Oscillator

EEE 245 Oscillator 1

 Oscillators
Oscillation: an effect that repeatedly and regularly
fluctuates about the mean value
Oscillator: circuit that produces oscillation
Characteristics: wave-shape, frequency, amplitude,
distortion, stability
An oscillator is a circuit, which produces a periodic signal
without any input signal. It converts DC power (from
the supply) to a periodic signal.
Oscillators are circuits that produce specific, periodic
waveforms such as square, triangular, sawtooth, and
sinusoidal. They generally use some form of active device,
lamp, or crystal, surrounded by passive devices such as
resistors, capacitors, and inductors, to generate the output.
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An Oscillator is basically an amplifier with "Positive Feedback",
or regenerative feedback (in-phase) that generates an output
frequency without the use of an input signal. It is self sustaining..
 Oscillators convert a DC input (the supply voltage) into an AC
output (the waveform), which can have a wide range of different
wave shapes and frequencies that can be either complicated in
nature or simple sine waves depending upon the application. .
an oscillator has a small signal feedback amplifier with an open-
loop gain equal to or slightly greater than one for oscillations to
start but to continue oscillations the average loop gain must return
to unity.
 In addition to these reactive components, an amplifying device such as an
Operational amplifier or Bipolar transistor is required. Unlike an amplifier
there is no external AC input required to cause the Oscillator to work as the DC
supply energy is converted by the oscillator into AC energy at the required
frequency
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 Application of Oscillators
Oscillators are extensively used in both receive and transmit paths. They are
used to provide the local oscillation for the mixers for up and down
conversion.
Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.
– Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF signals to IF
signals in a receiver;
– Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
– Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
– Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO
Requirements for Oscillation
The canonical or simplest, form of a negative feedback system is used to
demonstrate the requirements for oscillation to occur.

Where: β is a feedback fraction.

Without Feedback

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 With Feedback

Oscillators are circuits that generate a continuous voltage output

waveform at a required frequency with the values of the inductors,
capacitors or resistors forming a frequency selective LC resonant
tank circuit and feedback network. This feedback network is an
attenuation network which has a gain of less than one ( β <1 ) and
starts oscillations when Aβ >1 which returns to unity ( Aβ =1 ) once
oscillations commence. EEE 245 Oscillator 5
The LC oscillators frequency is controlled using a tuned or resonant
inductive/capacitive (LC) circuit with the resulting output frequency
being known as the Oscillation Frequency. By making the oscillators
feedback a reactive network the phase angle of the feedback will vary
as a function of frequency and this is called Phase-shift.
There are basically two types of Oscillators
1. Sinusoidal Oscillators-these are known as Harmonic Oscillators
and are generally a "LC Tuned-feedback" or "RC tuned-
feedback" type Oscillator that generates a purely sinusoidal
waveform which is of constant amplitude and frequency.

2. Non-Sinusoidal Oscillators - these are known as Relaxation

Oscillators and generate complex non sinusoidal waveform that
changes very quickly from one condition of stability to another such
as "Square-wave", "Triangular-wave" or "Sawtooth-wave" type
waveforms. EEE 245 Oscillator 6
Basic LC Oscillator Tank Circuit

The circuit consists of an inductive coil, L and a capacitor, C. The capacitor stores
energy in the form of an electrostatic field and which produces a potential (static
voltage) across itsplates, while the inductive coil stores its energy in the form of an
electromagnetic field. The capacitor is charged up to the DC supply voltage, V by
putting the switch in position A. When the capacitor is fully charged the switch
changes to position B. The charged capacitor is now connected in parallel across the
inductive coil so the capacitor begins todischarge itself through the coil. The voltage
across C starts falling as the current through the coil begins to rise. This rising current
sets up an electromagnetic field around the coil which resists this flow of current.
When the capacitor, C is completely discharged the energythat was originally stored
in the capacitor, C as an electrostatic field is now stored in the inductive coil,
L as an electromagnetic field around the coils windings.
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 Damped Oscillations

where: ƒr is in Hertz, L is in
Henries and C is in Farads.
Then the frequency at which
this will happen is given as:
Resonance Frequency

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 Resonant Frequency of a LC Oscillator
Where:
•C is the Capacitance in Farads
•ƒr is the Output Frequency in Hertz
•L is the Inductance in Henries
This equation shows that if either L or C is decreased, the frequency increases.
This output frequency is commonly given the abbreviation of ( ƒr ) to identify
it as the "resonant frequency".

Basic Transistor LC Oscillator Circuit

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The LC Oscillator is therefore a "Sinusoidal Oscillator"or a "Harmonic Oscillator" as
it is more commonly called. LC oscillators can generate high frequency sine waves
for use in radio frequency (RF) type applications with the transistor amplifier being
of a Bipolar Transistor or FET. Harmonic Oscillators come in many different forms
because there are many different ways to construct an LC filter network and
amplifier with the most common being the Hartley LC Oscillator, Colpitts LC
Oscillator, Armstrong Oscillator and Clapp Oscillator to name a few.
The basic conditions required for an LC oscillator resonant tank circuit are given
as follows.
1. The circuit MUST contain a reactive (frequency-dependant) component either
an Inductor, (L) or a Capacitor, (C) and a DC power source.
2. In a simple circuit oscillations become damped due to component and circuit
losses.
3. Voltage amplification is required to overcome these circuit losses and provide
gain.
4. The overall gain of the amplifier must be greater than one, unity.
5. Oscillations can be maintained by feeding back some of the output voltage to
the tuned circuit that is Of the correct amplitude and in-phase, (0o ).
6. Oscillations can only occur when the feedback is "Positive" (self-regeneration).
7. The overall phase shift of the circuit must be zero or 360 o so that the output
signal from the feedback network will be "in-phase" with the input signal.
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 Basic Linear Oscillator
+ V
Vs  A(f) Vo
+

Vf SelectiveNetwork
(f)

Vo  AV  A(Vs  V f ) and V f  Vo

Vo A
 
Vs 1  A
If Vs = 0, the only way that Vo can be nonzero
is that loop gain A=1 which implies that
| A | 1
(Barkhausen Criterion)
A  0
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 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillator
• Nonlinear amplitude control
 To ensure that oscillations will start, the Aβ is slightly greater
than unity.
 As the power supply is turned on, oscillation will grown in
amplitude.
 When the amplitude reaches the desired level, the nonlinear
network comes into action and cause the Aβ to exactly unity.

Oscillator Circuits
• LC-Tuned Oscillator
 Colpitts oscillator
 Hareley oscillator
• Op Amp-RC Oscillator Circuits
 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
 The phase-Shift Oscillator
• Crystal Oscillator 12
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 LC Oscillators
 The frequency selection
network (Z1, Z2 and Z3) 
provides a phase shift of Av Ro
180o ~
 The amplifier provides an +
addition shift of 180o
2 Z1 Z2 1
Two well-known Oscillators:
• Colpitts Oscillator Z3
Zp
• Harley Oscillator

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 Av Ro Z1
~ V f  Vo  Vo
Z1  Z 3
+
Vf Z1 Z2 Vo
Z p  Z 2 //( Z1  Z 3 )
Z 2 ( Z1  Z 3 )
Z3 
Zp Z1  Z 2  Z 3
For the equivalent circuit from the output
Ro Io
+  AvVi Vo Vo  Av Z p
 or 
+ Zp Vo Ro  Z p Z p Vi Ro  Z p
 AvVi


Therefore, the amplifier gain is obtained,

Vo  Av Z 2 ( Z1  Z 3 )
A 
Vi Ro ( Z1  Z 2  Z 3 )  Z 2 ( Z1  Z 3 )
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The loop gain,
 Av Z1Z 2
A 
Ro ( Z1  Z 2  Z 3 )  Z 2 ( Z1  Z 3 )
If the impedance are all pure reactances, i.e.,
Z1  jX 1 , Z 2  jX 2 and Z3  jX 3
Av X 1 X 2
The loop gain becomes, A 
jRo ( X 1  X 2  X 3 )  X 2 ( X 1  X 3 )
The imaginary part = 0 only when X1+ X2+ X3=0
 It indicates that at least one reactance must be –ve (capacitor)
 X1 and X2 must be of same type and X3 must be of opposite type
 Av X 1 AX
With imaginary part = 0, A   v 1
X1  X 3 X2
X2
For Unit Gain & 180o Phase-shift, A  1  Av 
X1
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Hartley Oscillator Shunt-fed Hartley Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator Transistor Circuit
Circuit

Hartley Oscillator Op-amp Circuit

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 Basic Colpitts Oscillator Circuit

Colpitts Oscillator Op-amp Circuit

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 Colpitts Oscillator
C1 L
R
L +
C2 C2 V R C1
 gmV

In the equivalent circuit, it is assumed that:

 Linear small signal model of transistor is used
 The transistor capacitances are neglected
 Input resistance of the transistor is large enough

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At node 1, L I1
V1  V  i1 ( jL) node 1
I2 V
where, + I3
i1  jC2V C2 V R C1
 gmV I4
 V1  V (1   LC2 )
2

Apply KCL at node 1, we have

V1
jC2V  g mV   jC1V1  0
R
1 
jC2V  g mV  V (1   LC2 )  jC1   0
2

R 
For Oscillator V must not be zero, therefore it enforces,
 1  2 LC2 
 g m    
  j  (C1  C2 )   3 LC1C2  0
 R R 
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 1  2 LC2 
 g m    
  j  (C1  C2 )   3 LC1C2  0
 R R 

Imaginary part = 0, we have

1 C1C2
o  CT 
LCT C1  C2

Real part = 0, yields

C2
gm 
RC1

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 RC Oscillator
In a RC Oscillator the input is shifted 180o through the amplifier stage and
180o again through a second inverting stage giving us "180o + 180o = 360o " of
phase shift which is the same as 0o thereby giving us the required positive
feedback. In other words, the phase shift of the feedback loop should be "0".
In a Resistance-Capacitance Oscillator or simply an RC Oscillator, we make
use of the fact that a phase shift occurs between the input to a RC network and
the output from the same network by using RC elements in the feedback
branch, for example.
RC Phase-Shift Network

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 Phase Angle
The circuit on the left shows a single resistor-capacitor network and whose
output voltage "leads" the input voltage by some angle less than 90o. An
ideal RC circuit would produce a phase shift of exactly 90o . The amount of
actual phase shift in the circuit depends upon the values of the resistor and
the capacitor, and the chosen frequency of oscillations with the phase angle
( Φ ) being given as:

the values of R and C have been chosen so that at the required frequency the
output voltage leads the input voltage by an angle of about 60o. Then the phase
angle between each successive RC section increases by another 60o giving a phase
difference between the input and output of 180o (3 x 60o ) as shown by the following
vector diagram.
Then by connecting together three such RC networks in series we can produce a
total phase shift in the circuit of 180o at the chosen frequency and this forms the
bases of a "phase shift oscillator" otherwise known as a RC Oscillator circuit. 22
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 Basic RC Oscillator Circuit

Where:
•ƒ is the Output Frequency in
Hertz
•R is the Resistance in Ohms
•C is the Capacitance in Farads
•N is the number of RC stages.
(in our example N = 3)
Rf

R1
 C C C
 Using an inverting amplifier
+  The additional 180o phase shift
R R R is provided by an RC phase-
shift network

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Applying KVL to the phase-shift network, we have

V1  I1 ( R  jX C )  I 2 R C C C
0   I1 R  I 2 (2 R  jX C )  I 3 R V1 Vo
0   I2R  I 3 (2 R  jX C )
R R R
I1 I2 I3
Solve for I3, we get

R  jX C R V1
R 2 R  jX C 0
R
I3  0 0
R  jX C R 0
R 2 R  jX C R
0 R 2 R  jX C

V1R 2
Or I3 
( R  jX C )[(2 R  jX C ) 2  R 2 ]  R 2 (2 R  jX C )
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The output voltage,
V1R 3
Vo  I 3 R 
( R  jX C )[(2 R  jX C ) 2  R 2 ]  R 2 (2 R  jX C )

Hence the transfer function of the phase-shift network is given by,

Vo R3
  3
V1 ( R  5RX C2 )  j ( X C3  6 R 2 X C )
For 180o phase shift, the imaginary part = 0, i.e.,
X C3  6 R 2 X C  0 or X C  0 (Rejected)
 X C2  6 R 2
1

6 RC Note: The –ve sign mean the
and, phase inversion from the
1
  voltage
29
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 The Wien Bridge Oscillator
 a number of resistors and capacitors can be connected together with an
inverting amplifier to produce an oscillating circuit. One of the simplest sine wave
oscillators which uses a RC network in place of the conventional LC tuned tank
circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform, is the Wien Bridge Oscillator.
The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a
frequency-selective form of the Whetstone bridge circuit. The Wien Bridge
oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit that has good stability at its
resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune making it a popular
circuit as an audio frequency oscillator but the phase shift of the output signal is
considerably different from the previous phase shift RC Oscillator.

The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC

circuit connected with a parallel RC of the same component values producing a
phase delay or phase advance circuit depending upon the frequency. At the
resonant frequency ƒr the phase shift is 0o .

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RC Phase Shift Network

The above RC network consists of a series RC circuit connected to a parallel RC

forming basically a High pass filter connected to a Low pass filter producing a
very selective second-order frequency dependant band pass filter with a high Q
factor at the selected frequency, ƒr.

Output Gain and Phase Shift

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It can be seen that at very low frequencies the phase angle between the input and
output signals is "Positive" (Phase Advanced), while at very high frequencies the
phase angle becomes "Negative" (Phase Delay). In the middle of these two points
the circuit is at its resonant frequency, (ƒr) with the two signals being "in-phase"
or 0o. We can therefore define this resonant frequency point with the following
expression.
Resonant Frequency
Where:
•ƒr is the Resonant Frequency in Hertz
•R is the Resistance in Ohms
•C is the Capacitance in Farads

Then this frequency selective RC network forms the basis of the Wien Bridge
Oscillator circuit. If we now place this RC network across a non-inverting
amplifier which has a gain of 1+R1/R2 the following oscillator circuit is
produced.

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 Wien Bridge Oscillator
1 1 Frequency Selection Network
Let X C1  X
and C 2 
C1 C2 Z1
Z1  R1  jX C1 R1 C1 Z2
1
1 1   jR2 X C 2
Z2      Vi C2 R2 Vo
 2
R  jX C2  R2  jX C 2

Therefore, the feedback factor,

Vo Z2 ( jR2 X C 2 / R2  jX C 2 )
  
Vi Z1  Z 2 ( R1  jX C1 )  ( jR2 X C 2 / R2  jX C 2 )

 jR2 X C 2

( R1  jX C1 )( R2  jX C 2 )  jR2 X C 2

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 can be rewritten as:
R2 X C 2

R1 X C 2  R2 X C1  R2 X C 2  j ( R1R2  X C1 X C 2 )
For Barkhausen Criterion, imaginary part = 0, i.e.,
0.34

R1R2  X C1 X C 2  0 0.32

Feedback factor 
0.3
1 1 =1/3
or R1 R2  0.28

C1 C2 0.26

0.24
   1 / R1 R2C1C2 0.22
0.2
f(R=Xc)
Supposing, 1

R1=R2=R and XC1= XC2=XC, Phase

0.5 Phase=0

0
RX C

3RX C  j ( R 2  X C2 ) -0.5

-1
Frequency 30
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 1
Example
By setting   RC , we get
1 Rf
Imaginary part = 0 and  
3 R1
Due to Barkhausen Criterion, 

Loop gain Av=1 +

where C R
Vo
Av : Gain of the amplifier
R Z1
Rf
Av   1  Av  3  1  C Z2
R1
Rf
Therefore, 2 Wien Bridge Oscillator
R1

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The output voltage,
V1R 3
Vo  I 3 R 
( R  jX C )[(2 R  jX C ) 2  R 2 ]  R 2 (2 R  jX C )

Hence the transfer function of the phase-shift network is given by,

Vo R3
  3
V1 ( R  5RX C2 )  j ( X C3  6 R 2 X C )
For 180o phase shift, the imaginary part = 0, i.e.,
X C3  6 R 2 X C  0 or X C  0 (Rejected)
 X C2  6 R 2
1

6 RC Note: The –ve sign mean the
and, phase inversion from the
1
  voltage
29
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 Wien Bridge Oscillator

For oscillations to occur in a Wien Bridge Oscillator circuit the following conditions must apply.
1. With no input signal the Wien Bridge Oscillator produces output oscillations.
2. The Wien Bridge Oscillator can produce a large range of frequencies.
3. The Voltage gain of the amplifier must be at least 3.
4. The network can be used with a Non-inverting amplifier.
5. The input resistance of the amplifier must be high compared to R so that the RC network is not
overloaded and alter the required conditions.
6. The output resistance of the amplifier must be low so that the effect of external loading is
minimised.
7. Some method of stabilizing the amplitude of the oscillations must be provided because if the
voltage gain of the amplifier is too small the desired oscillation will decay and stop and if it is too
large the output amplitude rises to the value of the supply rails, which saturates the op-amp and
causes the output waveform to become distorted.
8. With amplitude stabilisation in the form of feedback diodes, oscillations from the oscillator can
33
go on indefinitely.
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 The Quartz Crystal Oscillators

One of the most important features of any oscillator is its

frequency stability, or in other words its ability to provide a
constant frequency output under varying load conditions.
Some of the factors that affect the frequency stability of an
oscillator include:
temperature,
variations in the load and changes in the DC power supply.
Frequency stability of the output signal can be improved by the
proper selection of the components used for the resonant
feedback circuit including the amplifier but there is a limit to the
stability that can be obtained from normal LC and RC tank
circuits.
 To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz
Crystal is generally used as the frequency determining device to
produce another types of oscillator circuit known generally as a
Quartz Crystal Oscillator, (XO). EEE 245 Oscillator 34
 When a voltage source is applied to a small thin piece of quartz
crystal, it begins to change shape producing a characteristic known as
the Piezo-electric effect.
 This piezo-electric effect is the property of a crystal by which an
electrical charge produces a mechanical force by changing the shape of
the crystal and vice versa, a mechanical force applied to the crystal
produces an electrical charge.
 Then, piezo-electric devices can be classed as Transducer as they
convert energy of one kind into energy of another (electrical to
mechanical or mechanical to electrical). This piezo-electric effect
produces mechanical vibrations or oscillations which are used to
replace the LC tank circuit in the previous oscillators.
The quartz crystal used in a Quartz Crystal Oscillator is a very
small, thin piece or wafer of cut quartz with the two parallel surfaces
metalized to make the required electrical connections. The physical size
and thickness of a piece of quartz crystal is tightly controlled since it
affects the final frequency of oscillations and is called the crystals
"characteristic frequency". Then once cut and shaped, the crystal can
not be used at any other frequency. In other words, its size and shape
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determines its frequency. EEE 245 Oscillator
The crystals characteristic or resonant frequency is inversely
proportional to its physical thickness between the two metallised
surfaces. A mechanically vibrating crystal can be represented by
an equivalent electrical circuit consisting of low resistance, large
inductance and small capacitance as shown below.
Quartz Crystal

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The equivalent circuit for the quartz crystal shows an RLC
series circuit, which represents the mechanical vibrations of the
crystal, in parallel with a capacitance, Cp which represents the
electrical connections to the crystal. Quartz crystal oscillators
operate at "parallel resonance", and the equivalent impedance
of the crystal has a series resonance where Cs resonates with
inductance, L and a parallel resonance where L resonates with
the series combination of Cs and Cp as shown.
Crystal Reactance

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 The slope of the reactance against frequency above, shows that the
series reactance at frequency ƒs is inversely proportional to Cs because
below ƒs and above ƒp the crystal appears capacitive, i.e. dX/dƒ, where
X is the reactance. Between frequencies ƒs and ƒp, the crystal appears
inductive as the two parallel capacitances cancel out. The point where
the reactance values of the capacitances and inductance cancel each
other out Xc = XL is the fundamental frequency of the crystal.
 A quartz crystal has a resonant frequency similar to that of a
electrically tuned tank circuit but with a much higher Q factor due to
its low resistance, with typical frequencies ranging from 4kHz to
10MHz.
The cut of the crystal also determines how it will behave as some crystals
will vibrate at more than one frequency.
. Also, if the crystal is not of a parallel or uniform thickness it have two or
more resonant frequencies having both a fundamental frequency and
harmonics such as second or third harmonics.
The equivalent circuit above has three reactive components and there are
two resonant frequencies, the lowest is a series type frequency and the highest
a parallel type resonant frequency. 38
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  We have seen in the previous tutorials, that an amplifier circuit will oscillate
if it has a loop gain greater or equal to one and the feedback is positive.
In a Quartz Crystal Oscillator circuit the oscillator will oscillate at the
crystals fundamental parallel resonant frequency as the crystal always wants to
oscillate when a voltage source is applied to it.
However, it is also possible to "tune" a crystal oscillator to any even
harmonic of the fundamental frequency, (2nd, 4th, 8th etc.) and these are
known generally as Harmonic Oscillators while Overtone Oscillators vibrate at
odd multiples of the fundamental frequency, 3rd, 5th, 11th etc). Generally,
crystal oscillators that operate at overtone frequencies do so using their series
resonant frequency.
Pierce Crystal Oscillator

Colpitts
Crystal
Oscillator

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 Microprocessor Clocks
 We already know, crystal oscillators provide the highest accuracy and
frequency stability compared to resistor-capacitor, (RC) or inductor-capacitor,
(LC) oscillators.
Virtually all microprocessors, micro-controllers, PICs and CPU's generally
operate using a Quartz Crystal Oscillator as its frequency determining device to
generate their clock waveform.
The CPU clock dictates how fast the processor can run and process the data
with a microprocessor, PIC or micro-controller having a clock speed of 1MHz
means that it can process data internally one million times per second at every
clock cycle.
•Most microprocessors, micro-controllers and PICs
have two oscillator pins labelled OSC1 and OSC2 to
connect to an external quartz crystal, RC network or
even a ceramic resonator. In this application the Quartz
Crystal Oscillator produces a train of continuous
square wave pulses whose frequency is controlled by the
crystal which inturn regulates the instructions that
controls the device. For example, the master clock and
system timing 40
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A Pierce crystal oscillator utilizing a CMOS inverter as an amplifier.

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 Frequency Stability
• The frequency stability of an oscillator is
defined as
1  d 
 
o  dT    o

• Use high stability capacitors, e.g. silver

mica, polystyrene, or teflon capacitors and
low temperature coefficient inductors for
high stable oscillators.

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 Amplitude Stability
• In order to start the oscillation, the loop gain
is usually slightly greater than unity.
• LC oscillators in general do not require
amplitude stabilization circuits because of
the selectivity of the LC circuits.
• In RC oscillators, some non-linear devices,
e.g. NTC/PTC resistors, FET or zener
diodes can be used to stabilized the
amplitude
EEE 245 Oscillator 43
Wien-bridge oscillator with bulb stabilization

R C

R C  irms
R2

Blub Operating
point

Vrms

EEE 245 Oscillator 44

Wien-bridge oscillator with diode stabilization

Rf

R1

Vo
+
C R

R
C

EEE 245 Oscillator 45

A practical phase-shift oscillator
with a limiter for amplitude A Wien-bridge oscillator with
stabilization.
a limiter used for amplitude
control.

EEE 245 Oscillator 46

 Twin-T Oscillator
low pass filter
Filter output


low pass region high pass region

high pass filter

fr f

EEE 245 Oscillator 47

 VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR (VCO)
A voltage-controlled oscillator or VCO is an electronic oscillator designed
to be controlled in oscillation frequency by a voltage input.
The frequency of oscillation is varied by the applied DC voltage, while
modulating signals may also be fed into the VCO to cause frequency
modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM); a VCO with digital pulse
output may similarly have its repetition rate (FSK, PSK) or pulse width
modulated (PWM).
Types of VCOs
VCOs can be generally categorized into two groups based on the type of
waveform produced: 1) harmonic oscillators, and 2) relaxation oscillators.
Harmonic oscillators generate a sinusoidal waveform. They consist of an
amplifier that provides adequate gain and a resonant circuit that feeds
back signal to the input. Oscillation occurs at the resonant frequency
where a positive gain arises around the loop. Some examples of harmonic
oscillators are crystal oscillators and LC-tank oscillators. When part of the
resonant circuit's capacitance is provided by a varactor diode, the voltage
applied to that diode varies the frequency.
EEE 245 Oscillator 48
Relaxation oscillators can generate a sawtooth or triangular waveform.
They are commonly used in monolithic integrated circuits (ICs). They can
provide a wide range of operational frequencies with a minimal number of
external components. Relaxation oscillator VCOs can have three
topologies: 1) grounded-capacitor VCOs, 2) emitter-coupled VCOs, and 3)
delay-based ring VCOs. The first two of these types operate similarly. The
amount of time in each state depends on the time for a current to charge
or discharge a capacitor. The delay-based ring VCO operates somewhat
differently however. For this type, the gain stages are connected in a ring.
The output frequency is then a function of the delay in each of stages.
Harmonic oscillator VCOs have these advantages over relaxation oscillators .
 Frequency stability with respect to temperature, noise, and power
supply is much better for harmonic oscillator VCOs.
 They have good accuracy for frequency control since the frequency
is controlled by a crystal or tank circuit.
A disadvantage of harmonic oscillator VCOs is that they cannot be easily
implemented in monolithic ICs. Relaxation oscillator VCOs are better suited for
this technology. Relaxation VCOs are also tunable over a wider range 49 of
frequencies.
 Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators
A voltage-controlled crystal oscillator (VCXO) is used when the
frequency of operation needs to be adjusted only finely. The frequency
of a voltage-controlled crystal oscillator can be varied only by typically
a few tens of parts per million (ppm), because the high Q factor of the
crystals allows "pulling" over only a small range of frequencies.
There are two reasons for using a VCXO:
•To adjust the output frequency to match (or perhaps be some exact
multiple of) an accurate external reference.
•Where the oscillator drives equipment that may generate radio-
frequency interference, adding a varying voltage to its control input can
disperse the interference spectrum to make it less objectionable.
A temperature-compensated VCXO (TCVCXO) incorporates
components that partially correct the dependence on temperature of the
resonant frequency of the crystal. A smaller range of voltage control
then suffices to stabilize the oscillator frequency in applications where
temperature varies, such as heatEEEbuildup inside a transmitter
245 Oscillator 50
 VCO time-domain equations

is called the oscillator gain. Its units are hertz per volt.
is the symbol for the time-domain waveform that is the
VCO's tunable frequency component.
is the symbol for the time-domain waveform that is the
VCO's output phase.
is the time-domain symbol of the control (input) voltage of
the VCO; it is sometimes also represented as
VCO freq-domain equations
 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators (VCOs)
• Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) – A free-running oscillator
whose output frequency is controlled by a dc input voltage.

EEE 245 Oscillator 52

 Analog applications such as frequency modulation and frequency-shift keying
often need to control an oscillator frequency with an input — a voltage-
controlled oscillator (VCO). The functional relationship between the control
voltage and the output frequency may not be linear. Over small ranges, the
relationship is approximately linear, and linear control theory can be used.
There are devices called voltage-to-frequency converters (VFC). These devices
are often designed to be very linear over a wide range of input voltages.
VCOs are used in:
• Function generators,
•The production of electronic music, to generate variable tones,
•Phase-locked loops,
•Frequency synthesizers used in communication equipment.
Voltage-to-Frequency converters are voltage-controlled oscillators, with a highly linear relation
between applied voltage and frequency. They are used to convert a slow analog signal (such as
from a temperature transducer) to a digital signal for transmission over a long distance, since the
frequency will not drift or be affected by noise. VCOs may have sine and/or square wave
outputs. Function generators are low-frequency oscillators which feature multiple waveforms,
typically sine, square, and triangle waves. Monolithic function generators are voltage-controlled.
Analog phase-locked loops typically contain VCOs. High-frequency VCOs are usually used in
phase-locked loops for radio receivers. EEE 245 Oscillator 53
 Multivibrators
 A circuit designed to have zero, one, or two stable output states.
 Changes between two digital levels
 Continuous, free-running
 On demand
 Three types
 Bistable (S-R flip-flop)
 Astable or Free-Running Multivibrator

 Schmitt-Trigger Inverter (7414)

 555 Timer

 Crystal Oscillator

 Monostable (or one shot)

 Non-Retriggerable (74121)

 Retriggerable (74123)
 VHDL Coding

EEE 245 Oscillator 54

 Multivibrator circuits are used to produce free-running clock
oscillator waveforms or to produce a timed digital level
change triggered by an external source.
 Capacitor voltage charging and discharging rates are the
most common way to produce predictable time duration for
oscillator and timing operations.
 An astable multivibrator is a free-running oscillator whose
output oscillates between two voltage levels at a rate
determined by an attached RC circuit.
 A monostable multivibrator is used to produce an output
pulse that starts when the circuit receives an input trigger
and lasts for a length of time dictated by the attached RC
circuit.
 The 555 IC is a general-purpose timer that can be used to
make astable and monostable multivibrators and perform
any number of other timing functions.
EEE 245 Oscillator 55
EEE 245 Oscillator 56
EEE 245 Oscillator 57
EEE 245 Oscillator 58
555 Timer;
The 555 timer is one of the most remarkable integrated circuits ever developed. It comes in a
single or dual package and even low power cmos versions exist - ICM7555.
Common part numbers are;
LM555, NE555, LM556, NE556.
The 555 Timer Features
• Accurate Timing From Microseconds Through Hours
• Astable and Monostable Operation
• Adjustable Duty Cycle
• Output Capable of Sourcing or Sinking up to 200mA
• Output Capable of Driving TTL Devices
• Normally ON and OFF Outputs
The 555 timer consists of;
Applications
• Precision Timing • two voltage comparators
• Sequential Timing • a bi-stable flip flop
• Time Delay Generation • a discharge transistor
• Pulse Generation • and a resistor divider
• Pulse Detector network.
• Pulse Width and Position Modulation
EEE 245 Oscillator 59
inside the 555 timer, at fig.are the equivalent of over 20 transistors, 15 resistors, and 2
diodes, depending of the manufacturer. The equivalent circuit, in block diagram, providing
the functions of control, triggering, level sensing or comparison, discharge, and power
output. Some of the more attractive features of the 555 timer are: Supply voltage between
4.5 and 18 volt, supply current 3 to 6 mA, and a Rise/Fall time of 100 nSec. It can also
withstand quite a bit of abuse.
The Threshold current determine the maximum value of Ra + Rb. For 15 volt operation the
maximum total resistance for R (Ra +Rb) is 20 Mega-ohm.
The supply current, when the output is 'high', is typically 1 milli-amp (mA) or less. The
initial monostable timing accuracy is typically within 1% of its calculated value, and
exhibits negligible (0.1%/V) drift with supply voltage. Thus long-term supply variations
can be ignored, and the temperature variation is only 50ppm/°C (0.005%/°C).
EEE 245 Oscillator 60
 555 Timer Block Diagram Contents
• Resistive voltage divider (equal resistors) sets threshold voltages
for comparators
V1 = VTH = 2/3 VCC V2 = VTL = 1/3 VCC
• Two Voltage Comparators
- For A1, if V+ > VTH then R =HIGH
- For A2, if V- < VTL then S = HIGH
• RS FF
- If S = HIGH, then FF is SET, Q = LOW, Q1 OFF, VOUT = HIGH
- If R = HIGH, then FF is RESET, Q = HIGH, Q1 ON, VOUT = LOW

• Transistor Q1 is used as a Switch

EEE 245 Oscillator 61
 The trigger input is initially high (about 1/3 of +V). When a negative -going trigger pulse is
applied to the trigger input the threshold on the lower comparator is exceeded. The lower comparator,
therefore, sets the flip-flop. That causes T1 to cut off, acting as an open circuit. The setting of the flip-
flop also causes a positive-going output level which is the beginning of the output timing pulse.
The capacitor now begins to charge through the external resistor. As soon as the charge on the
capacitor equal 2/3 of the supply voltage, the upper comparator triggers and resets the control flip-flop.
That terminates the output pulse which switches back to zero. At this time, T1 again conducts thereby
discharging the capacitor. If a negative-going pulse is applied to the reset input while the output pulse is
high, it will be terminated immediately as that pulse will reset the flip-flop.
Whenever a trigger pulse is applied to the input, the 555 will generate its single -duration output pulse.
Depending upon the values of external resistance and capacitance used, the output timing pulse may be
adjusted from approximately one millisecond to as high as on hundred seconds. For time intervals less
than approximately 1-millisecond, it is recommended that standard logic one-shots designed for narrow
pulses be used instead of a 555 timer. IC timers are normally used where long output pulses are
EEE
required. In this application, the duration of the 245 pulse
output Oscillator
in seconds is approximately equal to: 62
EEE 245 Oscillator 63
 The Astable Oscillator
•Vcc
• When Vcc is applied, Vc(t) is zero
•RA – S = 1, R = 0
•Vcc •Reset – Output (Q) is high
•Discharge – Discharge transistor is off
The capacitor charges through RA and RB, and
•RB
Vc(t) rises
•Output
•Threshold The discharge transistor turns on, allowing
the capacitor to discharge through RB, R –> 0
•Trigger and Vc(t) drops.
•Vo •When Vc(t) again reaches 1/3 Vcc, S –> 1
•C and charging begins again
•GND

EEE 245 Oscillator

ECE-L304 Lecture 4 64 64
555 Timer Output Astable Mode

•Typical Waveforms for Repeat Cycle Timer

•Top Trace: Output voltage (2V/Div and 0.5ms/Div)
•Bottom Trace: Capacitor voltage (1V/Div and 0.5ms/Div)
Charging Interval: TH  RA  RB C ln2
Discharging Interval: TL  RB C ln2 
Period of Oscillation: TH  TL  RA  2RB C ln2 
1 1
Frequency of Oscillation: 
T R A  2RB C ln2 
TH R A  RB
Duty Cycle: d =  100%   100%
T EEE 245 OscillatorR A  2RB 65
 555 Timer as an Astable Multivibrator

•1 – Ground 5 – FM Input (Tie to gnd via bypass cap)

•2 – Trigger 6 – Threshold
•3 – Output 7 – Discharge
•4 – Reset (Set HIGH for normal operation)
EEE 245 Oscillator
8 – Voltage Supply (+5 to66+15
V)
ECE 3450 M. A. Jupina, VU,
 Timing Diagram of a 555 Oscillator

• VC(t) •1 2 3
•
VTH
•
• VTL
•t

• VCC

• VOUT (t)
• •TL •TH

•t
• t = 0 t = 0'
EEE 245 Oscillator 67
 Schmitt-Trigger Inverter

(a) If input transition times are too long, a standard logic device-output
might oscillate or change erratically; (b) a logic device with a Schmitt-
trigger type of input will produce clean, fast output transitions.
EEE 245 Oscillator 68
ECE 3450 M. A. Jupina, VU,
Schmitt-Trigger Oscillator

•IIN

EEE 245 Oscillator 69

 Analysis of a Schmitt-Trigger Oscillator
• VC(t)
•
VTH
• •t
VTL
• VOH
•VOUT (t) •TL •TH
• VOL
•t
•t = 0 t = 0'
•Assume Iin = 0, thus IR(t) = IC(t)
•Capacitor Discharging •Capacitor
Charging
•VC(t) •VC(t)
•VOL •VOH

EEE 245 Oscillator 70

 Analysis of a Schmitt-Trigger Oscillator
Continued
•Capacitor Discharging •Capacitor Charging
I.C. VC (0)  VTH I.C. VC (0)  VTL
VC (TL )  VTL VC (TH )  VTH
VOL  VC (t ) dVC (t ) VOH  VC (t ) dVC (t )
  C C
R dt R dt
 t RC
VC (t )  VOL  (VOL  VTH )e VC (t )  VOH  (VOH  VTL )e  t RC

TL RC
VTL  VOL  (VOL  VTH )e VTH  VOH  (VOH  VTL )e TH RC

V
TL  RC ln( VTHTL VOLOL )
V VOH VTL
TH  RC ln( VOH VTH )

fOSC  T1  TLEEE
1
, Duty
TH 245 Oscillator Cycle  TH
T 71
 A Square-wave Oscillator

vc


vo
vf +
v
+ f

vc v
¡Ð f

+vmax
vo
v
¡ Ð max

EEE 245 Oscillator 72