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FRUIT CROPS

Dewasish Choudhary
Amal Mehta

Oxford Book Company

Jaipur, India
ISBN: 978-93-80179-20-9

Edition 2010

Oxford Book Company

267, 10-B-Scheme, Opp. Narayan Niwas,
Gopalpura By Pass Road, Jaipur-3020 18
Phone: 0141-2594705, Fax: 0141-2597527
e-mail: [email protected]
website: www.oxfordbookcompany.com

© Reserved

Typeset by:
Shivangi Computers
267, 10-B-Scheme, Opp. Narayan Niwas,
Gopalpura By Pass Road, Jaipur-302018

Printed at:
Mehra Offset Press, Delhi

All Rights are Reserved. No part of this publication may be reprod uced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the copyright owner. Responsibility for the facts stated, opinions expressed, conclusions reached and
plagiarism, if any, in this volume is entirely that oftheAuthor, according to whom the matter encompassed in this book has
been originally created/edited and resemblance with any such publication may be incidental. The Publisher bears no
responsibility for them, whatsoever.' .
 Contents

1. Introduction to Fruit Crops 1-16

2. Anatomy of Fruits 17-34

3. Principles of Fruit Tree Cultivation 35-78
4. Cultivation of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Crops 79-112
s. Fruit Crops of Arid and Semi-arid Zones 113-142
6. Temperate Fruit Crops 143-168
7. Commercial Grape Production 169-224
8. Cultivation of Lychee 225-242
9. Commercial Production of Mangoes 243-254
10. Organic Production of Fruit Crops 255-276
11. Diseases of Fruit Crops 277-290
12. Fruit Processing Techniques 291-302
Bibliography 303-304
Index 305-306
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
 1
Introduction to Fruit Crops

Some of the world's most widespread and debilitating nutritional disorders, including
birth defects, mental and physical retardation, weakened immune systems, blindness,
and even death, are caused by diets lacking in vitamins and minerals. Low fruit and
vegetable intake is a major contributing factor to such micronutrient deficiencies.
While research shows nine or ten servings of fruits and vegetables a day is optimal,
dietary guidelines tend to recommend a minimum of five servings a day. Yet studies
show that most populations are consistently not reaching even half this goal. This is
particularly troubling given the surge of new science suggesting that fruits and
vegetables can not only help prevent nutrient deficiency disorders, but also reduce the
risk of cardiovascular diseases-another leading cause of morbidity and mortality
around the globe-and many cancers.
The rise of such non-communicable diseases in both wealthy nations and poorer
countries is partly due to declining physical activity and excessive food energy intake.
But World Health Organisation (WHO) attributes approximately 3 million deaths a year
from such diseases to inadequate fruit and vegetable intake- a risk factor almost as
deadly as tobacco use or unsafe sex.
There are various reasons why different populations tend to shy away from fruits
and vegetables-cost, convenience, taste and stigma, to name a few. But as science
increasingly supports the need for people to consume more produce, national health
agencies, industry representatives and international organisations, including Food and
Agriculture Organisation (FAO), are working together to address these obstacles and
discuss ways to boost fruit and vegetable consumption around the globe.

USES OF FRUITS

Many hundreds of fruits, including fleshy fruits like apple, peach, pear, kiwifruit,
watermelon and mango are commercially valuable as human food, eaten both fresh and
2 Fruit Crops

as jams, marmalade and other preserves. Ff\lits are also in manufactured foods like
cookies, muffins, yoghurt, ice cream, cakes, and many more. Many fruits are used to make
beverages, such as fruit juices (orange juice, apple juice, grape juice, etc) or alcoholic
beverages, such as wine or brandy. Apples are often used to make vinegar.Fruits are also
used for gift giving, Fruit Basket and Fruit Bouquet are some common forms of fruit gifts.
Many vegetables are botanical fruits, including tomato, bell pepper, eggplant, okra,
squash, pumpkin, green bean, cucumber and zucchini. Olive fruit is pressed for olive
oil. Spices like vanilla, paprika, allspice and black pepper are derived from berries.

Nutritional Value

Fruits are generally high in fiber, water and vitamin C. Fruits also contain various
phytochemicals that do not yet have an RDA/RDI listing under most nutritional
factsheets, and which research indicates are required for proper long-term cellular health
and disease prevention. Regular consumption of fruit is associated with reduced risks
of cancer, cardiovascular disease, stroke, Alzheimer disease, cataracts, and some of the
functional declines associated with aging.
Fruits are good source of fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidant. Dietary fiber is
very important for our digestive ~ystem. Antioxidant will help us to prevent cancer.
Apple, grapes, kiwi, berries, pineapple, orange, apricot, plum are in general you can
eat any time. Dont eat few fruits just before going to bed. Banana, mangoes, jack fruit,
papaya, avocado, are good to have two hours before going to bed.
Eating fresh fruit is always better, but again it depends on how you are preparing
the juice, and also how much convenient to consume. For example when we are making
strawberry smothie or milk shake we wont remove anything from fruit and as juice we
will consume more too. But in case of commercial apple juice we are not going to get
any dietary fiber and also more sugar is added. Select your choice considering what else
you had too.
For starters, they are full of vitamins and minerals, which serve an a~ray of important
functions in the body: Vitamin A, for instance, maintains eye health and boosts the body's
immunity to infectious diseases; potassium promotes proper nerve and muscle
functioning; and B-vitamins are necessary for converting food into energy. Other
micronutrients in fruits and vegetables, such as vitamin C and vitamin E, serve as
powerful antioxidants that can protect cells from cancer-causing agents; vitamin C, in
particular, can increase the body's absorption of calcium-an essential mineral for strong
bones and teeth - and iron from other foods.
Many fruits and vegetables are also very high in dietary fibre, which can help move
potentially harmful substances through the intestinal tract and lower blood cholesterol
Introdqction to Ftuit Crops 3

levels. Much of fruits and vegetables' potency is believed to also come from substances
known as "phytochemicals". These unigue compounds are naturally produced by plants
to protect themselves against virusesrbacteria and fungi.
Over the last decade, scientists AAve begun to isola.te hundreds of these compounds
and discover their wide-ranging health benefits. But the exact mechanisms by which
phytochemicals promote health is still unclear. Scientists suspect it may be due to their
individual effects and their interaction with one another, both within the same food and
with phytochemicals found in other fruits and vegetables, as well as whole grains, nuts
and legumes. Nutrients from other types of foods may also be an important piece of the
puzzle, since some vitamins and minerals-and certain phytochemicals-are known to
depend upon other nutrients for their absorption and use.
As difficult as it may be to get people to heed a simple message like "Eat more fruits
and vegetables", the real challenge may lay before the world's food supply and.
distribution systems. FAO is playing its part to make sure agriculture, particularly in the
developing world, can help meet the demand for healthy foods.
"One of the main objectives is to make sure the safety and health of foods is not
compromised by increasing production levels," says Alison Hodder, an agricultural
officer in FAO's Plant Production and Protection Division. F~O encourages farmers to
follow good agricultural practices, and is working with different partners to develop a
general framework for food production systems that are both economically and
environmentally sustainable.
Since the harvest period for many fruits and vegetables can be limited, FAO also
provides information on the best methods for preserving produce while retaining the
maximum amount of nutrients. Another goal of the Organisation is to improve people's
access to fruits and vegetables. In rural areas, FAO strives to integrate gardening
messages with nutrition information, encouraging local communities to grow and
consume a variety of crops. In urban areas, FAO has launched the "Food for the cities"
initiative, a programme designed to link production with transportation, storage and
marketing strategies, and.address such critical issues as urban poverty and food costs.
As public awareness campaigns about the benefits of fruits and vegetables continue to
develop, producers may have a unique occasion to increase their production and enter
new markets.

Nonfood Uses
Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet, different cultures have
developed many different uses for various fruits that they do not depend on as being
edible. Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements, such
4 Fruit Crops

as unicorn plant, lotus, wheat, annual honesty and milkweed. Ornamental trees and
shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits, including holly, pyracantha,
viburnum, skimmia, beautyberry and cotoneaster.
Fruits of opium poppy are the source of opium which contains the drugs morphine
and codeine, as well as the biologically inactive chemical theabaine from which the drug
oxycodone is synthysized. Osage orange fruits are used to repel cockroaches. Bayberry
fruits provide a wax often used to make candles. Many fruits provide natural dyes, e.g.
walnut, sumac, cherry and mulberry. Dried gourds are used as decorations, water jugs,
bird houses, musical instruments, cups and dishes. Pumpkins are carved into Jack-o'-
lanterns for Halloween. 1Jle spiny fruit of burdock or cocklebur were the inspiration for
the invention of Velcro.
Coir is a fibre from the fruit of coconut that is used for doormats, brushes, mattresses,
floortiles, sacking, insulation and as a growing medium for container plants. The shell
of the coconut fruit is used to make souvenir heads, cups, bowls, musical instruments·
and bird houses.

IMPORTANCE OF FRUIT CULTIVATION

India is an agriculture based country. Hundreds of fruits and vegetables types are grown
in all parts of India. Fresh fruit and vegetable ;each small scale fruits vegetables suppliers,
they are then sent to local markets as well as fruits and vegetables exporters. Last decades
have seen the number of Indian fruit vegetables suppliers and fruits vegetables exporters
rising to an all time high. Especially there has been a steep rise in the number of vegetable
exporters.
The total production of fruits and vegetables in the world is around 370 MT. India
ranks first in the world with an annual output of 32 MT. While there are almost 180
families of fruits that are grown all over the world, citrus fruits constitute around 20%
of world's total fruit production. Major Indian fruits consist of mango, banana, citrus
fruits, apple, guava, papaya, pineapple and grapes. The fruits are proc~ssed into various
products such as fruit juices and concentrates, canned fruit, dehydrated fruit, jams and
jellies etc. i
!
India with its current production of around 32 million MT of fruit, accounts for about
8% of the world's fruit production. The diverse agro-climatic zones the country make
it possible to grow almost all varieties of fresh fruits and vegetables in India. The fruit
production in India has recorded a growth rate of 3.9%, whereas the fruit processing
sector has grown at about 20% per annum. However, the growth rates have been
extensively higher for frozen fruits & vegetables (121 %) and dehydrated fruits &
vegetables (24%). There exist over 4000 fruit processing units in India with an aggregate
Introduction to Fruit Crops 5

capacity of more than 12 lakh MT. It is estimated that around 20% of the production of
processed fruits is meant for exports, the rest caters to the defense, institutional sectors
and household consumption, Mango and mango-based products constitute 50% of
exports.
India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world and accounts for about
15% of the world's production of vegetables. The current production level is over 71
million MT and the total area under vegetable cultivation is around 6.2 million hectares
which is about 3% of the total area under cultivation in the country. In case of vegetables,
potato, tomato, onion, cabbage and cauliflower account for around 60% of the total
vegetable production in the country. Vegetables are typically grown in India in field
conditions, the concept is opposed to the cultivation of vegetables in green houses as
practiced in developed countries for high yields. The fruit and vegetable processing
industry in India is highly decentralised. A large number of units are in the cottagelhome
scale and small scale sector, having small capacities upto 250 tonnes/annum. But big.
Indian and multinational companies in the sector have large capacities in the range of
30 tonnes per hour or so. Since liberalisation and withdrawal of excise duty on fruit and
vegetable products there has been significant rise in the growth rate of the industry.

CURRENT STATUS OF FRUIT MARKET

The focused attention to horticulture has paid dividend and resulted increased
production and export. Large area was brought under improved cultivars, production
of quality planting material as seed increased, large number of farmers were trained, and
innovative technology like drip irrigation, green house cultivation were encouraged.
Consequently availability of frults, vegetables and flowers increased. Evidently, more
than 50 per cent increase in production of fruits and vegetables is seen between 1991-
92 and 1999-2000.
Table 1. Top Ten fresh fruit Producers - 2005
Country Prodllction (/nt $1000) Production (MT)
India 1,052,766 6,600,000
Vietnam 438,652 2,750,000
China 271,167 1,790,000
Indonesia 255,216 1,600,000
Nigeria 223,314 1,400,000
Iran 223,314 1,400,000
Myanmar 183,436 1,150,000
Papua New Guinea 129,203 810,000
Nepal 82,945 520,000
Korea 78,160 490,000
6 Fruit Crops

Table 2. Top Ten tropical fresh fruit Producers - 2005

Country Production (In $1000) Production (MT)
Philippines 389,164 3,400,000
Indonesia 377,718 3,300,000
India 335,368 2,930,000
China 177,413 2,164,000
Colombia 131,629 1,150,000
Thailand 83,556 730,000
Pakistan 60,893 532,000
Brazil 55,513 485,000
Bangladesh 31,934 279,000
Mexico 28,615 250,000

India is the second largest producer of Fruits after China, with a production of 44.04
million tonnes of fruits from an area of 3.72 million hectares. A large variety of fruits
are grown in India, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple and apple
are the major ones. Apart from these, fruits like papaya, sapota, annona, phalsa, jackfruit,
ber, pomegranate in tropical and sub tropical group and peach, pear, almond, walnut,
apricot and strawberry in the temperate group are also grown in a sizeable area.
Although fruit is grown throughout of the country, the major fruit growing states are
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka; Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and
Gujarat.
Mango is the most important fruit covering about 35 per cent of area and accounting
of 22 per cent total production of total fruits in the country, which is highest in the world
with India's share of about 54%. India has the richest collection of mango cultivars. Major
mango growing States are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The main varieties of mango
grown in the country are Alphanso, Dashehari, Langra, Fajli, Chausa, Totapuri, Neelum
etc.
Banana comes next in rank occupying about 13 per cent of the total area and
accounting for about 34.2 per cent of the total production of fruits. India has first position
in the world in banana production. While Tamil Nadu leads other States with a share
of 19.00 per cent, Maharashtra has highest productivity of 58.60 metric tonnes against
India's average of 32.50 metric tonnes per ha. The other major banana growing states
are Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Assam The main varieties of banana are
Dwarf Cavendish, Bhusaval Keli, Basrai, Poovan, Harichhal, Nendran, Safed ve1chi etc.
Introduction to Fruit Crops 7

Table 3. Area and Production of Fruits "in India during 1999-2000

Crop Area (000 ha.) Production (000 MT)

Apple 238.3 1047.4
Banana 490.7 16813.5
Citrus 526.9 4650.6
Grapes 44.3 1137.8
Guava 150.9 1710.5
Litchi 56.4 433.2
Mango 1486.9 10503.5
Papaya 60.5 1666.2
Pineapple 75.5 1025.4
Sapota 64.4 800.3
Others 601.2 5707.6
Total 3796.8 45496.0

Citrus fruits rank 3rd in area and production accounting for About 12 and lOA per cent
of the total area and production respectively. Lime, lemons, sweet oranges and mandarin
cover bulk of the area under these fruits and are grown mainly in Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, North Eastern States, Punjab, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.
Guava is the fourth most widely grown fruit crop in India. The area under guava
is about 0.15 Million ha producing 1.80 MT. The popular varieties of guava are Allahabad
Safeda, Lucknoe-49, Nagpur Seedless, Dharwar etc. Bihar is the leading state in guava
production with 0.30 MT followed by Andhra .Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. The other
states where guava is grown widely Gujarat,I<arnataka, Punjab and Tamil Nadu-,
Grapes occupies fifth position amongst fruit crops with a production of 1.08 MT from
an area of 0.04 Million ha. The major varieties of grapes grown in India are, Thomson
Seedless, Son aka, Anab-e-Shahi, Perlette, Banglore blue, Pusa seedless, Beauty seedless
etc. Maharashtra occupies the first position with a production of 0.68 MT of grapes,
followed by Karnataka. The other states growing grapes are Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu. The other major fruits grown in the country are Apple, Litchi, Papaya,
Pineapple and Sapota
For increasing the fruit production of India, several efforts are being taken up by
government. The efforts to build up the infrastructure facilities, like cold storage, will
continue in the coming years. Ef!1phasis will be on developing export-oriented fruit
crops. We will also be implementing 'model marketing systems for fruits and vegetables.
It will be first implemented in Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta and Bangalore, subsequently, it
will be extended to other cities.
8 Fruit Crops

WORLD FRUIT PRODUCTION

World fruit production has been relatively steady over the past four years. In 2003 world
fruit production reached 379.15 million metric tons, a 0.85 percent increase from 2002.
The percentage increase in world production is only slightly higher than the 0.65 percent
increase from 2001 to 2002. Before production leveled off in 2000, world fruit production
grew at an average of 3.15 percent per year between 1995 and 2000, compared to an
average growth rate of 0.86 percent per year for the period 2000 - 2003.
China is the world's largest fruit producer, producing 19 percent of the world's fruit
in 2003. The European Union (EU) is the world's second largest producer, with 14 percent
of the world's production. The third largest fruit producer is India, where 12 percent of
the world's fruit was grown in 2003. Production is increasing in China at a much faster
rate than in the other top producing countries. Production growth averaged almost 6
percent per year during the period 1996 - 2003 in China, while production growth in
India averaged 2.73 percent per year. The EU experienced a lower annual growth rate
of 0.89 percent during the 1996 - 2003 period.
Other key producers includ~ Brazil, the United States, Mexico, Chile, and South
Africa. Production in the United States and Brazil has been relatively constant over the
period 1996 - 2003, with average annual growth rates of 0.61 percent in the United States
and 0.34 percent in Brazil. Mexico, South Africa, and Chile have experienced slightly
higher average annual production growth rates over the same period at 2.12 percent, 2.56
percent, and 1.3 percent, respectively.

Fresh Fruit Trade

The total export value of fresh fruits from all exporters was greater than $11 billion in
2003 and continues to grow rapidly. Fresh fruit exports have more than doubled in value
since 1996 to reach the current value, and have increased in dollar terms by nearly 30
percent since 2000. In terms of quantity, exports have nearly doubled since 1996 and have
increased 16 percent since 2000. The export market is growing largely due to increased
consumption demand and the development of technology to facilitate trade in fresh
fruits.
Consumption of fresh fruits is increasing in the United States as well as abroad and
is expected to continue to increase. Demand for fresh fruits on a year-round basis is
increasing, and consumers are willing to pay higher prices for out-of-season fresh fruit.
The invention and adoption of new transportation and controlled 'atmosphere
technologies allow fresh fruit to travel greater distances and still maintain its freshness.
The increased demand and technology facilitate increased international trade in fresh
fruit, providing consumers with greater choices of quality fresh fruit on a year-round
Introduction to Fruit Crops 9

basis. The export market for fresh fruits is highly competitive among the top exporters.
Gaining access to foreign markets is critical to countries that are large exporters.
. Free trade agreements are one means to provide increased market access and
encourage increased exports. In addition to negotiating trade agreements, top exporters
also use various export promotion and marketing techniques to increase their market
share in foreign markets. Specific marketing and promotion techniques will be discussed
on an individual country basis. This analysis will" first describe the fresh export market
in the United States and identify the key export markets for U.S. fresh fruit. Competition
within those key markets will be identified and discussed.

United States
The United States is the fifth largest fruit producer and is the world's largest exporter
of fresh fruit, in terms of value and quantity. The value of U.S. fresh fruit exports in -2003
was over $2.2 billion amounting to nearly 3 million metric tons. These exports amount
to more than 20 percent of the global export market value. The primary export products
from the United States are grapes, oranges, and apples. The United States is the second
largest exporter of grapes, and the largest exporter of oranges and apples. Over 9 percent
of total fruit production in the United States is for fresh export. For the past 10 years,
U.S. fresh fruit exports have increased in terms of value, but have been relatively steady
in terms of quantity. The increase in fruit exports from competitors is beginning to erode
U.S. market share arOlmd the world.
The u.s. share in the fresh fruit export market has been declining over the past several
years, losing 3.2 percent in value and 2 percent in quantity of the export market since
2000. The United States does not subsidise fruit production, but it does provide
promotion and marketing assistance to trade groups and exporters. The United States
promotes fresh fruit exports through the Market Access Programme (MAP) and other
programmes. Through MAP, the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) provides
funding to agricultural trade organisations, state regional groups, ana cooperatives. The
MAP allocations for 2004 provide over $125 million in cost-share funding for overseas
marketing and promotional activities. These activities include consumer promotions for
retail products; seminars and workshops for educational purposes about biotechnology
and food safety; and training and assistance to foreign processors and manufacturers.
Canada, the largest market for U.s. fresh fruits, buys 47 percent of all U.S. fresh fruit
exports. Japan is the second largest market, with 12 percent. Mexico, Hong Kong, the
European Union, and South Korea are also large importers of U.S. fresh fruit.

Canada
Canada i~ the largest market for U.S. fresh fruit exports. particularly strawberries, grapes,
10 Fruit Crops

and oranges. In 2003 the United States exported $827 million in fresh fruit to Canada,
which was a 10-percent increase from the previous year. The United States held
a 51-percent share of the Canadian market in 2003, down from 53 percent the
previous year. Chile, Costa Rica, and Mexico are also substantial exporters of fresh fruit
to Canada.
Canada imported $129 million of fresh fruits from Chile in 2003. The key products
imported from Chile include grapes, apples, and peaches, which are also key imports
from the United States. Imports from Chile increased by over 20 percent from 2002 to
2003. Chile is a southern hemisphere producer, and for the most part, the production
cycles do not coincide with those in the United States. Canada increased its imports from
Costa Rica by more than 44 percent to $129 million in 2003. The imports consist primarily
of tropical fruits including bananas and pineapples as well as some other fruit products
including melons, most of which are not competitive products with the United States.
Canada imported nearly $100 million in fresh fruits from Mexico in 2003, which is
a 35-percent increase from the previous year. The primary products originating in Mexico
are grapes, avocados, anc;I guavas. Mexico. is competitive in Canada with the United
States in grapes, lemons and limes, watermelons, strawberries, and other melons. Unlike
Chile, Mexico is on a production cycle similar to that in the United States for many
products. The increase in imports from Mexico could be a factor in explaining the U.S.
loss of market share in Canada.

Japan
Japan is the second largest market for U.S. fresh fruit products, importing $347 million
worth in 2003. The primary exports to Japan, in value, are citrus including grapekuit,
oranges, and lemons as well as some non-citrus, including cherries and melons. U.s. fresh
fruit comprised over 33 percent of the fresh fruit import market' in Japan in 2003.
However, the U.S. share of the Japanese market has been continually decreasing in recent
years, dropping 14.3 percent since 2000.
In terms of value, U.S. fruit exports to Japan have decreased by over $58 million since
2000, equivalent to an average annual decrease of $19 million. Decreasing exports of
grapefruit and cherries, the two primary export products, contribute to the overall
decrease in fresh fruit exports to Japan. At the same time, total fresh fruit imports into
Japan are increasing annually, with a $51 million increase from 2002 to 2003.
Japan imports the largest amount of fresh fruit, for both quantity and value, from
the Philippines. Fresh fruit imports from the Philippines are increasing annually and
continue to gain market share in Japan. The products imported from the Philippines are
primarily tropical products that the United States does not produce such as bananas,
Introduction· to Fruit Crops 11

pineapples, guavas, and papayas. New Zealand is another large exporter of fresh fruit
to Japan. However, New Zealand is in the southern hemisphere so it is not on the same
production cycle as the United States and also specialises in different products.
Japanese fresh fruit imports from Mexico are increasing rapidly. An increase of more
than 43 percent from 2002 to 2003 brought imports from Mexico to $92 million in 2003.
The largest imports from Mexico are avocados, followed by citrus, including lemons,
limes, and oranges. Mexico is gaining market share in the Japanese market, while at the
same time the United States is losing market share. Mexican fresh fruit imports appear
to be the largest and most direct competition for U.S. fresh fruits in Japan. Substantial
increases in fresh fruit "imports from South Africa, Australia, and especially Thailand
have also occurred in recent years. However, these countries do not pose the direct
competition that Mexico does in terms of products and production cycle.

Mexico
Mexico can be identified as a significant competitor in fresh fruits to the United States,
but Mexico also imports over $200 million annually in fresh fruit from the United States.
The Mexican market is very important for apples, grapes, pears, and strawberries.
Mexican imports of U.s. fresh fruits peaked in 2000 and have declined since. Although
some of the Mexican market share has been slipping away from the United States in
recent years, the United States still maintains over 68 percent of the Mexican fresh fruit
import market.
Chile is the other primary supplier to Mexico, with 26 percent of the import market.
Chilean fresh fruit exports continue to grow while U.s. exports decline. Again, Chile is
an exporter to Mexico during the U.S. "off-season." The United States does not face much
direct competition from foreign suppliers other than Chile in the Mexi~an fresh fruit
market, but does compete with local domestic products, since Mexico is a large producer
and exporter of many fruits.

Hong Kong
The United States is the largest supplier of fresh fruit to Hong Kong, and held 32 percent
of the Hong Kong fresh fruit import market in 2003. Total fresh fruit imports from the
United States were valued at $235 million in 2003. Fresh fruit imports into Hong Kong
from the United States have risen steadily over the past several years. Hong Kong also
imports fresh fruit from Thailand, Australia, and China. Thailand exports tropical fruits
that the United States does not produce at all, or only on a very small scale. Australia
exports some similar products as does the United States, but is in the southern
hemisphere and on a different production cycle. Imports from Thailand, Australia, and
China were all down in 2003. However, China primarily exports oranges, apples, and
12 Fruit Crops

pears, which are competitive products with the United States. Fresh fruit imports from
China have continued to increase annually and China has been increasing its share in
the Hong Kong market.

The European Union (EU)

The EU is the largest importer of fresh fruits, importing $7.3 billion (8.4 million metric
tons) in 2003. Fresh fruit imports into the EU are increasing on an annual basis, with
a 5-percent increase in quantity from 2002 to 2003. The largest suppliers to the EU market
are South Africa, Costa Rica, and several South American countries. The EU is also a large
producer of fruits, and primarily imports from countries with marketing years that don't
coincide with their production season.
The largest fruit import into the EU is bananas, which makes up 65 percent of imports.
The United States is not a large supplier relative to the size of the EU market, and only
holds about 2-percent of the market share. In 2003, the United States exported $153
million of fresh fruit to the EU. The EU is the United States' fifth largest fresh fruit export
market. Although value of exports to the EU increased from 2002 to 2003, the actual
quantity shipped decreased by 9.7 percent. Fresh fruit exports from the United States
to the EU have been trending downward since 1997.

South Korea
The United States is the largest exporter of fresh fruit to South Korea in value, but the
Philippines is the largest supplier in quantity. In 2003, the United States exported $92
million of fresh fruit to South Korea. The primary imports from the United St!ltes are
citrus, including oranges, lemons and limes, and grapefruits. Grapes, kiwis, and cherries
are also key products imported into South Korea from the United States. South Korea
imports tropical products, including bananas, pineapples, and papayas from the
Philippines, which are generally not competitive with U.s. products. In quantity, imports
from the United States -are increasing at a faster rate than are imports from the
Philippines.
New Zealand is another large supplier of fresh fruits to the Korean market. South
Korea imports many of the same products from the United States as it does from New
Zealand, including kiwis, cherries, and citrus. However, New Zealand is in the southern
hemisphere and on a different production cycle than the United States. Similarly, Chile
has gained a large percentage share of the South Korean market in grapes and kiwis.

Global Export Competition

The focus of this section is to identify large producers and exporters and to determine
Introduction to Fruit Crops 13

which countries have been gaining market share. It discusses market trends in the
exporting countries and discuss the marketing and promotional activities employed in
those countries to gain market share.

EU
Although the EU is not a major direct competitor in the largestU.s. markets, the EU is
a significant producer and exporter of fresh fruit. The EU is the second largest exporter
of fresh fruits, in value and quantity. EU fresh fruit exports in quantity terms have
remained relatively constant. However, the value of EU exports has increased
dramatically. In 2003, the EU exported $1.9 billion in fresh fruits, up 20 percent from the
previous year. This increase in value could be due to both increased fresh fruit prices'
as well as the euro appreciating relative to the dollar. The EU held about a 16-percent
share of the world fresh fruit export market by value, which is a slight increase over the
previous year's 15 percent market share.
The primary export markets for 'the EU are surrounding European countries. The
EU's largest markets in 2003 were Switzerland, Poland, and Norway. The EU has recently
expanded its membership to include Poland as well nine other European countries.
Russia is also a large market for EU exports of fresh fruit. EU fresh fruit exports are
comprised of citrus, including mandarins, oranges, lemons and limes, as well as grap~s
and apples. Aside from mandarins, the products that the EU exports are similar to those,
the United States exports. Also, the EU and the United States have similar production
cycles. Although the EU focuses on different export markets than the United States, the
EU is a direct competitor for U.S. exports.
The EU provides subsidies ~o fruit producers, as well as marketing and promotion
assistance. All assistance is provided through producer organisations. The producer
organisation can qualify for subsidies to carry out activities aimed at supply and price
management, marketing programmes, quality improvement, and for promoting
environmentally friendly methods. Subsidies are primarily in the form of either market
intervention and export refunds. In 2001, withdrawal compensation subsidies authorised
by the EU totaled 117 million euros. EU export refunds in 2001 for fresh fruits and
vegetables equaled 36.1 million euros. Combined, the EU subsidised 153 million euros
in 2001, in addition to assistance for marketing and promotional activities. In 2004, the
EU approved five programmes to receive EU assistance'for marketing outside the EU .
. The EU will provide another 3 million euros to selected groups for marketing of fruits
and wine in Switzerland, Japan, Russia, the United States, Canada, and Brazil.

Chile
Chile is the third largest exporter of fresh fruits, in value, exporting $1.3 billion of fresh
14 Fruit Crops

fruit in 2003. Approximately 45 percent of total fruit production is for fresh export,
indicating that Chilean fruit producers are very dependent on the export market. Chile's
share in the global fresh fruit export market has been relatively steady at 11 percent over
the past five years. In value and quantity, Chilean fruit exports have steadily increased
over the same time period. The United States is by far the largest importer of Chilean
fresh fruit. Chile exported $613 million to the United States in 2003.
The second largest importer of Chilean fresh fruit is the European Union. Mexico is
the third largest importer of fresh fruit from Chile. Chile's location in the southern
hemisphere allows it to produce during the northern hemisphere's off-season, making
it a key supplier of fresh fruit during the northern hemisphere's winter months. Grapes
are the primary export from Chile, valued at $1.143 billion in 2003. Chile is actually the
largest exporter of fresh grapes, followed by the United States.
Apples are the second largest export, valued at $262 million in 2003 followed by
avocado exports, valued at $176 million in 2003. Due to its marketing season, Chile is
an indirect competitor with the United States in the fresh fruit market. Chile actively
promotes fresh fruit exports by providing funding for promotional and marketing
strategies as well as technical assistance. The primary institution for marketing and
export promotion is prochile, which is the Chilean government's export promotion
agency. Prochile provides export assistance through matching grants, technical
assjst'!,qce, overseas representation, and market information services. prochile
administers a $10 million Export Promotion Fund, providing matching grants to assist
development of new markets and promotion of all nontraditional agricultural products.
The Chilean Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) also provides monetary support to
promote agricultural exports. Additionally, the MOA provides policy and technical
support to assist exporters. Chile has actively sought free trade agreements with trading
partners such as the United States, European Union, Mercosur, Peru, Colombia,
Venezuela, Bolivia, Panama, Mexico, and Canada.

Mexico
Mexico is the fourth largest fresh fruit exporter by value, with over $900 million in 2003.
In quantity, Mexico is t~e world's seventh largest fresh fruit exporter, exporting 1.5
million metric tons in 2003. Since 1998, export value has increased annually, while export
quantity has remained relatively stable, indicating increased prices received for fresh
fruit exports.
The United States is by far Mexico's largest market, with over $800 million in annual
sales' to the United States alone. Approximately 88 percent of total fresh fruit exports from
MeXICO are shipped to the United States. The EU is the second largest market, followed
Introduction to Fruit Crops 15

by Canada. Mexico also exports fresh fruit to Japan and many Latin American countries.
NAFTA alone makes up 95 percent of Mexico's fresh fruit exports. Although exports are
increasing, Mexico does not hold significant market share in the ED or Japan.
Mexico is the world's largest exporter of avocados; in 2003, Mexico exported $195
million of avocados, of which $98 million were shipped to the United States. The
remainder was shipped primarily to the ED, EI Salvador, Canada, and Japan. Mexico's
second largest export product is fresh grapes, again most of which are shipped to the
United States. Mexico is also a large exporter of guavas, lemons and limes, as well as
strawberries. Mexico's fresh fruit export sector is becoming more competitive in the
world market, particularly in the United States and Canada. The increase in fresh fruit
exports has been aided by the numerous free trade agreements and economic cooperation
accords Mexico participates in as well as through the export promotion programmes
supported by the Economic Ministry (ECONOMIA) and Mexico's foreign trade bank
(BANCOMEXT).
ECONOMIA aids promotion of Mexican products through the Foreign Trade
Directorate, with methods similar to those used by FAS to promote exports, including
participation in foreign t~ade shows, coordination of exporter missions abroad,
coordination for groups abroad, and organisation of educational seminars. The Economic
Ministry also houses the Foreign Trade Development Directorate, which supports
programmes for large exporters (ALTEX), temporary exporters (PITEX), and the
Maquiladora Prograr~me.
BANCOMEXT assists exporters primarily through participating in and encouraging
participation in trade shows and business conventions. Incentives are provided to
exporters that participate in trade shows, including 50-percent refunds on participation
costs to both trade groups and private enterprises.

China
China is the largest producer of fruit, and production has been increasing for more than
a decade. Fresh fruit exports from China have also been increasing since 1999, with more
dramatic increases in recent years. Although exports increased by more than 30 percent
in quantity (metric tons) from 2002 to 2003, only 2 percent of 2003 production was for
export. Regardless, the rapidly increasing exports from China are also beginning to gain
share in the global export market, while many other countries are losing market share.
China is a large exporter of apples, mandarins, and pears. Export value of these top three
products has grown tremendously in recent years; from 2002 to 2003 apple exports
jumped 40 percent, and exports of mandarins and pears increased by 27 and 34 percent,
respectively.
Russia is the largest importer of Chinese fresh fruit. This indicates that China so far
16 Fruit Crops

may be more of a direct competitor with the EU than with the United States. China's
other primary markets are located in Southeast Asia. Hong Kong is one market that could
place the United States and China in direct competItion for market share, although Hong
Kong is often a middle market rather than the final destination for many products. Japan
imports surprisingly little fresh fruit from China. Canada actually imports more fresh
fruit from China than does Japan.

South Africa
Fruit production in South Africa is very dependent on the export sector. The amount
of fruit grown for export has been steadily increasing since 1997. In 2003, over 38 percent
of production was exported. In terms of quantity, fresh fruit exports from South Afric~
have also been increasing since 1997.
South Africa is a large exporter of fresh citrus fruit, including oranges, grapefruit,
lemons and limes, and mandarins. Oranges are the top fresh fruit export from South
Africa, followed by grapes and apples. South Africa is the third largest exporter of fresh
oranges, and is the top exporter of fresh oranges from the southern hemisph~re. The EU
is by far the largest importer of fresh fruit from South Africa. Russia, the United Arab
Emirates, and Japan are also importers of fruit from South Africa. South Africa, due to
its location, is more of a direct competitor with Austraiia and Chile than the United States.
The Department of Trade and Industry manages export promotion programmes.
The primary export enhancement programme is the Export Marketing and
Investment Assistance Scheme (EMIA), which has an annual budget of $19 million. EMIA
provides export market research and information, foreign direct investment promotion,
and foreign exhibitions. It also provides assistance to industry-specific sectors and
manages a special fund for small and medium-sized exporters. An export guarantee
programme is also managed by the Department of Trade and Industry through the
Export Credit Guarantee Scheme. This programme provides export assistance to small
and medium businesses that do not have access to working capital. The Export Credit
and Insurance Corporation of South Africa also facilitates trade by backing bank loans
and investments outside of South Africa in order to enable foreign bu~ers to purchase
South African products.

REFERENCES

Bracket, R. E.; D. M. Smallwood; S. M. Fletcher and D. L. Horton. 1993. "Food safety: critical points within
the production and distribution system". En: Postharvest handling. A systems approach. Shewfelt and Prussia
(eds). Academic Press. .
Capon, Brian. 2005. Botany for Gardeners. Timber Press. pp. 198-199.
Feldkamp, Susan. 2002. Modern Biology. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. pp. 634.
Mauseth, James D. 2003. Botany: all introdl/ction to plant biology. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
 2
Anatomy of Fruits

Some of the world's most widespread and debilitating nutritional disorders, including
birth defects, mental and physical retardation, weakened immune systems, blindness,
and even death, are caused by diets lacking in vitamins and minerals. Low fruit and
vegetable intake is ~ major contribut~ng factor to such micronutrient deficiencies.
The term frllit has different meanings dependent on context, and th~ term is not
synonymous in food preparation and biology. Fruits are the means by which flowering
plants disseminate seeds, and the presence of seeds indicates that a structure is most
likely a fruit, though not all seeds come from fruits . No single terminology really fits
the enormous variety that is found among plant fruits. The term 'false fruit' (pseudocarp,
accessory fruit) is sometimes applied to a fruit like the fig (a multiple-accessory fruit)
or to a plant structure that resembles a fruit but is not derived from a flower or flowers.
Some gymnosperms, such as yew, have fleshy arils that resemble fruits and some
junipers have berry-like, fleshy cones. The term "fruit" has also been inaccurately applied
to the seed-containing female cones of many conifers. .
Many true fruits, in a botanical sense, are treated as vegetables in cooking and food
preparation because they are not sweet. These culinary vegetables include cucurbits (e.g.,
squash, pumpkin, and cucumber), tomatoes, peas, beans, com, eggplant, and sweet
pepper; some spices, such as allspice and chilies, are botanical fruits. Occasionally,
though rarely, a culinary "fruit" is not a true fruit in the botanical sense. For example,
rhubarb is often referred to as a fruit, because it is used to make sweet desserts such
as pies, though only the petiole of the rhubarb plant is edible. In the culinary sense, a
fruit is usually any sweet tasting plant product associated with seed(s), a vegetable is
any savoury or less sweet plant product, and a nut any hard, oily, and shelled plant
product. Although a nut is a type of fruit, it is also a popular term for edible seeds, such
as walnuts and pistachios. Technically, a cereal grain is a fruit termed a caryopsis.
However, the fruit wall is very thin and fused to the seed coat so almost all of the edible
grain is actually a seed. Therefore, cereal grains, such as com, wheat and rice are better
18 Fruit Crops

considered edible seeds, although some references list them as fruits. Edible
gymnosperm seeds are often misleadingly given fruit names, e.g. pine nuts, ginkgo nuts,
and juniper berries.

FRUIT DEVELOPMENT

A fruit is a ripened ovary. Inside the ovary is one or more ovules where the
megagametophyte contains the mega gamete or egg cell. The ovules are fertilized in a
process that starts with pollination, which involves the movement of pollen from the
stamens to the stigma of flowers. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through
the stigma into the ovary to the ovule and sperm are transferred from the pollen to the
ovule, within the ovule the sperm unites with the egg, forming a diploid zygote.
Fertilization in flowering plants involves both plasmogamy, the fusing of the sperm and
egg protoplasm and karyogamy, the union of the sperm and egg nucleus. When. the
sperm enters the nucleus of the ovule and joins with the megagamete and the endosperm
mother cell, the fertilization process is completed.

Figure 1. The development sequence of a typical drupe, the nectarine (Prunus persica) ovet ,a 7112
month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer.
Anatomy of Fruits 19

As the developing seeds mature, the ovary begins to ripen. The ovules develop into
seeds and the ovary wall, the pericarp, may become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or
form a hard outer covering (as in nuts) . In some cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens
and style of the flower fall off. Fruit development continues until the seeds have matured.
In some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the
number of fertilized ovules. The wall of the fruit, developed from the ovary wall of the
flower, is called the pericarp. The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct
layers called the exocarp (outer layer, also called epicarp), mesocarp (middle layer), and
endocarp (inner layer). In some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior
ovary, other parts of the flower (such as the floral tube, including the petals, sepals, and
stamens), fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. The plant hormone ethylene causes
ripening. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an
accessory fruit. Since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit,
it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms.
Fruits are so diverse that it is difficult to devise a classification scheme that iilcludes
all known fruits. Many common terms for seeds and fruit are incorrectly applied, a fact
that complicates understanding of the terminology.

u Berry
of tomato
0 Pepo
of squash
'11
\ " /
\.""",•...1
Ponte
of apple

Hesperidium Slone or drupe

of orange of peach

Figure 2. Fruit Diversity

Seeds are ripened ovules; fruits are the ripened ovaries or carpels that contain the seeds.
To these two basic definitions can be added the clarification that in botanical terminQlogy,
a nut is not a type of fruit and not ano.ther term for seed, on the contrary to common
terminology.
20 Fruit Crops

The seed develops from the ovule and contains the embryo and endosperm,
surrounded by the maternally derived seed coat. The function of the seed is to protect
the embryo, to sense environmental conditions favorable to germ¢ation and to nourish
the germinating seedling.
Fruits develop from organs of the flower and thus involve differentiation or
redifferentiation of preexisting organs. Evolutionarily, floral organs represent modified
leaves and so the fruit is also a modified leaf. Fruits serve 2 functions: to protect the seeds.
during development, and then to disperse the seeds following maturation.
All mature seeds contain an embryo and a protective covering called a seed coat
(testa). In early development all angiosperm seeds also contain an endosperm, but in
many seeds the endosperm is completely absorbed by the , developing embryo. The
embryo and endosperm are products of fertilization while the seed coat develops from
the integuments of the ovule.
The seed coat contains a variety of adaptations related to protection and dispersal
mechanisms. The seed coat usually forms a dry tissue. It may contain waxes for water
impermeability, mucilage to make seeds sticky, compounds resistant to digestion by
animals, etc. In pomegranate, the seed coat forms the fleshy tissue that is consumed by
humans. The seed coat often contains multiple layers with different characteristics.
Maternal tissues appear to have an important influence on seed development. An
arabidopsis mutant called aberrant testa shape (ats) that lacks one of the 2 integuments
also lacks several cell layers in the testa (3 laye'rs vs. 5 normally). The seed are abnormally·
shaped in this mutant and seed shape shows maternal effect (ie. the genotype of the
maternal parent determines the shape of the seed). Therefore, the seed coat and not the
embryo determines the shape of the seed, and the embryo just grows to fill in the ·s hape
determined by the testa.
Another maternal gene called FBP7 is specifically expressed in the ovule and seed
coat and is required for normal ovule development. Downregulation of this gene in
transgenic plants resulted in degeneration of the endosperm that was dependent on
maternal genotype. This demonstrates the interaction between maternal tissues and
those produced by fertilization.
Several genes have been identified that negatively regulate seed development until
fertilization has occurred. A mutant screen on a sterile line identified 3 genes that
regulate seed development. Seeds develop on these mutants in the absence of
fertilization. They are called fis for fertilization independent seeds. The genes appear
important for control of seed development by fertilization. Several similar genes have
been identified and cloned. They include:
Anatomy of Fruits 21

FIE '= fertilization independent endosperm, encodes a WD type POLYCOMB protein

MEDEA encodes a SET domain type POLYCOMB protein
FIS2 = fertilization independent seed2, encodes a zinc finger protein
POLYCOMB proteins are involved in chromatin structure and regulate (repress) the
expression of genes in big portions of the genome. Therefore, the repression of large
groups of genes is necessary to inhibit seed development until fertilization has
occurred.
All three genes show parent-of-origin effects (imprinting). The maternally inherited gene
is expressed and required but the paternally inherited gene is not expressed or required
for seed development. (I.e. heterozygous mutants show 50% seed abortion, even when
fertilized by wild type pollen.
Most cell division is complete by the beginning of the maturation phase of embryo
development, but the embryo can increase in size up to 100 fold. This is by cell expansion
and accompanies a massive accumulation of storage compounds. The major storage
compounds are proteins, starch and lipids. These storage compounds are what give
nutritional value to important crops such as cereals and beans. They are also valuable
for other uses such as production of vegetable oil and starch which are used in a wide
variety of ways ranging from cooking to industrial lubricants and plastics. Therefore
there is a huge economic interest in seed storage compounds.
Storage proteins represent an important source of amino acids, nitrogen and carbon
for the germinating seedling. Storage protein mRNAs represent up to 20% of the total
mRNA found in a maturation phase embryo. They are synthesized on the RER and
accumulate in the vacuole or as membrane bound vesicles called protein bodies. The
storage proteins are encoded by several multigene families with up to 55 different genes
coding for a given storage protein. Synthesis is controlled at the transcriptional level,
with a few regulatory genes each controlling particular classes of storage proteins. An
example is the opaque2 gene of maize which codes for a transcription factor.
The regulation of starch and lipid accumulation, although no less important, is less
well understood. These compounds are produced by complex enzymatic pathways. Each
class of compound is a mixture of molecules with different chain lengths, chain branching
characteristics, levels of saturation and other chemical modifications. Thus the synthesis
of these compounds is much less straight forward than storage proteins.
At the end of embryonic development, most seeds dehydrate to about 5% moisture
content. Such severe dehydration is lethal to most plant tissues and embryos express a
developmental program that allows them to survive. Acquisition of dessication tolerance
is part of the seed maturation program. Two problems faced by desiccated cells are high
22 Fruit Crops

ionic concentrations and membrane stresses. At such low moisture levels, solutes would
tend to crystallize and precipitate. Hydrophobic interactions with the aqueous solution
are important for maintaining the integrity of the lipid bilayer. With no aqueous phase,
the membrane becomes unstable and leaky.
A group of proteins called dehydrins are expressed in late maturation. The role for
these proteins in desiccation tolerance is supported by their induction by drought stress
in vegetative tissues and during desiccation of the resurrection plant, one of the few
plants that can tolerate desiccation of postembryonic tissues. They are hypothesized to
function in ion sequestration and in forming a protective layer for stabilizing membranes.
Morphogenesis and maturation appear to be controlled by independent
developmental programs. Viviparous mutants fail to undergo the maturation program
leading to seed dormancy but instead germinate directly. Morphogenesis in viviparous
mutants is normal whereas other mutants arrested at various stages of morphogenesis
undergo normal maturation as evidenced by the absence of necrosis following
desiccation and the accumulation of storage proteins.
Integration of these programs involves both hormonal mechanisms and genetic
programs. ABA is necessary to induce the expression of genes involved in maturation
and desiccation tolerance. Viviparous mutants are either ABA deficient or insensitive.
An A)3A independent genetic program is also necessary to confer ABA sensitivity to the
embjyo and mutants in this progtam show ABA insensitive vivipary~ The LEe gene, in
which mutants both display ·seedling instead of embyro morphological characteristic~
and bypass embryo maturation are likely candidates for coordinating .the two different
programs.

Contributions of different flower parts to the fruit

Most fruit develops from the ovary. In fact some schemes classify fruit derived from a
single ovary as "true fruits" while "false fruits" are composed of tissues derived from
flower parts other than the ovary or from more than one ovary.
In "true fruits" the outside of the fruit is called the pericarp and develops from the
ovary wall. The pericarp can be dry and papery, like in maple or dandelions, woody like
in nuts or fleshy as in berries (grapes and tomatoes) and stone fruits (cherries and
peaches). These pericarp differences reflect adaptations to different dispersal
mechanisms (eg. wind for papery pericarps, animal consumption for fleshy fruits). The
iruit can'contain a single seed as in com, or many seeds like a pea pod or pumpkin. The
pericarp of some fruits is further differentiated into specialized layers called exocarp,
meso- and endocarp. For example in citrus the rind is the exocarp, the white covering
is the mesocarp and the juice sacs are the endocarp.
Anatomy of Fruits 23

Many fruits we consider berries, such as raspberries and strawberries, are botanically
not classified as berries. Raspberries are examples of aggregate fruits. Each juicy little
sphere is actually an individual fruit of the same class as cherries, and what we consider
as the fruit is really an aggregation of fruits.
Strawberries and apples are examples of accessory fruits, where some of the fleshy
tissue is derived from flower parts other than the ovary. Strawberry fruits are actually
what we consider the seeds. They are called achenes, which are dry fruits in the same
category as dandelions. The fleshy part that we eat develops from the receptacle. Most
of the fleshy tissue in apples develops from the hypanthium which is a region of the
flower where sepals, petals and stamens are all fused to the ovary. Thus all floral organs
contribute to the fleshy portion of apples.

Phases of Fruit Development

Fruit development can generally be considered to occur in four phases: fruit set, a period
of rapid cell division, a cell expansion phase, and ripening/maturation.
Fruit set involves the decision whether to abort the ovary or proceed with fruit
development. Fruit set is normally dependent on pollination. Pollen triggers fruit
development indicating that positive signals are generated during pollination. In the
absence of these signals, the flowers abscise . Growing pollen produces GA and
application of GA can induce parthenocarpic fruit, therefore it is believed that GA is a
triggering signal. Lagging slightly behind the growing pollen tube is a wave of increased
auxin production by the style and then the ovary. Auxin application can also induce
parthenocarpy and so it is thought that GA acts by inducing auxin production. However,
most GA deficient mutants are able to produce fruit indicating that this is no~ the sole
mechanism to induce fruit development and in an auxin insensitive tomato mutant, fruit
growth is normal.
Continued fruit development usuall y relies on the continued presence of developing
seeds. Seed abortion or removal causes fruit abortion, which can be reversed with auxin
application. For example. removal of strawberry "seeds" prevents the development of
the receptacle as a "fruit" but if auxin is applied following seed removal, fruit
development continues. Commercial crops that produce parthenocarpic (seedless) fruits,
such as bananna, often show quantitaive or qualitative differences in GA or auxin content
in the ovary when compared to nonparthenocarpic varieties.
The phase of rapid cell division involves all growing parts of the fruit. This is thought
to be controlled by the developing seeds. The number of fertilized ovules in a fruit is
correlated with both the initial cell division rate and the final size of the fruit. Also, fruits
with an, uneven distribution of seeds are often lopsided. There is a correlation between
cytokinin levels in developing embryos and cell division in surrounding tissues but there
24 Fruit Crops

is no direct evidence that embryo cytokinin in fact regulates fruit cell division. It is
difficult to reconcile the complete development of parthenocarpic fruit with the
requirement of embryos for cell division except to say that parthenocarpy represents an
abnormal situation.
The cell division phase gradually shifts into the cell expansion phase. The rate and
duration of cell division varies among fruits and also among tissues within a fruit. Tissues
made up of many small cells at maturity continue dividing while tissues composed of
large cells have begun expanding. In tomato the cell division phase lasts approximately
7-10 days while cell expansion lasts 6-7 weeks. Cell expansion ac20unts for the largest
increase in fruit volume, often contributing in excess of a 100 fold size increase.
Gibberellins are also associated with fruit expansion and removal of the seeds from pea
pods inhibited GA biosynthesis in the pericarp. Many believe that auxins from seeds
regulate cell expansion of the pericarp, but auxin application does not always compensate
for seed removal, and in an auxin insensitive tomato mutant, fruit growth is normal.

Fruit Ripening

Ripening represents the shift from the protective function to dispersal function of the
fruit. Ripening occurs synchronously with seed and embryo maturation, as described in
the lecture on embryo development. In dry fruits (cereals, nuts, dandelions) ripening
consists of desiccation and is considered maturation. Ripening in fleshy fruits is designed
to make the fruit appealing to animals that eat the fruit as a means for seed dispersal.
Ripening involves the softening, increased juiciness and sweetness, and color changes
of the fruit. Fleshy fruits are either climacteric or non-climacteric. Climacteric fruits
produce a respirative burst with a concomitant burst in ethylene synthesis, as the fruits
ripen. These include fruits with high degrees of flesh softening, like tomato, banana,
avacado, peach etc.
Ripening has been most intensively studied in tomato. Ethylene is a major regulator
of the ripening process. Inhibitioin of ethylene with inhibitors, transgenic approaches or
mutants blocks ripening. Exogenous ethylene accelerates ripening. There are also
developmental factors involved because fruit does not attain competence to respond to
ethylene until near the end of the cell expansion phase (the mature green stage). Several
genes associated with ripening are ethylene inducible. This occurs transcriptionally in
most genes but at least one is known where mRNA accumulation is regulated post-
transcriptionally. None of these genes are induced until competence for ethylene
response is attained.
The tomato never-ripe mutation blocks fruif ripening and is insensitive to ethylene.
The mutated gene is similat to the ethylene receptor isolated from arabidopsis,
suggesting that never-ripe is an ethylene receptor mutant. NR mRNA is not expressed
Anatomy of Fruits 25

until the mature green stage, suggesting that lack of this ethylene receptor might be
related to the lack of competence to respond to ethylene at earlier stages.
Ethylene production is autocatalytic. That is, exposure to ethylene stimulates the
synthesis of more ethylene. This occurs because the genes for the biosynthetic enzymes
(e.g. ACC SYNTHASE) are ethylene inducible. The result is a positive feedback loop.
Furthermore, the Never-ripe gene is ethylene inducible, resulting in a positive feedback
loop for ethylene sensitivity as well. Both these factors contribute to the dramatic burst
of ethylene production during ripening. Fruit softening involves a partial breakdown of
cell walls. Several enzymes are known to be involved in this process. Polygalacturonase
hydrolyzes bonds in pectins. The gene for this enzyme is ethylene inducible. Changes
in fruiLcOlor involve changes in the expression of pigment biosynthetic genes. The major
pigment in tomato is a carotenoid. The first committed step in carotenoid biosynthesis
is catalyzed by phytoene synthase, and the gene for this enzyme is induced by ethylene.
Germination

Seeds have mechanisms to ensure germ ination occurs only under favorable
environmental conditions for seedling growth. The primary factors are water availability
and season. All seeds must imbibe water to germinate and for some this is the only
requirement. Some also contain growth inhibitors that must be leached out of the seed.
Some have impervious seed coats that must be fractured by freezing or passage through
the digestive tract of an animal. Yet others have light or photoperiod requirements. All
these mechanisms ensure the seeds germinate in the correct seasOn and when moisture
is available.
Arabidopsis seeds have certain requirements for germination, includi'ng a period of .
dormancy (which can be substituted for by cold treatment) and light (a phytochrome
response) . Mutations in a gene called DAGl (Dof Affecting Germinationl) cause seeds
that germinate in the dark without a dormancy period. Dof proteins are zinc finger
transcription factors. The gene is expressed in the maternal tissues and all seeds of a
mutant show this phenotype even if they result in pollination by a wild type (i.e. the
embryo is wild type). Therefore, the maternal tissues during seed development control
the dormancy behavior of the seed after being shed from the plant.
Upon imbibition, active metabolism resumes. Imbibed seeds contain high levels of
GA. It is produced by the germinating embryo and stimulates the synthesis of hydrolytic
enzymes by inducing the transcription of their genes. These enzymes appear pfter radicle
elongation and are therefore postgerminative. The hydrolytic enzymes include proteases,
amylases and lipases that break down storage compounds making building blocks
available to the growing seedling. One enzyme of particular importance is a-amylase
which cleaves starch into glucose and maltose molecules. This reaction is of economic
importance to the malting industry and so the regulation of a-amylase gene expression
26 Fruit Crops

has been carefully studied. It is transcriptionally induced by GA. Plants also contain a
unique metabolic pathway called the glyoxylate cycle. This enables plants to convert fatty
acids of the stored lipids into carbohydrates, specifically glucose and sucrose. In contrast,
animals are unable to convert fatty acids to glucose.
GA and ABA act antagonistically to regulate the germination vs. maturation
programs. ABA promotes maturation while GA promotes germination. As mentioned,
ABA is necessary for seed maturation because ABA deficient mutants are viviparous and
desiccation intolerant. Therefore, without ABA, seeds directly enter the germination
program. Exogenous ABA can inhibit germination following dormancy. Conversely,
promotes germination. GAis required for germination because GA deficient mutants are
unable to germinate. Exogenous GA application to developing seeds can block
maturation and induce vivipary. The VPl/ABI3 protein is a central regulator in these
functions. This protein is a transcription factor that promotes the expression of
maturation genes and inhibits the expression of germination genes. Mutants in this gene
are ABA insensitive.

True Fruits and False Fruits

Fruits can be divided into 'true fruits' and 'false fruits'. The true fruits can be classified
further according to their botanical structure. During fertilisation an embryo is formed
in the ovule. This results from the fusion of male and female reproductive cells (a nucleus
in the pollen grain and a nucleus in the female egg cell in the ovule). There are other
nuclei in the pollen grain and the egg cell and these also fuse and form a structure known
as the endosperm. This becomes a food store for the developing seed.

remains of
stig ma a nd sty Ie
fruit wall formed
from ovary
wall
seed -i--"--.f-.' swollen, fleshy, upper part
ofthe flower stalk, which
su rrou nds an d is fuse d
ovary to the ovary wall
wall
, . .i P - - sepals

Pea - A true fruit Apple - A false fru it

Figure 3. True Fruits and False Fruits

Anatomy of Fruits 27

In some plants,' ~e fruit may be formed from just from the ovary and the other floral
parts '(e.g. sepals, .p etals, stamens, stigma and style) persist only as withered remains.
When this happens, the fruits are described as 'true fruits'. Often, however, other floral
parts form an integral part of the fruit. An example is the apple, in which the top of the
flower stalk becomes fleshy, surrounds the ovary wall and fuses with it. Such fruits are
often referred to as false fruits.to distinguish them from the true fruits that are formed
only from the ovary. Fruits can, however, also be grouped accordmg to their dispersal
mechanism. This approach is more likely to be used in a school teaching programme and
the images given here have therefore been arranged into the four main dispersal groups
as follows: fruits and seeds that are dispersed by animals, dispersed by wind, self
dispersed and dispersed by water.

TYPES OF FRUITS

There are three basic types of fruits:

Simple fruit
Aggregate fruit
Multiple fruit

Pod
of pea
Silique
of crucifer
Follicle
•
Capsule of
of larkspur jimson weed

Caryopsis Achene Samara Schizocarp Nut

of corn of suntlower of maple of carrot of oak

Figure 4. Diffemet types of fruits

 ,
FRUITS

I I
PERICARP DRY PERICARP FLESHY

I
Indehiscent (usually derived from Dehiscent Inner 2 layers (mesocarp Innermost layer
1 carpel. I-seeded). In some and endocarp) fleshy (endocarp) woody
species the ovary may split into
I - seeded parts known as mericarps. BERRY DRUPE

~
Such fruits are called schizocarps
I
I
Pericarp membranous Pericarp woody
ACHENE NUT
Gooseberry Cherry

Sweet chestnut
Buttercup
More than 1 carpel
1 carpel
CAPSULE
several soits
distinguished by
method of opening
Collection Opens along Opens along
of follicles one side both sides
FOLUCLE LEGUM~
Winged fruits in (pod)
thIs section can
be called samaras
e.g. Ash
Columbine Broom

Poppy

'T.I

Figure 5. A key for true fruits

......2
Anatomy of Fruits 29

Simple Fruit

Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy, and result from the ripening of a simple or
compound ovary with only one pistil. Dry fruits may be either dehiscent (opening to
discharge seeds), or indehiscent (not opening to discharge seeds).

eXOCaf ll

Ilericarp meSOCafll
{
endocarp +-----.tuI
seed

dry fruit fleshy fruit

(corn) (peach)

Figure 6. Structure of Simple Fruit

Types of dry, simple fruits, with examples of each, are:

achene - (dandelion seeds, strawberry seeds)
capsule - (Brazil nut)
caryopsis - (wheat)
fibrous drupe - (coconut, walnut)
follicle - (milkweed, magnolia)
legume - (pea, bean, peanut)
loment
nut - (hazelnut, beech, oak acorn)
samara - (elm, ash, maple key)
schizocarp - (carrot seed)
silique - (radish seed)
silicle - (shepherd's purse)
utricle - (beet)
Fruits in which part or all of the pericarp (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are simple
fleshy fruits. Types of fleshy, simple fruits (wit!: examples) are:
30 Fruit Crop

berry - (redcurrant, gooseberry, ·tomato, avocado)

stone fruit or drupe (plum, cherry, peach, apricot, olive)
false berry - Epigynous accessory fruits (banana, cranberry, strawberry (edible part}.)
pome - accessory fruits (apple, pear, rosehip)

Aggregate Fruit
An aggregate fruit, or etaerio, develops from a flower with num"e rous simple pistils. An
example is the raspberry, whose simple fruits are termed drupelets because each is like
a small drupe attached to the receptacle. In some bramble fruits (such as blackberry) the
receptacle is elongated and part of the ripe fruit, making the blackberry an aggregate-
accessory fruit.

Figure 7. An aggregate fruit

The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, only one in which the seeds are
contained in achenes. In all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower with
numerous pistils. Some kinds of aggregate fruits are called berries, yet in the botanical
sense they are not.

Multiple Fruit

A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an inflorescence). Each
flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass. Examples are the pineapple,
edible fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit.
In some plants, such as this noni, flowers are produced regularly along the stem and
it is possible to see together examples of flowering, frui~ development, and fruit ripening.
In multiple fruits, there are several flowers, each with an ovary, develop into small
fruits which are clustered or fused together into a larger fruit. An example of this is a
pineapple. ~ach section of a pineapple was an individual fruit from an individual flower,
but they have.fused to form the pineapple.
Anatomy of.Fruits 31

Figure 8. Pineapple: A Multiple Fruit

There are many dry multiple fruits, e.g.

Tuliptree, multiple of samaras.
Sweet gum, multiple of capsules.
Sycamore and teasel, multiple of achenes.
Magnolia, multiple of follicles.

ANATOMY OF FRUITS

In fleshy fruits, the outer, often edible, layer is the peri carp, which is the tissue that
develops from the ovary wall of the flower and surrounds the seeds. If seeds are
considered to be akin to eggs developing in the ovary of a fowl, the pericarp would be
the female bird's uterus. However, there are a large number of fruits which are not
adequately described by that analogy; for example in most nuts and legumes the edible
part is the seed and not the pericarp. Many edible vegetables are actually stems, leaves,
and even roots of the plant, but others like the cucumber, squash etc. are the common
pericarp and are botanically considered to be fruits. Finally, in some seemingly pericarp
fruits the edible portion is actually an aril.
In berries and drupes, the pericarp forms the edible tissue around the seeds. In
accessory fruits, other tissues develop into the edible portion of the fruit instead, for
example the receptacle of the flower in apples and strawberries.

Pericarp layers

The pericarp itself is typically made up of three distinct layers: the exocarp which is the
most outside layer or peel, the mesocarp the middle layer or pith, and the endocarp the
inner layer surrounding the hollowed ovary or the containing seeds.
32 Fruit Crops

Exocarp
Exocarp (Gr. "outside" + "fruit"), is a botanical term for the outermost layer of the
pericarp (or fruit). The exocarp forms the tough outer skin of the fruit which bears oil
glands and pigments. The exocarp is sometimes called the epicarp, or, especially in
citruses, the flavedo.

epicarp (the ,.-.-_ _ fruit stalk

skin)

peri carp fleshy

(fruit wall) mesocar~--+-...,..-

woody _ _-+--_~ seed (which together with

endocarp en do carp forms the 'stone')

Cross section through a drupe

remains of stigma and style

Figure 9. Diagram of a typical drupe (peach), showing both fruit and seed

Flavedo is mostly composed of cellulosic material but also contains other components,
such as essential oils, paraffin waxes, steroids and triterpenoids, fatty acids, pigments
(carotenoids, chlorophylls, flavonoids), bitter principles (limonene), and enzymes. In
citrus fruits, the flavedo constitutes the peripheral surface of the pericarp. It is composed
of several cell layers that become progressively thicker in the internal part; the epi,dermic
layer is covered with wax and contains few stomata, which in many cases are closed
when the fruit is ripe. When ripe, the flavedo cells contain carotenoids (mostly
xanthophyll) inside chromoplasts which, in a previous developmental stage, contained
chlorophyll. This hormonally controlled progression in development is responsible for
the fruit's change of color from green to yellow upon ripening. The internal region of
the fla-yedo is rich in multicellular bodies with spherical or pyriform shapes, which are
full of essential oils.

Mesocarp
Mesocarp (Grammer "middle" + IIfruit") or Sarcocarp (Grammer. "flesh" + "fruit"), is
the botanical term for the succulent and fleshy middle layer of the pericarp of drupaceous
Anatomy of Fruits 33

fruit, between the exocarp and the endocarp; it is usually the part of the fruit that is eaten.
This term may also refer to any fruit which is fleshy throughout. In a hesperidium, the
mesocarp is also referred to as albedo or pith be\ause of its soft fiber. It is part of the
peel which is commonly removed by hand.

Endocarp

Endocarp (Gr. "inside" + "fruit"), is a botanical term for the inside layer of the pericarp
(or fruit), which directly surrounds the seeds. It may be membranous as in citrus where
it is the only part consumed, or thick and hard as in the stone fruits of the subfamily
Prunoideae such as peaches, cherries, plums, and apricots.
In nuts, it is the stony layer that surrounds the kernel of pecans, walnuts etc. and
which is removed prior to consumption. In citrus, the endocarp is separated into sections
which are most commonly called segments. The juicy pulp filling the ,segments is usually
referred to as juice vesicles.

SEEDLESS FRUITS

Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial cultivars

of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits. Some cultivars of citrus fruits
(especially navel oranges), satsumas, mandarin oranges table grapes, grapefruit, and
watermelons are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result
of parthenocarpy, where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit set mayor
may not require pollination. Most seedless citrus fruits require a pollination stimulus;
bananas and pineapples do not. Seedlessness in table grapes results from the abortion
of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as
stenospermocarpy which requires normal pollination and fertilization.
Seedless fruits can develop in one of two ways: either the fruit develops without any
fertilization (parthenocarpy), or pollination triggers fruit development but the ovules or
embryos abort without producing mature seeds (stenospermocarpy). Seedless fruits of
banana and watermelon are produced on triploid plants, whose three sets of
chromosomes prevent meiosis from taking place and thus do not produce fertile gametes.
Such plants can arise by spontaneous mutation or by hybridization between diploid and
tetraploid individuals of the same or different spe~ies . Some species, such as pineapple
and cucumber, produce seedless fruit if not pollinated, but produce seeded fruit if
pollination occurs.
Lacking seeds, and therefore the capacity to propagate via the fruit, the plants are
generally propagated vegetatively from cuttings, by grafting, or in the case of bananas,
from "pups" (offsets). In such cases, the resulting plants are genetically identical clones.
By contrast, seedless watermelons are grown from seeds. These seeds are produced by
34 Fruit Crops

crossing diploid and tetraploid lines of watermelon, with the resulting seeds progucing
sterile triploid plants. Fruit development is triggered by pollination and these plants
must be grown alongside a ¢'iploid ~train to provide pollen.
One disadvantage of most seedless crops is a significant reduction in the amount of
genetic diversity in the species. As genetically identical clones, a pest or disease that
affects one individual is likely to be capable of affecting every clone of that individual.
For example: the vast majority of commercially produced bananas are cloned from a
single source, the Cavendish cultivar, and those plants are currently threatened
worldwide by a newly discovered fungal disease to which they are highly susceptible.

SEED DISSEMINATION

Variations in fruit structures largely depend on the mode of dispersal of the seeds they
contain. This dispersal can be achieved by animals, wind, water, or explosive dehiscence.
Some fruits have coats covered with spikes or hooked burrs, either to prevent
themselves from being eaten by animals or to stick to the hairs, feathers or legs of animals,
using them as dispersal agents. Examples include cocklebur and unicorn plant.
. The sweet flesh of many fruits is "deliberately" appealing to animals, so that the seeds
held within are eaten and "unwittingly" carried ~way and deposited at a distance from
the parent. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of nuts are appealing to rodents (such
as squirrels) who hoard them in the soil in order to avoid starving during the winter,
thus giving those seeds that remain uneaten the chance to germinate and grow into a
new plant away from their parent.
Other fruits are elongated and flattened out naturally and so become thin, like wings
or helicopter blades, e.g. maple, tulip tree and elm. This is an evolutionary mechanism
to increase dispersal distance away from the parent via wind. Other wind-dispersed fruit
have tiny parachutes, e.g. dandelion and salsify .
.
Coconut fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean to spread seeqs. Some other
fruits that can disperse via water are nip a palm and screw pine.
Some fruits fling seeds substantial distances (up to 100 m ·in sandbox tree) via
explosive dehiscence or other mechanisms, e.g. impatiens and squirting cucumber.

REFERENCES

Capon, Brian. 2005. Botany for Gardeners. Timber Press. pp. 198-199.
Feldkamp, Susan. 2002. Modern Biology. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. pp. 634
Mauseth, James D. 2003. Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. Jones and Bartlett. pp. 271-272.
Schlegel, Rolf H J. 2003. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Plant Breeding and Related Subjects. Haworth Press. pp. 177.
 3
Principles of Fruit Tree Cultivation

A fruit tree is a tree bearing fruit that is consumed or used by people - all trees that
are flowering plants produce fruit, which are the ripened ovary of a flower containing
one or more seeds. In horticultural usage, the term 'fruit tree' is limited to those that
provide fruit for human food . Types of fruits are described and defined elsewhere, but
would include fruit in a culinary sense as well as some nut bearing trees, like walnuts.
The scientific study and the cultivation of fruits is called pomology, which divides fruits
into groups based on plant morphology and anatomy. Some of those groups are: Po me
fruits, which include apples and pears; and stone fruits which include peaches/
nectarines, almonds, apricots, plums and cherries.

FRUIT TREE FORMS

The shapes of most fruit trees can be manipulated by pruning and training in order to
increase yield, or to improve their suitability for different situations and conditions.
Pruning a tree to a pyramid shape means that trees can be planted closer together. An
open bowl or cup form increases the penetration of sunlight, thus encouraging a high
fruit yield whilst keeping the tree short and easy to pick from . Other shapes such as
cordons, espaliers and fans offer opportunities for growing trees two dimensionally
against walls or fences, or can themselves be trained as barriers.
Bush trees are the traditional open goblet shaped form, with a clear lower stern.
Within this branch, several sub forms are frequently used; these include the spindlebush-
form; which ~as designed for dense orchards by Schnitz-Hubsh and Heinrichs in
Germany in 1936, and is currently also the most popular trairiing system for dwarf apple
and pear trees.
Cordons are single stemmed trees with fruiting spurs planted at an angle. Any side
branches are removed by pruning. cordons take less space and crop earlier than most
other forms which means that more varieties can be got into a small space, but yields
are smaller per tree. A special cordon set-up is the Bouche-Thomas system.
36 Fruit Crops

Standard Cordon Bush Pyramid

Fan Espalier Step-over

Figure 1. Fruit Tree Shapes

Espaliers have a central vertical trunk with three or four horizontal branches each side.
A special espalier in this group is the "LePage-system. Fans have a short central trunk
with several radiating branches growing from the crown. Step-over espaliers have single
horizontal branches at 30 cm from the ground and make a novel and productive border
to the vegetable plot.
All of these shapes require training by tying the branches to the required form, and
pruning to retain the desired structure. This is usually carried out in autumn for major
cutting back and late summer for light trimming. Autumn pruning encourages woody
growth whilst late summer pruning encourages fruiting. Not all trees will accept all of
the shapes above- apples and pears do well as cordons and espaliers for example,
whereas cherries prefer to be fanned.

PLANNING BEFORE PLANTING

Fruit Selection

Selecting the type of fruit to grow is the first step in tree fruit production. To begin, you
need to know which tree fruit can be grown in your region. Your region's climate
determines the type of fruit you can grow successfully. The climate must be compatible
with the 'growing requirements of the selected fruit crop. To take an extreme example,
a tropical fiuit such as the banana simply cannot survive in Amercia. Bananas require
Principles of Fruit Tree Cultivation 37

a warmer climate and a longer growing season. Different crops require different levels
of management. Low-management crops such as pecans, figs, and persimmons require
little attention to training, fertility, or insect and disease control. On the other hand,
peaches and plums require intensive management.

Plant Quality
Purchase well-grown, heavily rooted, one-year-old plants of all fruits except blueberries
and brambles. Two-year-old blueberry plants are recommended. Nursery plants listed
as "certified" (true to name) and "virus tested" or "virus indexed" are recommended.
Brambles and stone fruit trees (peaches, nectarines, plums, cherries) are especially prone
to virus infection in the nursery. Infected plants are not very vigorous and may produce
little fruit, so it is worth the additional cost to buy virus-tested plants. Micropropagated
("tissue-cultured") brambles should be multiplied and grown in a greenhouse in steam-
sterilised soil. Any bramble plant that has been grown outside in a nursery may be
infected with several diseases, all of which will result in poor plant growth and yield.

Site Selection

Selecting a good site for your fruit trees is crucial to their success. A number of factors
should be considered (Figure 2a and 2b).

Figure 2a: Poor site selection. Fruit trees should not be planted in areas shaded by houses, buildings,
or other trees. They also should not be planted near fences or hedges, as these keep cold air trapped
around young trees.
38 Fruit Crops

Figure 2b: Well-selected site. All fruit trees are planted away from barriers and in areas that receive
sufficient light.

Plenty of sunlight is a key to maximising fruit production. While some fruit plants can
survive in partial shade, most require direct sunlight to fuel the energy intensive fruit-
production process. Choose a planting area in your yard that will be in the sun most
or all of the day. Rapid drying of the plant canopy reduces the need for fungicides and
is important in preventing disease. The more quickly the plants dry off after rain or dew,
the less chance they have of contracting disease. Early morning sunshine is particularly
important for drying dew from the plants.
Choose an area that is large enough to permit adequate plant spacing within and
between rows. Less crowded plants will dry more quickly.
Choose a location with good air and water drainage and some protection from
prevailing winds. Northern exposures are less subject to late spring frosts and are likely
,to have the most snow cover, which protects plants from soil heaving caused by alternate
freezing and thawing of the soil surface.
Avoid-planting within the root zone of black walnut trees since these trees produce
a natural herbicide Guglone) that inhibits the growth of other plants. Do not plant
brambles or strawberries where any Solanaceous crop (tomatoes, peppers, eggplant,
potatoes) has been grown for the last five years. A soil fungus called Verticillium can
. inhabit plant debris from Solanaceous crops. If strawberries or brambles are infected, the
entire planting may be lost within one season.
Lack of space in full sunlight often discourages the home gardener from planting fruit
in the backyard. Fruit plants can be planted in ways that do not require large areas. The
following list provides some suggestions for planting in smaller spaces.
Principles of Fruit Tree Cultivation 39

Use dwarfing rootstocks for apple trees. These reduce the apple tree size by as much
as 60 percent and are readily available from most nurseries.
Use the fruit plants as a property screen or divider. Fruit trees, grapes, and brambles
are ideal for this.
Grow espaliered apple or pear trees or vining plants such as grapes or thornless
blackberries on a fence or against a wall.
Grow strawberries in pots or as a pyramid.
Grow currants or gooseberries in partial shade.
Good internal water drainage in the soil is a more important consideration than soil
fertility. Avoid soils and sites that are not well drained. If water stands for more than
24 hours after a spring rain, the soil is probably not drained well enough for fruit
production. Wet soils result in oxygen-starved roots and a microenvironment conducive
to disease development.

Soil Type and Drainage

Plant fruit trees in well-drained and fairly fertile soil. Avoid poorly drained soils. A tree's
root system grows throughout the year. Water that remains standing in the root zone
(18 to 24 inches deep) at any time during the year can drown the tree. During the growing
season, standing water can drown some types of fruit trees in just three days. Poorly
drained soils also promote the growth of root rot organisms.
When poorly drained soils cannot be avoided, problems may be alleviated by
planting the trees in raised beds.The beds are formed by shaping well-drained topsoil
into beds 18 to 24 inches high and 4 to 5 feet wide. Raised beds have been used
successfully in both backyard and commercial orchards. Trees grown in raised beds must
be irrigated more frequently during the growing season because the beds present a larger
exposed surface area from which water can evaporate.

Soil Fertility

It is also important to consider soil fertility and acidity. Acidic soils reduce the amount
of nutrients available to the trees. When this happens, fertilisation does not benefit the
trees but results in runoff or leaching. To alleviate the problem, it will be necessary to
add lime to the soil to reduce the soil pH.
Before planting, collect soil samples for analysis. Soil samples should be taken from
two depths; the first from the top 8 inches of soil and the second from the 9- to 16-inch
depth.
40 Fruit Crops

The soil in which our plants grow is a complex material. Its consistency and makeup
have a marked influence upon plants. Soil provides support for the plant and is also the
storehouse for plant nutrients, water, and oxygen for root growth.
Not all soils have the same ability to produce plant growth. The productive capacity
of a soil must be considered in terms of both its fertility and physical condition. Even
if the correct nutrients are present, they must be released in a form readily available to
the plant. Soil fertility should then be considered as the soil's nutrient-supplying
capacity, and not strictly as the amount of anyone nutrient. Therefore, maintaining soil
fertility involves adjusting the supply of available nutrients to levels conducive to the
desired growth. To determine the fertility of your soil, collect samples on which to have
a soil test performed. Obtain a soil test kit from your county extension office. There is
a small cost for the kit, which includes soil analysis and fertilizer/lime recommendations
for your particular soil. When you submit the soil for analysis, be sure to specify the crop
that you intend to grow since nutritional and pH requirements vary somewhat among
fruit types.
You will receive a soil test report back from the laboratory. The Penn State report
shows phosphate, potassium (also called potash), magnesium, and calcium levels, as well
as soil pH. Suggested fertilizer application rates are provided along with the levels. The
report has three sections. First! the pH adjustment shows the amount of calcitic limestone
(0 to 3 percent Mg) needed to raise the soil pH to the desired level for your particular
crop. Second, the magnesium and calcium section shows the amount of Epsom salts
(magnesium sulfate) and gypsum (calcium sulfate) needed by the crop. Finally, the plant
nutrient needs section indicates the amount of other fertilizer materials to be used. Before
planting, fertilise and lime the soil (or acidify it for blueberries) according to the soil test
results.

Air Drainage

Adequate air drainage is as important as proper water drainage. Remember that cold
air is heavier than warm air and settles in low areas, so choose a site that allows cold
air to flow downhill away from the trees. Select higher sites with an unobstructed,
gradual slope. Avoid low sites, which are commonly known as frost pockets.

Sunlight

Plant fruit trees in areas that receive full sunlight. A void areas shaded by taller trees,
houses, or buildings. Most fruit tree buds require 30 percent sunlight to produce high-
quality fruit. Although the exterior of a tree may receive full sun, sunlight can be reduced
by one-half just 12 inches inside the canopy of the tree. Eighteen inches into the tree
canopy, light may be reduced nearly 75 percent, which is below the level needed for
Principles of Fruit Tree Cultivation 41

successful fruit production. Partially shaded trees can also have increased disease
problems.

Variety Selection
After selecting the fruit and the planting site, you must choose the variety of fruit to plant.
Novice growers often try to plant the same varieties that they see at their local grocery
stores. Many times, however, these fruit are produced in areas with different climatic
conditions. The result, at best, is fruit that looks much different than expected. At worst,
the variety will fail to produce a crop. Plant varieties that are known to grow well in
your region.

Rootstock Selection and Tree Spacing

Almost all commercially available fruit trees have been budded or grafted; that is, the
top · portion, or scion, of the desired fruit variety is attached to the root system, or
rootstock, of a different variety. Trees are grown this way because some popular varieties
grow and crop better on rootstocks other than their own. In some cases, the rootstock
is more resistant to certain troublesome diseases. In the case of apple trees, the rootstock
can be chosen to limit growth, producing trees that crop well and are easier to man~ge
than full-sized trees. The choice of rootstock is very important for some fruits, such as
apples, but not of much consequence for others. Apple trees are grown on a wide variety
of rootstocks. These are called size-controlling rootstocks because they control the size
of the tree; however fruit size is not reduced. In general, the smaller the tree, the sooner
it will bear fruit after planting. Table 1 lists the rootstocks commonly used for apple trees
and indicates their effect on tree size, using the "seedling" or standard rootstock as the
basis of comparison.
Table 1. Commercially Available Apple Rootstocks and Their Characteristics
Rootstock Tree Size as Tree Size as Fruit Bearing Resistance to Resistance to
Percentage of Percentage of Age (Years) Crown Rot Fire Blight
Seedling Seedling
(Nonspur) (Spur)
Seedling 100 80 6-10 Medium High
MM.1l1 85 70 4-6 Medium Low
MM.106 80 70 3-4 Very Low Low
M.7a 70 60 3-4 Medium High
M.26 50 40 2-4 Medium Very Low
Mark 45 35 2-3 Medium Low
M.9 35 20 2-3 Medium Low
42 Fruit Crops

Thus, for example, the M.9 rootstock will produce a nonspur-type tree that is only
35 percent as large as it would be if grown on a seedling rootstock. The table also lists
the time required for the trees to reach bearing age and the degree of rootstock resistance
to two important diseases. Two categories of growth habit are included in the table: spur
and nonspur. Trees with a spur-type growth habit bear the majority of their fruit on very
short branches called spurs. Nonspur varieties produce fruit on longer branches. Since
spur-type varieties have fewer long branches, the trees are more compact.

10.
~

60%
.~

2f*
,',' ,.~
';;', '0
..'"
MM. I06 MKIII

Figure 3. Tree size shown as a percentage of the size the tree would reach if grown on a seedling, or
standard, rootstock.

Because the choice of rootstock affects the size of the trees, it also affects the optimum
spacing between the trees. Table 2 gives the recommended distance between trees for
both spur and nonspur varieties. Note that very vigorous varieties should be spaced
farther apart.
\

Table 2. Recommended Planting Distances for Apple Trees Grown on Size-Controlling Rootstocks

Distance Between Trees (feet)

Rootstock Nonspur Varieties Spur Varieties Very Vigor?us Varieties
Seedling 18-25 12-16 25-35
MM. 111 14-18 9-12 20-25
MM.106 12-16 8-11 17-22
M.7 10-14 7-9 14-20
M.26 8-12 5-8 11-17
Mark 6-8 4-5 8-11
M.9 4-8 3-5 6-11

Apple trees on rootstocks of a size class smaller than M.7 bear fruit while they are still
very young. They should be supported by stakes to promote optimum growth and to
Principles of Fruit Tree Cultivation 43

help support the fruit load in the early years. Use lO-foot stakes and drive them 2 feet
into the ground. Stakes are commonly made from l-inch-diameter aluminum electrical
conduit or 3-inch-diameter wooden posts. Tie the tree loosely to the above-ground
portion of the stake. Strips of plastic or heavy-duty canvas or cloth can be used as ties.
Do not use materials that will restrict tree growth or girdle the tree.
Peaches, nectarines, and plums are also affected by choice of rootstock. In the
Southeast, trees are susceptible to peach tree short life (PTSL), a condition that causes
sudden death of the tree after only four or five yea~s of growth. With proper rootstock
selection, nematode suppression, and cultural practices, the threat of this condition can
be minimised. Spacing recommendations for other fruit trees are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Spacing Requirements for Other Tree Fruits

Fruit Crop Minimum Spacing Between Trees (feet)
Asian Pears 20
Chestnuts 40
Figs 10
Pears 20
Pecans 70
Persimmons 15

CULTURAL PRACTICES

Planting

To plant a tree, dig a hole twice the size of the root system. The sides of the hole should
be loose, not packed down by the force of the shovel. Cut off damaged roots at the point
of injury. Shorten roots that are especially long and will not fit in the hole. Roots that
are not shortened will wrap around the tree hole and eventually girdle the root system,
reducing tree growth in later years (Figure 3).
When planting a grafted tree, be sure that the graft union is 2 inches above the soil.
If the graft union is below the soil surface, the top portion or scion will grow roots and
negate the effect of the grafted root system.
After the tree is in place, fill the hole with native soil, not potting soil. Adding organic
matter ot mulch to the soil can promote growth if these materials are mixed well with
the soil. NEVER add fertilizer to the planting hole. Fertilizers are very caustic and can
bum and kill the roots of young trees. After you have filled the hole, be sure to water
the area well.
44 Fruit Crops

Figure 3. Proper tree planting. The figure on the left shows an improperly planted fruit tree. The
hole is too narrow and shallow, forcing the roots to be wrapped in the hole, which may eventually
girdle the tree. The graft union is also planted below the soil surface, which will negate the effect
of the rootstock. The raised bed is not wide enough or deep enough to be of much benefit. The
figure on the right shows the correct way to plant fruit trees.

During shipping, handling, and planting, roots are damaged. After planting young trees,
prune the top of each tree. Pruning the tree top balances the root system and promotes
vigorous growth in the spring. When working with unbranched trees, cut the tree off
approximately 32 inches above the ground. For larger trees, remove 1/3 of the top of the
tree.
The following suggestions will help you to successfully plant fruit trees.
Time of planting: Dormant fruit trees can be planted in the spring as soon as the
ground can be work~d without fear of damaging the soil structure. In most parts
of Pennsylvania this can occur anytime from March through mid-May. The later the
trees are planted, however, the slower they will begin to grow.
Handling the trees: As soon as the plants arrive, open the package. Report any signs
of damage or poor handling to the nursery immediately.
Holding the trees until planted: Trees to be held for several days should be heeled-
in, or placed in cold storage with the roots covered with moist soil, sawdust, or sand.
Never permit the roots to become dry.
On the day before planting, place the tret!s in water so that all of the roots are
covered. Allow the trees to absorb water for up to 4 hours.
The hole in which each tree is to be planted should be wide enough to accommodate
all of the tree's root system without excessive bending or bunching of the roots. It
should be deep enough so that the bud union will be no more than 2 to.3 inches
Principles of Fruit Tree Cultivation 45

above the ground after the soil settles. Grafted or budded trees should always be
planted so their union is above the soil line.
Clonal rootstock trees: Observe which side of the root system has the most roots.
Set the tree so that the side of the root system with the most roots is pointed into
the direction from which the prevailing winds come. This will afford added
anchorage.
Planting the tree: Add 4 to 6 inches of soil to the hole, while at the same time gently
jiggling the tree up and down. This will cut down on the possibility of air pockets
and help the soil to surround all of the roots.
Fill the hole to within 3 to 4 inches of the ground line. Tramp the soil firmly, then
add the remaining soil up to the ground line.
Apply 5 gallons of water to each tree after planting. It is important to use at least
5 gallons to ensure complete wetting of all soil and roots in the hole.
In the absence of a soil test, a reliable rule of thumb is to use the equivalent of 1/
2 pound of 10-10-10 fertilizer per tree except for pears, in which case 1/4 pound per
tree will be adequate. Sprinkle the fertilizer in a 12-inch-wide band. Keep the
fertilizer at least 6 inches away from the tree trunk. Do not apply any dry granular
fertilizer near the tree until after the ground has settled and no cracks in the soil
are evident.
After the water has moved into the soil, add a tree guard. A 15-by-18-inch piece of
3/8-inch hardware cloth makes an excellent guard. Bury the bottom of the guard 1
to 2 inches into the soil or into finely crushed stone, which helps to reduce weeds
and rodent damage when it is spread around the base of the tree.
When planting bare-root trees, remember that approximately one-quarter of the root
system was removed when the tree was dug. To compensate, remove about one-
quarter of the top part of the plant to reestablish a 1:1 shoot-to-root ratio. Trees that
come balled and burlapped do not need as much pruning; remove only broken or
low-hanging branches. '
If less than 4 to 5 inches of rain have fallen since the trees were planted, apply 5
gallons around the base of each tree. You might have to hoe a small ridge of soil
around each tree to prevent the water from running off.

Weed Control

Weeds or grass growing between or under fruit trees compete for soil nutrients and
moisture, reducing tree growth. Keep all vegetation under the trees controlled up to the
drip line (the circle formed by the outermost branches of the tree). Avoid using
Another random document with
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The last time he was in London, Queen Victoria invited him to an
interview with her at Windsor Palace; and after lunch was served to
him and his party, he was ushered into the presence of the Queen,
in the great drawing-room of the palace, where all the lords- and
ladies-in-waiting had been gathered in. The interview was a most
interesting one.
When she told him that she was glad to see him, and spoke
appreciatively of his services, he responded easily and frankly:—
“I am glad to see you, my sovereign, and to be so graciously
received by you. But I do not forget that I am an alien, and that I
was a slave. I came flying for life and liberty to your dominion; and
when my weary feet touched the soil over which you reign I was a
free man. I knelt reverently, and kissed the earth, and thanked my
God that wherever your flag floated the slave was free and safe. I
desire to assure your Majesty, that among the millions of your
subjects, although I am one of the humblest, there are none more
true and loyal than Josiah Henson.”
Her Majesty was visibly moved. Prince Leopold and Princess
Beatrice, two of her children, were on either side of her during this
interview, which lasted for some time. She took from the hand of
Beatrice a little package and handed it to him, saying:—
“Accept this as a small token of my appreciation of your valuable
services to the slaves in America, and as a token of my interest in
your race, especially those who have settled in Canada.”
The package contained a small picture of herself set in gold, resting
on a gold easel. As that was kept in the safe at the bank I did not
see it; but I did see the oil painting of “Uncle Tom,” as everybody
called him, presented to him by the Anti-Slavery Society of Boston,
about the time Mrs. Stowe’s book, “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” came out.
SECRETARY STANTON’S GENEROUS
GIFT.

IN October, 1863, I came up from the hospitals in the front, to

attend a sanitary convention at Muscatine, Iowa.
As I was legally commissioned the sanitary agent of the State by
Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood, having been elected to that position
by the Legislature of Iowa, my presence was greatly desired by the
workers.
The convention was large and representative. But my own heart was
greatly burdened with touching messages from dying soldiers to
their wives and children. In the midst of the convention I boldly
announced my purpose to try to establish a home for soldiers’
orphan children. The proposition was received with the wildest
enthusiasm; and the convention took action at once, not only
indorsing the movement, but pledging financial support.
There was no precedent to follow, as there was no institution of the
kind in all the world.
I was elected president of “The Orphans’ Home Association,” but
declined, and Governor Stone, the newly elected governor of the
State, was chosen. The ablest men and women of the State were
brought into the organization, and the Home was duly opened in a
rented house.
The house, although large, was soon crowded to overflowing, and
we could get no larger building that would accommodate the
hundreds who were applying for admission.
A committee sent out to search for more commodious quarters
reported new, fine barracks on a piece of confiscated land of thirty
acres, adjoining the town of Davenport.
The barracks were new and well-built, and had cost $46,000.
The leading men of Iowa, as well as the women, were actively
enlisted in the work.
Ex-Governor Kirkwood, and his private secretary, N. H. Brainard,
Governor Stone, Judge Lowe, Judge Coles, Chaplain Ingalls, John
Parvin, and many others whose names were a guaranty of honest
and faithful work, were active.
I was selected to go to Washington and secure these barracks as a
gift from the government, if possible. If I could not obtain them as a
gift, I was authorized to offer $1,000 a year as rent for them. I
protested strongly against being sent on such an important mission;
but I was overruled, and was obliged to accept the duty.
When I reached Washington, October, 1865, I went to the surgeon-
general’s office, and made known my mission, and secured an
official statement that those barracks would not be needed for
hospital purposes. I want to say in this connection that Surgeon-
General J. K. Barnes had always co-operated with me most heartily
in all my work.
I then called on Quartermaster-General Meigs, the man who with
such wonderful executive ability fed and clothed the great armies of
the republic, furnishing quarters and equipments, and paid their
wages with an honesty and fidelity that have never been questioned.
I had often met him before; and no one who ever saw him could
forget his honest, rugged, but kindly face.
When I made known my mission, he looked surprised and pleased,
and then said,—
“Well, now, that is certainly a good use to put these deserted
barracks to.”
“General,” I said, “all I want you to do, is to say officially to the
government that they will not be needed for military purposes.”
“They were never needed; they ought never to have been built. It
was a waste of money.”
“Then, General, you can certainly say they will not be needed for
military purposes. Please say that officially.”
He took up his pen and wrote out a statement, informing the
government that the new cavalry barracks at Davenport, Ia., would
not be needed for military purposes, “even if hostilities were
resumed.” His statement covered over two pages.
Thus armed, I went to the office of the Secretary of War.
I had become acquainted with Mr. Stanton under the most favorable
circumstances.
The governor of Iowa had commended me to him, and early in 1862
obtained for me a general order for transportation of myself and
supplies and rations. And later, when I called on him personally, I
was the bearer of letters of introduction and commendation from
some of his most influential and trusted friends.
Afterwards he always seemed glad to see me, and graciously
granted all my requests.
He was prompt and clear in all his business methods, and was by far
the best listener I have ever met. When I talked to him there was no
need of repeating; he apprehended my meaning. When he talked,
there was no room to misunderstand him. There was no fuss and
bluster, or pretence, or attempt to show off himself or his authority;
and that pleased me. I went, therefore, to his office with great hope
and courage. When I asked to see the Secretary of War, a young,
jolly-looking officer came forward and asked,—
“What can I do for you, madam?”
“I wish to see Mr. Stanton.”
“Mr. Stanton is in Boston. I am Major Eccles, acting Secretary of War,
and will attend to any business you may have to transact.”
I informed him as to my mission. He laughed heartily.
“That, madam, is a little beyond my prerogative. I don’t feel
authorized to give away the property of the government.”
I put myself at once in telegraphic communication with Mr. Stanton.
He asked some questions as to the legal status of the institution,
and that was all I heard that day.
The next morning I took another requisition to the War Department.
It was for hospital supplies. I distinctly remember the first few items,
1,800 blankets; 2,500 sheets; 3,000 pillow-cases; 1,500 pillows, and
so on, till everything I could remember that could be of use to the
Home were enumerated.
When I handed the document to Major Eccles, I said,—
“Here is a small requisition I should like to have go in with the
application for the property.”
“This is a small requisition,” and he laughed heartily as he read the
list aloud.
“Yes, sir,” I said with great gravity. “This is a small requisition; but
with the help of the generous people of Iowa, I hope we shall be
able to get along with that.”
“Now seriously, on what grounds have you a right to ask these
supplies from the government?”
“Well, sir, I call your attention to the fact, that at the beginning of
the war the government had very few hospital supplies. The loyal
people of the North helped to fit them up. The loyal State of Iowa
sent nearly $200,000 worth of supplies into the military hospitals.
Now, all I ask is that you give us back a few of the supplies that we
gave you, as you no longer need them.”
“You are certainly entitled to them. I will do what I can to get this
through.”
The Iowa delegation at Washington, and the officers in the War
Department, including Major Eccles, became greatly interested, and
anxious that Secretary Stanton’s answer should be favorable.
When the answer came it was:—
“Will you accept the property subject to the approval of Congress?”
I flashed back my answer as quickly as possible:—
“Yes; and will get the bill through without annoyance to you.”
As I was obliged to leave the War Department before an answer
came, Major Eccles drove up to the house of my friend, where I was
stopping, with the telegraphic order, turning over the property to the
Association. The gift of the barracks and the hospital supplies
aggregated $52,000.
I was lifted to the clouds, figuratively speaking, and rushed to the
telegraph-office, and sent off despatches to the newspapers in Iowa.
The next morning all the leading papers in Iowa appeared with great
head-lines announcing the magnificent gift.
Before Congress met we had bought out the heirs of the confiscated
property, remodelled and plastered the buildings, and had nearly five
hundred soldiers’ orphan children comfortably housed there.
Hon. Hiram Price, a member of Congress from the Davenport
District, took charge of our bill, and carried it through Congress
without annoyance to Mr. Stanton.
The fact that we had possession, and were housing and supporting
so many soldiers’ orphan children in these barracks, made opposition
almost impossible.
With this valuable property in our possession, it was an easy task to
induce the State Legislature to take this burden off our hands and
make it a State institution. The frame barracks have been replaced
by substantial brick buildings; but the Home is still conducted on the
cottage plan, and is one of the finest institutions of the State.
Edwin M. Stanton’s generous action in giving this timely help to a
weak society secured the success of a worthy institution, that has
educated and sent out thousands of children to be good and useful
citizens.
Mr. Stanton was one of the strong, true, honest men who made Mr.
Lincoln’s administration a success. He was intensely loyal, and
intolerant to treason and self-seeking, and he made traitors tremble
on both sides of the line. He was, more than any other man, the
balance-wheel in the complicated machinery of the government
which held and regulated its internal workings.
He was a clear and close thinker, a keen and sagacious discerner of
human motives, a tireless worker, and was too open and frank to
conceal his opinions of men and things.
Too unselfish to enrich himself, he toiled on, literally killing himself at
work, and dying poor. When passion and prejudice have passed
away he will receive his full meed of praise.
THE SPECIAL-DIET KITCHEN WORK.

NO part of the army service was so defective, during the first two
years of the war, as the cooking department in the United States
government hospitals.
Few of the men employed as cooks in these hospitals were trained
or skilled; most of them had obtained their knowledge of cookery
after being assigned to duty, under most unfavorable circumstances,
and without the proper facilities for doing their work.
One general kitchen provided the food for all—the sick, the
wounded, and the dying, as well as the nurses and convalescents.
Where there were women nurses in a hospital, and they could get a
little stove of their own, special dishes were prepared for the worst
patients; but there was no general system of providing dainty and
suitable diet for the thousands in need of delicate food in home-like
preparation.
The supplies coming from the generous people of the North
occasioned great anxiety.
The surgeons forbade their distribution at the bedside of the
patients, on the ground that something might be given which would
endanger their lives or retard their recovery, and ordered them
turned over to the commissary. Often supplies thus turned over
failed to reach the sick or wounded.
It was under these trying circumstances that the plan of a system of
special-diet kitchens came to me,—clearly and definitely, as a flash
from the skies,—like a divine inspiration.
It was in December, 1863, that the thought came to me, and I
hastened at once to put the plan into execution.
Everybody seemed to accept the plan with enthusiasm; and the
Sanitary and Christian Commission, and the officers and surgeons of
the army, all hastened to co-operate with me in inaugurating and
accomplishing this great reform.
The plan in itself was very simple and practical, and was entirely
satisfactory to all parties.
1. The food for those needing special diet was prescribed by the
ward surgeons. A bill of fare was provided, with the name of the
patient and the number of his bed, for every patient put on special
diet; and on this bill the surgeon prescribed his diet by making a
mark opposite the articles the patient was allowed. This plan gave
the sick or wounded man a chance to express his own wants in
regard to food, which was a great advantage.
2. These bills of fare were consolidated by the ward-master, and a
copy sent to the superintendent of the special-diet kitchen, and the
bills were returned to their places again. So with these consolidated
lists before them, the managers of the special-diet kitchen knew just
what to cook, and just the quantity.
3. The food thus ordered was prepared in the special-diet kitchen,
which, although under separate management, was a part of the
hospital, and as completely under the control of the authorities as
any other part of the hospital.
The kitchens were fitted up with ranges and other suitable
conveniences, and were under the management of suitable ladies
employed by the surgeons in charge. A storeroom conveniently near
or adjoining was provided, where the commuted rations of soldiers
put on special diet were stored, also the supplies furnished by the
Sanitary and Christian Commissions; and the woman in charge of
the special-diet kitchen carried the keys.
4. These dietary nurses were not cooks; they only superintended the
work. Many of those who worked in these kitchens were soldiers
who were somewhat disabled, or convalescent soldiers who were
not able to join their regiments.
In large hospitals, where one thousand or fifteen hundred were
furnished meals three times a day, the work was divided up, and
each man had his part of the work, and soon became an expert in it.
There were in the large kitchens from twenty-five to thirty men
required to do the work.
The food thus systematically prepared under the watchful eyes of
women competent to govern such a force and direct the work, was
brought to the bedside of the patients in home-like preparation.
No mistake would likely be made in the distribution, as each patient
had at the head of his bed the list of articles of food prescribed by
the surgeon of his ward.
The first kitchen was opened at Cumberland Hospital, Nashville,
Tenn.
The Christian Commission of Pittsburg, Pa., sent me the lumber to
build a kitchen, storeroom, and a ladies’ room, and two of the
largest ranges in the market.
Mary E. Moorhead, a wealthy lady of that city, daughter of Hon. J. K.
Moorhead, at that time a member of Congress, and one of
Pittsburg’s most honored citizens, and Hannah Shaw, who has since
distinguished herself in missionary work in China, took charge of that
kitchen. Miss Moorhead has since the close of the war devoted
herself to benevolent work.
The change wrought in that hospital was so marvellous that all the
leading surgeons from Louisville to Chattanooga were anxious for
the establishment of special-diet kitchens in connection with their
hospitals. Many of them could not believe the wonderful stories
circulated as to the great reform wrought in Cumberland Hospital,
and, like the Queen of Sheba, came long distances to see for
themselves as to the truth of the matter, and, like her, confessed
that “the half had not been told them.”
I was most generously sustained in this work by the Christian
Commission, who turned all their supplies into these kitchens, and
paid all the expenses of this service. I was chosen superintendent of
the special-diet kitchen work, which rapidly extended all along the
lines from Vicksburg to Petersburg.
The surgeons accepting this help, agreed to employ the women
selected by me, and allow them to have charge of the supplies
furnished for use in the special-diet kitchens, from the government
and the Sanitary and Christian Commissions. The surgeons had
charge of the kitchen, appointed these women, and directed their
work, as in all parts of their hospitals.
There was no opposition to this work. Mr. Lincoln, Secretary Stanton,
Surgeon-General Barnes, and Assistant-Surgeon-General Wood, gave
me their indorsement and all the aid I needed. It soon became an
admitted fact that thousands of lives were being saved by this
supply of better food, which many of them needed more than they
did medicine.
Surgeon-General Barnes became so enthusiastic over the plan that
he appointed a commission of United States army surgeons to
consider it, with a view of adopting it and ingrafting it upon the
United States general hospital system.
I was invited by the surgeon-general to meet with them. The
committee received me most graciously at their regular sittings in
Washington, D. C., and listened with great respect to my
explanations; and after carefully considering my plans, adopted
them as a part of the regular United States hospital system.
To give some idea of the magnitude of the work, out of over one
hundred special-diet kitchens established by me, I give the amount
of food in rations issued from sixteen special-diet kitchens, a record
of which I happen to have now on hand for February, 1865.
rations.

Tea 100,350
Coffee 54,818
Cocoa 4,770
Milk, Cold 12,194
Milk, boiled 9,860
Milk, Thickened 7,517
Bread and Milk, Boiled 2,689
Beef Tea 7,548
Beef Essence 1,699
Bread and Butter 133,938
Toast, Buttered 28,539
Toast, Dry 23,809
Toast, Milk 33,611
Crackers 18,999
Corn Bread 15,714
Biscuit 5,458
Warm Cakes 2,629
Rice 9,239
Barley 492
Farina 8,424
Gruel 1,589
Corn Starch 17,150
Mush 10,831
Soup, Chicken 8,472
Soup, Mutton 856
Soup, Beef 10,716
Soup, Barley 599
Soup, Oyster 10,193
Soup, Potato 2,301
Soup, Vegetable 4,885
Beef Steak 27,623
Roast Beef 36,599
Ham 3,585
Chicken 11,389
Turkey (only occasionally) 809
Mutton 2,357
Veal 1,510
Pork 2,208
Hash 7,925
Oysters 5,086
Fish 5,721
Eggs 15,538
Potatoes 47,725
Turnips 7,785
Carrots 1,070
Onions 12,356
Beets 271
Cabbage 15,059
Krout 1,296
Beans 494
Parsnips 1,291
Tomatoes 7,312
Puddings 34,249
Pies 5,113
Cakes 3,485
Tapioca 2,772
Sago 60
Blanc-Mange 807
Custard 1,616
Jellies 1,763
Canned Fruit 12,816
 Stewed Fruit 29,266
Apple Sauce 7,618
Apples, Baked 11,774
Pickles 20,343
Lemons 127
Cheese 825
Cordials, etc 1,940
————
Total, 899,472
This was the regular bill of fare in all the special-diet kitchens. If any
one of these articles could not be obtained, they were marked off.
Turkey was only on the list occasionally. It will be seen by the great
variety that the appetites of the patients were consulted. Nothing,
however, was issued without it being ordered by the surgeon in
attendance upon the patient.
Some of the articles furnished on the above list may seem unfit for
sick men; but when we take into consideration that there were many
wounded men who were allowed by the surgeons to eat anything
they might choose, and others who were homesick, or hopelessly ill,
or dying, who in the loneliness of suffering remembered and craved
something because a kind mother’s hand had once prepared such
dainties for them, it is no longer a matter of wonder.
And since the loved ones at home could not cheer them with their
presence and love in their dark hours of suffering, it was a delightful
task for these noble women to substitute home food and words of
cheer.
It is the verdict of history that this system of special-diet kitchens
saved thousands of lives. During the last eighteen months of the
war, over two million rations were issued monthly from this long line
of special-diet kitchens, established, many of them, almost under the
guns.
 THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC—ITS
GLORIES AND ITS DANGERS.

THE remarkable growth of the American Republic is without a

parallel in the history of the world.
A hundred years ago she was a feeble nation—in her infancy, and
scarcely recognized by the other nations of the earth. Now she
stands foremost among the governments of the world, and leads the
nations in almost everything.
Her territory is extensive and contiguous, lying between two great
oceans, and bounded on the north and south by navigable lakes and
seas.
Her resources are almost boundless. She gluts the markets of the
world with her silver and gold. Her iron and copper ores are rich and
abundant, nearly all the metals needed for the use of her people
may be had for the digging, and she may bedeck her children with
the jewels gathered from her own fields.
She can produce an abundance of cotton, wool, flax, hemp, and silk.
She is already the chief competitor in the cotton markets of Asia,
and from her own looms is clothing her people in muslins and fine
linen, and her daughters in royal purple from her silk factories. Her
food supply is immense. Her grain-fields are broad and rich enough
to supply bread to the millions of her own people, and to meet the
needs of the needy nations of the earth. Her meat supply is so large
that she is glad to share it with all the world. Her fruit yield is ample,
sufficient in variety and abundance to meet the needs of all. Only a
few luxuries are denied her. She could shut herself in, and live
luxuriously on her own products. There is not one thing that comes
from abroad that her people could not live comfortably without. Tea,
coffee, spices, and tropical fruits are not necessary to human life.
Her woods are abundant and fine, equal to any reasonable demand.
Her furniture goes to the ends of the earth.
Her building material is abundant and of superior quality. She has
granite and marble in variety, nearly all kinds of valuable building-
stones, and clays of almost every description. Her potteries are now
doing credible work, and her china and glass wares are attracting
attention in other lands. The new process by which glass china is
produced is a marvellous success.
Her people are intelligent and enterprising. The rich resources of the
country have stimulated their activities and awakened their inventive
genius till they are the leaders in the work of the world, and the
most thrifty and enterprising nation on the face of the globe.
They have tunnelled the mountains; bridged the rivers; created
water-ways; made the wilderness to bloom; and chained steam and
electricity as motive powers to their chariot-wheels, to do their
bidding on the land and under the sea.
A system of government has been established superior to any other
known before among men; and a system of free schools that has no
parallel on the face of the earth has made the people intelligent and
efficient for the practical work of life, far beyond other nations, taken
as a mass. And yet with all these blessings, dangers threaten her.
One of the dangers that threaten this glorious Republic is the foreign
emigration. Attracted by her rich resources and the marvellous
stories of her wealth, the people of other nations are coming to
share our blessings. The danger is not in the number who come, but
in the character of many of these new-comers.
They come to a new nation with old habits, and old prejudices, and
another language. They are a misfit. They care nothing for the
American Republic and her free institutions, only as they will add to
their physical comfort and personal aggrandizement. They do not
assimilate or become Americanized. Many of them are ignorant and
brutish. They huddle together; they are as much foreigners as they
were in Hungary or Sicily. They remain foreigners, and they have
nothing in common with us except their physical needs.
Among them are the vicious and the idle. Our thoroughfares are
filled with tramps and beggars. The prisons of our cities are crowded
with foreign criminals and paupers. Almost two-thirds of all the
criminals and paupers in our large cities are foreign born. Criminals
flying from justice; paupers who, from infirmities of body and mind,
or from idle and dissolute habits, must be supported,—find a refuge
here.
Statesmen may well question as to how long this Republic can take
into her bosom, and accord all the rights of citizenship to, the
criminals and paupers of the world, without danger.
But there is danger from our own people. The accumulation of great
wealth, without a corresponding increase of brains and culture, is
giving us an undesirable aristocracy. They ape the old, effete
aristocracies of the Old World.
They discount American institutions, and “adore a title.” They try to
rule business, politics, and social life. But this evil will be overcome.
In this country, where there are no entailed estates, death equalizes
wealth and power every few years.
 MEMORIAL DAY.

Bow low, fair clouds, and kiss the earth,

Where Human Freedom had her birth,
Where heroes struggled in the fight,
And patriots died for human right.
Bow low, and rainbow glories shed
Above a nation’s gallant dead;
Then bear the news o’er land and sea,
Earth’s fettered millions may be free.

Fly low, bright birds with painted wings,

And join the song a nation sings,
A glad, and sacred jubilee,
For God has set his people free.
Sing of the flag with starry field,
Sing of the eagle and the shield,
Sing of the victories of Peace,
Sing of the time when wars shall cease.

Bloom on, sweet flowers, thy perfume shed

Above each soldier’s lowly bed;
Kind nature’s fairest tribute bring,
And clothe each mound with flowers of spring.
Look up, with loving, dewy eyes,
Into the blue recording skies,
And pledge in red, and white, and blue,
That May flowers ever will be true.
Let all the people gather near,
And bow themselves with reverent fear;
For God with mighty, outstretched hand
Has graciously redeemed our land.
Come, Peace, and spread thy sheltering wing;
Come, Love, thy sweetest tribute bring;
Come, all, and join a sacred lay
To celebrate Memorial Day.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been
standardized.
Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
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