) and Norton (right) equivalent circuits.

The Thevenin model accounts for the fact that a voltage source’s output voltage, 𝑉0 , varies with supplied current by
adding a series resistor, 𝑅𝑡ℎ to satisfy KVL around the single mesh:𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑉0 . The Norton model accounts for
the fact that a current source’s output current, 𝐼0 , varies with supplied voltage by adding a shunt resistor to satisfy
KCL at node 𝑥: 𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼0 . These models are frequently used in circuit theory to simplify or “reduce” otherwise
complicated networks into either of these two equivalent circuits. This may involve all or just portions of such
networks. Moreover, since it can be proven that the two models are electrically equivalent with respect to whatever
is connected as a load, 𝑅𝐿 , either model can easily be converted into the other by source transformation.

Maximum Power Transfer

Power flowing from an ideal source to a resistive load always transfers all of its generated power into the load itself,
i.e. 𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 . The actual power is set by the value of the load resistance, but the generator will always
supply all of it. Practical non-ideal sources, however, have internal source resistances that inevitably dissipate some
of the generated power that would otherwise flow into the load, i.e, 𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 . Since the power division
between the load and internal loss is determined solely by the source and load resistances, the practical question
arises regarding what these need to be to realize maximum power flowing into the load when we are unable to
otherwise change the source resistance. This is especially true for DC sources, but for AC sources transformers can
usually be used to change the source resistance. An audio amplifier, for example, driving a 4Ω or 8Ω speaker
must consider this question. So, given a fixed load resistance, what must the source resistance be for maximum
transfer of power? The answer is given by a famous fundamental theorem of electric circuits. The maximum power
transfer theorem tells us how to match source and load resistances. Later you will see this theorem holds for AC
circuits as well, where resistances are generalized as impedances.

1 Any circuit containing only linear devices and elements is itself also linear. This is a useful feature exploited by the superposition theorem.

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Lab – 2 ECE 101L – Fall 2024
The maximum power transfer theorem states that the largest amount of power that can be coupled from a non-ideal
source into a load occurs when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance (the derivation is given in
section [4.8] of our textbook). To help you see this, consider the following non-ideal voltage source with a fixed and
unchangeable source resistance, 𝑅𝑡ℎ , connected to a resistive load, 𝑅𝐿 :

Fig. 2. Thevenin equivalent circuit driving a variable load resistance, 𝑅𝐿 .

Now find 𝑅𝐿 such that maximum power is transferred to the load from the source. The power in the load is given by
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 ⋅ 𝑉𝐿 .
Noting that
𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
by the voltage divider theorem, and that
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
by Ohm’s Law, we can then write the power in the load as;
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 2
.
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
Differentiating this equation with respect to 𝑅𝐿 and setting this derivative equal to zero gives the function’s maximum,
or the point at which maximum power is transferred.
𝑑𝑃𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 2− 2𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ − 𝑅𝐿
2 2
∴ = 0 = 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 0.
𝑑𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 4 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 3
Solving yields
𝑅𝑡ℎ − 𝑅𝐿 = 0, or; 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
To gain some visual intuition behind this derivation, if we instead just plot 𝑃𝐿 as a function of 𝑅𝐿 we can clearly see
that when the load resistance equals the source resistance maximum power flows from the source into the load:

Fig. 3. Plot of power in the load, 𝑃𝐿 , versus the load resistance, 𝑅𝐿 .

Thus;
2 2
𝑉𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
→ 𝑃𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝑡ℎ 4𝑅𝑡ℎ
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
We can understand the significance of the somewhat strange cofactor ¼ by appreciating that conceptually is not
𝑅𝑡ℎ
the total power available, but rather the power dissipated in the internal Thevenin resistance if the load resistance
were to be short circuited, i.e. 𝑅𝐿 = 0Ω. When the load and source resistances are equal (𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ ), only half of this
power is now available, and this reduced power is itself equally divided between 𝑅𝐿 and 𝑅𝑡ℎ .

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Lab – 2 ECE 101L – Fall 2024
An additional note on perspective here: There are many cases where what we are interested in is maximum voltage
across the load, or maximum current flowing through it, but not necessarily maximum power delivered to it. As
𝑅
already noted, and evident from Fig.3, maximum power occurs when 𝐿 = 1; this is when the volt-amp product is
𝑅𝑡ℎ
largest, but not necessarily the voltage or current alone. It should further be evident that maximum voltage across the
load occurs when this ratio is much greater than 1, and maximum current occurs when it is much less than 1.
Examples are voltage amplifiers and current amplifiers. Power amplifiers require matching, since they are interested
in maximum power transfer, while voltage and current amplifiers do not.

Experimental Work:
Part 1: Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
Reconstruct the same 2-port T-network that you used in Lab-1 and devise an experiment to determine the Thevenin
and Norton equivalent circuits when driven at the input port by an ideal 10 V DC power source. Perspective is
important here. Treat the power source and T-network as if they were combined together inside a mystery “black box”
having only one port, an output port. Thus you can experimentally work only with the two nodes at the output port, 𝑎
and 𝑏, and whatever is connected to it (e.g. a load 𝑅𝐿 , an open circuit, a short circuit, digital multimeter, etc.). Fig. 4
shows the general idea.

Fig. 4. “Black Box” 1-port source network (Note: a single port comprises two connections).
Since the source transformation theorem relies on the fundamental equivalence of the two models, you should be
able to deduce either model solely from your data. After you have experimentally determined both circuits, add a
variable load, or use data already taken (with different discrete values for 𝑅𝐿 ), to analytically show that both
engineering models can indeed be used to accurately predict any load current and voltage, 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝐿 within the
range permitted by the source.
CHECK-OFF [1/3] - Verify correct construction and initial data acquisition with the TA.

Part 2: Non-Ideal Power Source

Now let us consider the practical question of just how ideal the lab supply connected above to your T-network really
is. Assess this by proceeding to experimentally determine what the power supply’s Thevenin source resistance,
Rth, is for this experiment that must include the wiring between the supply and your T-network. Be sure to determine
this by taking all measurements at the point the power supply is connected to your breadboard. Just how ideal is it,
and generally, does it need to be taken into account? Be sure to draw an equivalent engineering schematic in your
notes clearly showing how you understand this problem.
CHECK-OFF [2/3] – Verify recorded data and its relevance with the TA.
(Be clear on how you will obtain Rth experimentally).

Part 3: Maximum Power Transfer

Using either the Thevenin or Norton models you experimentally obtained in Part 1, prove the maximum power
transfer theorem experimentally.
CHECK-OFF [3/3] – Demonstrate relevant collected data to the TA.

Report and Submission

Your Lab-2 Lab Report is due on Nov 13th at 5pm. Please upload it as a .pdf file to Gradescope. Also ensure that the
first page of your report is a filled out copy of the Lab_Report_Cover_Sheet, located at Canvas / Files / Lab
Resources.

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