Science of Materials

Introduction
 Science of Materials
Historical Perspective

Believe it or not, without these materials we wouldn’t have automobiles, cell phones,
the internet, airplanes, nice homes and their furnishings, stylish clothes, nutritious
(also “junk”) food, refrigerators, televisions, computers . . . (and the list goes on).
Virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another
by materials. Without them our existence would be much like that of our Stone Age
ancestors.

Historically, the development and advancement of societies have been intimately tied
to the members’ ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs. In
fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials
development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age).
 Science of Materials
Historical Perspective (Cont.)

The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those that
occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. With time, they discovered
techniques for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural
ones; these new materials included pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was
discovered that the properties of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by
the addition of other substances.

The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable has
been intimately associated with the accessibility of suitable materials. An
advancement in the understanding of a material type is often the forerunner to the
stepwise progression of a technology. For example, automobiles would not have been
possible without the availability of inexpensive steel or some other comparable
substitute. In the contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on
components that are made from what are called semiconducting materials.
 Science of Materials
Materials Science and Engineering

Materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the
structures and properties of materials (i.e., why materials have their properties). In
contrast, materials engineering involves, on the basis of these structure–property
correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a
predetermined set of properties.

From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or

synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new
products or systems using existing materials and/or to develop techniques for
processing materials.
 Science of Materials
Materials Science and Engineering (Cont.)

Structural elements may be classified on the basis of size and in this regard there are
several levels:
• Subatomic structure—involves electrons within the individual atoms, their energies
and interactions with the nuclei.
• Atomic structure—relates to the organization of atoms to yield molecules or crystals
• Nanostructure—deals with aggregates of atoms that form particles (nanoparticles)
that have nanoscale dimensions (less that about 100 nm).
• Microstructure—those structural elements that are subject to direct observation
using some type of microscope (structural features having dimensions between 100 nm
and several millimeters).
• Macrostructure—structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye (with
scale range between several millimeters and on the order of a meter).
 Science of Materials
Materials Science and Engineering (Cont.)

Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For
each, there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses.
These are noted as follows:

• Mechanical properties—relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples

include elastic modulus (stiffness), strength, and resistance to fracture.

• Electrical properties—the stimulus is an applied electric field; typical properties

include electrical conductivity and dielectric constant.

• Thermal properties—are related to changes in temperature or temperature gradients

across a material; examples of thermal behavior include thermal expansion and heat
capacity.
 Science of Materials
Materials Science and Engineering (Cont.)

• Magnetic properties—the responses of a material to the application of a magnetic

field; common magnetic properties include magnetic susceptibility and magnetization.

• Optical properties—the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of

refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties.

• Deteriorative characteristics—relate to the chemical reactivity of materials; for

example, corrosion resistance of metals.
 Science of Materials
Optical Property
Aluminum oxide may be transparent, translucent,
or opaque depending on the material’s structure.
The optical properties (i.e., the light transmittance)
of each of the three materials are different.
The left one is transparent (i.e., virtually all of the The specimen on the right is
reflected light from the printed page passes through composed not only of many small,
it). The leftmost one is what we call a single crystal interconnected crystals, but also of a
-that is, has a high degree of perfection—which gives large number of very small pores or
rise to its transparency. void spaces. These pores scatter the
reflected light to a greater degree
than the crystal boundaries and
The center one is composed of numerous and very render this material opaque. Thus,
small single crystals that are all connected; the the structures of these three
boundaries between these small crystals scatter a specimens are different in terms of
portion of the light reflected from the printed page, crystal boundaries and pores, which
affect the optical transmittance
which makes this material optically translucent. properties.
 Science of Materials
The Materials Selection Process
 Science of Materials
Processing, Structure, Properties and Performance

One aspect of Materials Science is the investigation of relationships that exist between
the processing, structures, properties, and performance of materials.
 The performance of a material depends on its properties
 Properties depend on structure ex: hardness vs structure of steel
 Processing can change structure
Ex: structure vs cooling rate of steel

Fig. The four components of the discipline of materials science and engineering and their
interrelationship
 Science of Materials
Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?

Materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the
investigation and design of materials. Many times, an engineer has the option of
selecting a best material from the thousands available. The final decision is normally
based on several criteria.

First, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these dictate the properties
required of the material.

A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that

may occur during service operation.

Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the
finished product cost?
 Science of Materials
Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? (Cont.)

The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and
structure–property relationships, as well as the processing techniques of materials,
the more proficient and confident he or she will be in making judicious materials
choices based on these criteria.
 Science of Materials
Classification of Materials

Most engineering materials can be classified into one of three basic categories:
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
Their chemistries are different, and their mechanical and physical properties are
different
In addition, there is a fourth category:
4. Composites
-is a nonhomogeneous mixture of the other three types, rather than a unique category
 Science of Materials
Classification of Materials (Cont.)
 Science of Materials
Classification of Materials (Cont.)

Fig. Bar chart of room-temperature density values for various metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composite materials.
 Science of Materials
Classification of Materials (Cont.)

Fig. Bar chart of room-temperature stiffness (i.e., elastic modulus) values for various
metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
 Science of Materials
Classification of Materials (Cont.)

Fig. Bar chart of room-temperature strength (i.e., tensile strength) values for various
metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
 Science of Materials
Classification of Materials (Cont.)

Fig. Bar chart of room-temperature resistance to fracture (i.e., fracture toughness) for
various metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
 Science of Materials
Classification of Materials (Cont.)

Fig. Bar chart of room-temperature electrical conductivity ranges for metals, ceramics,
polymers, and semiconducting materials.
 Science of Materials
Metals
Metals are composed of one or more metallic elements (e.g., iron, aluminum, copper,
titanium, gold, nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen) in relatively small amounts.

Metallic bonds
 Strong, ductile, resistant to fracture
 High thermal & electrical conductivity
 Opaque, reflective.

Fig. Familiar objects made of metals and metal alloys (from left to right): silverware
(fork and knife), scissors, coins, a gear, a wedding ring, and a nut and bolt.
 Science of Materials
Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, common ceramic materials
Include aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon
carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to as the
traditional ceramics—those composed of clay minerals (e.g., porcelain), as well as
cement and glass.

Ionic bonding
 Brittle, glassy, elastic
 Non-conducting (insulative to the passage
of heat & electricity)
 Transparent, translucent, or opaque
 Some exhibit magnetic behavior (e.g. Fe3O4)
Fig. Common objects made of ceramic materials: scissors, a
china teacup, a building brick, a floor tile, and a glass vase
 Science of Materials
Polymers/Plastics
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are
organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other
nonmetallic elements (i.e., O, N, and Si).

Covalent bonding  sharing of e’s

 Soft, ductile, low strength, low density
 Thermal & electrical insulators
 Optically translucent or transparent.
 Chemically inert and unreactive
 Sensitive to temperature changes

Fig. Several common objects made of polymeric materials:

plastic tableware (spoon, fork, and knife), billiard balls, a
bicycle helmet, two dice, a lawn mower wheel (plastic hub
and rubber tire), and a plastic milk carton.
 Science of Materials
Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials that come from the
categories —metals, ceramics, and polymers.

 Light, strong, flexible

 High costs
 Science of Materials
Materials Selection

Fig. Modulus of elasticity (stiffness) versus density materials selection chart

 Science of Materials
Materials Selection (Cont.)

 Elastomers—polymeric materials that display rubbery-like behavior (high degrees

of elastic deformation).

 Natural materials—those that occur in nature; for example, wood, leather, and
cork.
 Foams—typically polymeric materials that have high porosities (contain a large
volume fraction of small pores), which are often used for cushions and packaging.

These bubble charts are extremely useful tools in engineering design and are used
extensively in the materials selection process in both academia and industry. When
considering materials for products, an engineer is often confronted with competing
objectives (e.g., light weight and stiffness) and must be in a position to assess possible
trade-offs among any competing requirements.
 Science of Materials
Advanced Materials

Materials that are utilized in high-tech applications

Semiconductors
Have electrical conductivities intermediate between conductors and insulators.

Biomaterials
Must be compatible with body tissues.

Smart materials
Could sense and respond to changes in their environments in predetermined manners.

Nanomaterials
Have structural features on the order of a nanometer, some of which may be designed
on the atomic/molecular level.
 Science of Materials
Modern Materials’ Needs

In spite of the tremendous progress that has been made in the discipline of materials
science and engineering within the past few years, technological challenges remain,
including the development of even more sophisticated and specialized materials, as
well as consideration of the environmental impact of materials production.
-Solar Cell Materials
-Materials for Battery
-Materials for Transportation

Many materials that we use are derived from resources that are nonrenewable—that
is, not capable of being regenerated, including most polymers, for which the prime raw
material is oil, and some metals. These nonrenewable resources are gradually
becoming depleted, which necessitates (1) the discovery of additional reserves, (2) the
development of new materials having comparable properties with less adverse
environmental impact, and/or (3) increased recycling efforts and the development of
new recycling technologies.
 Science of Materials
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