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Pyramids in Logo: A School Project in ‘Search’ of the Fourth Dimension

Chapter · January 2009

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-03115-1_10 · Source: DBLP

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Pyramids in Logo: A School Project in “Search”
of the Fourth Dimension

Jesús Jiménez-Molotla1, Alessio Gutiérrez-Gómez2, and Ana Isabel Sacristán3

1
Escuelas Secundarias Diurnas #229 “Ludmila Yivkova” T. Matutino, &
#139 “José Enrique Rodo T. Verpertino, DF, Mexico, [email protected]
2
Escuela Secundaria Diurna No. 229 “Ludmila Yivkova”, DF, Mexico,
[email protected]
3
Center for Research and Advanced Studies (Cinvestav), Mexico,
[email protected]

Abstract: In this paper we present a school project where students constructed

three-dimensional pyramids using the Logo programming language,
complemented with paper-and-pencil, dynamic geometry (Cabri) and spreadsheet
(Excel) investigations. The aim of this project was to give, through a fun and
meaningful way, and using a constructionist approach, junior secondary students
(12-14 year olds), early access to advanced topics such as the applications of the
Pythagorean Theorem and of trigonometric functions, as well as three-dimensional
work, while at the same time covering one of the themes included in the
curriculum for this age-group (the pyramid).

Keywords: School project, three dimensions, mathematics, trigonometry,

computer programming, Logo, Cabri-Géomètre

1. Introduction and background

Since 2001-02, we have been working in our mathematics classrooms with the
materials and digital tools provided by a government-sponsored national program:
the Teaching Mathematics with Technology program (EMAT). As described
below, the emphasis of this program is on student-centered constructivist
activities. In this paper we present a long-term project, using the EMAT program’s
tools and pedagogic approach, where students constructed three-dimensional
pyramids; this was a project that demanded the use of trigonometric and other
mathematical knowledge.
2 Jesús Jiménez-Molotla, Alessio Gutiérrez-Gómez, and Ana Isabel Sacristán

1.1 The EMAT program and its implementation in our schools

EMAT is a program that was sponsored, beginning in 1997, by the Mexican

Ministry of Education to promote the use of new technologies, using a
constructivist approach, to enrich and improve the current teaching and learning of
junior secondary mathematics in Mexico. A study carried out in Mexico and
England (Rojano et al., 1996) involving mathematical practices in science classes,
revealed that in Mexico few students were able to close the gap between the
formal treatment of the curricular topics and their possible applications. This
suggested that it was necessary to replace the formal approach of the then official
curriculum, with a “down-up” approach capable of fostering the students’
explorative, manipulative, and communication skills. Thus, a main part of the
EMAT program is a pedagogical model that emphasizes exploratory and
collaborative learning. The main computer tools of the EMAT program are
Spreadsheets (Excel), Dynamic Geometry (Cabri-Géomètre), and the Logo
(MSWLogo) programming language. These various EMAT software were chosen
on the criteria (Ursini & Rojano, 2000) that they be open tools; that is, where the
user could be in control and have the power of deciding how to use the software,
and flexible enough so that they could be used with different didactical objectives.
At the beginning we used these tools independently, covering different themes
with each of them. Logo was the last tool that we incorporated into our schools,
and one of the immediate things we noticed was how much it enriched, not only
children’s motivations for exploring mathematical topics, but also the use of the
other tools: because of the programming experience with Logo, students began
asking if it was possible to also program the other tools (this led us, for example,
to show them how to create macros in Excel and Cabri).
We now believe in the importance of using, in an integrated and
complementary way, a variety of tools for learning, since we consider that each
tool brings with it a different type of knowledge and constitutes a different
epistemological domain (Balacheff & Sutherland, 1994). We also believe in the
importance of constructionist (Harel & Papert, 1991) or programming activities
for meaningful learning. We have in fact observed that students who otherwise
have difficulties in learning exhibit, through these computer-based approaches to
mathematics teaching and learning, other kinds of abilities.
In recent years we have tried to develop long-term projects that incorporate all
the tools, and that also serve as means to introduce students to topics of
mathematics that are normally considered too advanced for them (such as
trigonometry). We have realized that through these projects we can cover, in a fun
and meaningful way, most of the topic in the compulsory curriculum.
Pyramids in Logo: A School Project, IFIP WCCE 2009 3

1.2 From isolated activities to long-term projects: the “Painless

Trigonometry” project

In particular, in the academic year 2005-06 we developed a long-term

trigonometry project (described in Jiménez-Molotla, et al., 2007) called “Painless
Trigonometry” for introducing young students to the Pythagorean theorem, basic
trigonometry concepts, and their applications using explorations and constructive
activities with Cabri-Géomètre, Excel and Logo. Through trigonometry, we
covered other mathematical topics in the curriculum such as: addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division; powers and square root of whole and rational
numbers; algebra (including constants and variables); etc. Approximately 250
students of 12-14 years of age participated, in total in that first year, in the project,
in 6 groups of the first two grades of two junior secondary schools in Mexico.
Students thoroughly enjoyed the activities and gained interest in mathematics.
They also developed problem-solving and collaborative skills. Furthermore, in
written tests after the project, the students showed an understanding of the
“advanced” trigonometry concepts, as well as of other algebraic ideas. Through
the programming activities in Logo, students also learned to work with three-
dimensional elements and animations.
That project taught us that mathematics can be learned through different tools
and ways to the traditional ones, that one can go further than the usual standards,
and that students can learn to see the world of mathematics in more than two
dimensions.

2. “In Search of the Fourth Dimension, While In Three”: a new

school project

In the academic year 2007-2008, a question came up when our junior secondary
first-year students (12-13 year-olds) were learning Logo: “Is it possible to work in
four dimensions in Logo?” The reply was that we could “search” for the fourth
dimension but we would work and learn in three dimensions; and that is what gave
rise to the idea of a new school project for working in three dimensions, that was
named for fun: “In search of the fourth dimension, while in three”. We then
needed to find a curricular topic for junior secondary grades 1 and 2 that could be
worked in three dimensions; so we chose the pyramid.
We started playing with paper-and-pencil in a geometry game to draw triangles
and squares and whatever else was needed for a pyramid (Figure 1). We then
transferred that activity to doing it with dynamic geometry (in Cabri-Géomètre)
and used an Excel spreadsheet to help us in computing areas and perimeters. In the
end, we programmed a pyramid in Logo.
4 Jesús Jiménez-Molotla, Alessio Gutiérrez-Gómez, and Ana Isabel Sacristán

Figure 1. Paper-and-pencil activities

Although not the same students as in 2006-2007, we worked in this new project
with approximately the same number of participants (between the ages of 12 and
14), as we did in the “Painless Trigonometry” one (see above).

2.1 Laying the foundations for the construction of a pyramid

After the paper-and-pencil activities mentioned above, we had students

constructing triangles (of different shapes and sizes) and regular polygons in both
Cabri and Logo, with the construction and epistemological difference that each
software-environment implies (in Logo, the construction is more linear). The
programming of the basic shapes, not only served as the foundation for the
pyramid, but also helped children gain experience in programming. Below are the
sample basic procedures that students built in Logo:

to square to triangle
repeat 4 [fd 100 right 90] repeat 3 [fd 100 right
end 360/3]
end

In order to facilitate the construction of the pyramid, the students first

constructed concrete models with wooden sticks, which helped them visualize
what they had to do on the screen. Then, students attempted to construct a pyramid
in Cabri, but they were only able to do an isometric projection (Figure 2).
Pyramids in Logo: A School Project, IFIP WCCE 2009 5

Figure 2. Construction of the pyramid’s isometric projection in Cabri

2.2 From two to three dimensions

In Logo, students can work in three-dimensional mode (using the perspective

command in MSWLogo). When they began working in this mode (they began by
constructing a cube), they did lose sometimes the sense of direction because they
lacked a reference. But the project had been previously enriched by an interaction
with a fellow teacher to whom we were teaching Logo: this teacher felt
disoriented when moving the turtle around the screen. It occurred to us that if that
could happen to some people in two dimensions, it would be more common in
three. So as an aid we added the task in our project for students to construct a
system of axis in three dimensions; that is, a system with an x-axis, a y-axis and a
z-axis. The construction of a system of axis helped them greatly to find their
orientation:

to axis
setpencolor 2
forward 150 back 300 forward 150
setpencolor 4
right 90
forward 150 back 300 forward 150 left 90
setpencolor 5
downpitch 90
forward 150 back 300 forward 150
end

Once they had a set of axis, they constructed cubes (Figures 3 and 4) by joining
squares, going forward then left, forward then right, then down and left.
6 Jesús Jiménez-Molotla, Alessio Gutiérrez-Gómez, and Ana Isabel Sacristán

Figure 3. Construction in 3 dimensions of the cube using a set of axis

Figure 4. Playing with cubes before moving on to the Pyramid task

2.3 The Pyramid task

After constructing the cube, the children felt ready to tackle the objective:
building a pyramid. For this, in the classroom discussions on how to proceed it
was felt that the center of the base-square of the pyramid was needed as a
reference for the tip of the pyramid. For this, they used Cabri to help them in
their visualization of the figure.
They then discovered that in Logo they could use Pythagoras Theorem to draw
the inner diagonals. Thus, in order to construct the pyramid in Logo, the students
required the use of trigonometric ideas and functions. So, for this project, we also
used the activities of the “Painless Trigonometry” project. This meant that this
project was even longer and more complex, but we carried forward because the
students were highly motivated.
Using Pythagoras Theorem, students were able to construct right triangles in
Logo (Figure 5):
Pyramids in Logo: A School Project, IFIP WCCE 2009 7

Figure 5. A right triangle in Logo

to righttriangle
forward 100 back 100
right 90
forward 100
right 135
forward sqrt ((100 * 100) + (100 * 100))
end

They even wrote procedures for drawing a generic right triangle (which some
called pythagoras), and for which they had to also use the arctan function for
calculating the angle. We found this particularly interesting since these were 12-13
year-old children and that kind of mathematical application of trigonometry is
only seen in our country after the age of 15 or 16. But we observed that the
children acted in this as experts, in their quest to reach the goal of the “game”. On
our side we didn’t push them, we let them progress at their own pace, letting them
be the discoverers of their constructions.

to pythagoras :a :b
forward :a back :a
right 90
forward :b
left 180
right arctan (:a/:b)
forward sqrt (:a*:a)+(:b*:b)
end

Using the knowledge from the right triangle experience, the students moved on
to constructing a pyramid. They used their procedures for the axis and for the
square, as well as Pythagoras Theorem to find the center of the base-square and
height of the pyramid. For a base-square of size 100, the center of the square is
located at half the diagonal that is at a distance of 70.71067811865(= sqrt(100
*100 + 100 *100))/2 = 100√2 / 2). For the height of the pyramid they used the
same distance as half of the diagonal of the base-square. In this way they were
able to reach the upper tip of the pyramid (Figure 6).
8 Jesús Jiménez-Molotla, Alessio Gutiérrez-Gómez, and Ana Isabel Sacristán

to pyramid
square
right 45
forward (sqrt(100 *100 + 100 *100))/2
downpitch -90
forward (sqrt(100 *100 + 100 *100))/2
downpitch 135
end

Figure 6. Placing Logo’s turtle at the tip of the pyramid-to-be, above the center of the base-
square.

The next step was to join the vertices of the square with the tip of the pyramid.
They used again Pythagoras Theorem to find the length from the tip of the
pyramid to the vertices of the base-square (the hypotenuse of a right isosceles
triangle of side 70.7106781186548). The completed procedure for constructing the
pyramid (Figure 7) was something as follows 1:

to pyramid
square
right 45
forward (sqrt( 100 *100 + 100 *100))/2
downpitch -90
forward (sqrt( 100 *100 + 100 *100))/2
downpitch 135
forward sqrt( 70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548 +
70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548)
back sqrt( 70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548 +
70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548)
downpitch -270
forward sqrt( 70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548 +
70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548)

1 Please note that all the programs presented in this paper are sample procedures written by
students. They illustrate their ways of thinking of the problem. Thus, they may not be
examples of the most efficient ways of programming the figures in question.
Pyramids in Logo: A School Project, IFIP WCCE 2009 9

back sqrt( 70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548 +

70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548)
downpitch 135
rightroll 90 downpitch 135
forward sqrt( 70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548 +
70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548)
back sqrt( 70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548 +
70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548)
downpitch -270
forward sqrt( 70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548 +
70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548)
back sqrt( 70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548 +
70.7106781186548 * 70.7106781186548)
downpitch 135
back (sqrt( 100 *100 + 100 *100))/2
rightroll -90 downpitch -90
forward (sqrt( 100 *100 + 100 *100))/2
downpitch 90 rightroll 45 downpitch 90
end

Figure 7. The completed pyramid with the reference axis-system

The last step was to change the height, so they needed to use the tangent
trigonometric function in order to find the necessary turning angles.

2.4 From static images to 3D animation

A few months after we had finished the project, some observers came to the
school and we decided to show them what we had done in that project. We
assumed that the children would have forgotten much of what they had done, but
to our surprise they were able to rebuild everything they had originally done over
the course of many weeks, in a single 50 min. session! Then one of the observers
asked if it was possible to rotate the figure in three dimensions to see it from
10 Jesús Jiménez-Molotla, Alessio Gutiérrez-Gómez, and Ana Isabel Sacristán

different perspectives. In the short time available, many of the children were able
to animate the figure with respect to the vertical axis, by turning the starting point
and redrawing the figure several times over. This was quite a surprise for us, and a
pleasant reminder that students’ potential should never be underestimated.

3. Discussion and Concluding Remarks

Our school project “In search of the fourth dimension while in the third” had as
aims to introduce, though a constructionist approach (Harel & Papert, 1991),
junior secondary students to the applications of the Pythagorean Theorem and of
trigonometric functions, while at the same time covering some of the themes
included in the curriculum for this age-group, such as the study of the pyramid,
but going beyond it (e.g. into three dimensions!). The project was time consuming
and lasted several months, but we consider it a worthwhile investment. Projects,
such as this one, not only deal with the topic they are designed for; the need for
the use of many other mathematical concepts also emerges and we are reminded
of Papert’s vision in his book Mindstorms when he described the gears of his
childhood (Papert, 1980).
One thing that we observed was that the students took these computer-based
projects as challenging games; this meant that they never wanted the sessions to
end and students who are shy and withdrawn in other classes and environments
began to express brilliant and clever ideas which filled them with fulfillment of
their self-discovery abilities and of their learning. Other students who otherwise
do not engage in mathematical thinking, suddenly became leaders in this project,
taking the initiative to present and "teach" to the whole class their advances and
imaginative ideas in the project. This is something that happens mostly with the
Logo programming activities: students assume the role of teachers to show their
classmates how they solved the problems that emerge. The whole project was fun
and motivating for students. And some students even had the opportunity to
present this work at National forums.
We gave the children freedom to explore their own ideas and follow their own
path. But this does not mean that we let the children on their own; we supported
them but let them construct their own intellectual paths and structures.
Our students are now able to perceive mathematics as something meaningful,
something that they can apply for solving a project; instead of something boring,
meaningless and forced upon them –as is so often the case. It’s not just giving the
students access to a computer; it is the way of doing things (in our case the
constructionist approach), which can awaken the creativity inside the students:
“[It] is not just a matter of giving a laptop to each child, as if bestowing on
them some magical charm. The magic lies within—within each child, within each
scientist—, scholar—, or just-plain-citizen-in-the-making.” Kofi Annan (2005)
Logo, in particular, is an invaluable environment for this, a tool for
constructing, developing abilities, and learning how to think. Some people have
Pyramids in Logo: A School Project, IFIP WCCE 2009 11

put this tool aside considering it a relic of times past. But amongst the
sophistication of much modern software, our students still like Logo best. When
we asked one of 13 year-old student why he liked Logo so much as opposed to
other more modern software, he said “because [in Logo] I can express myself…
[whereas] I think buttons make human beings obsolete”(!).
On the other hand, we realize also that this type of projects are challenging for
educational institutions, and can be hard to accept by the educational community.
At the time of this school project, we were involved in the writing of a
mathematics textbook. We wanted to include activities in three dimensions, but
some of our co-authors felt it would be too difficult for both teachers and students;
it saddens us that students are subestimated. As was shown with the example in
this paper, where students had to engage trigonometric knowledge as well as think
in a three-dimensional way (going beyond the usual two-dimensional thinking of
school mathematics), the computer can act as a scaffolding (Wood, Bruner &
Ross, 1976) to give early access to powerful ideas and advanced topics.
In the words of Seymour Papert (1999, p. xv):
“Opportunity means more than just “access” to computers. It means an
intellectual culture in which individual projects are encouraged and contact with
powerful ideas is facilitated”.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful for the support of our schools’ authorities and of the other
following organizations in Mexico: SEP, ILCE (EFIT-EMAT team), OEI,
Conacyt (research grant 44632).

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