are achieved without compromising

GREEN IOT ecological integrity..

Abstract Keywords
Internet of Things; Energy-efficient;
Energy harvesting; Wireless Charging;
The Internet of Things (IoT) is Green 6G; Green Communications;
rapidly transforming various Eco-Sustainable WSN; RFID;
industries by enabling smart, M2M(Machine to Machine
connected devices that enhance Communication) S
efficiency and improve quality of
life. However, the proliferation of Introduction
IoT devices poses significant Background and Motivations
challenges related to energy
consumption, resource efficiency, The internet of things (IoT) is a
and environmental sustainability. revolutionary technology driving
Green IoT aims to address these telecommunications advancements
challenges by integrating eco- and improving people’s quality of
friendly practices into IoT design and life worldwide. The IoT also has the
implementation. This paper provides potential to boost the global
a comprehensive overview of Green economy significantly. It is
IoT concepts, including energy- anticipated that the global economic
efficient protocols, sustainable impact of the IoT will be between
hardware design, and advanced data USD 2.7 trillion and 6.2 trillion by
management techniques that 2025 [1] due to IoT devices that are
minimize environmental impact. We a critical component of emerging
discuss various strategies for applications and play a central role in
reducing the carbon footprint of IoT the widespread adoption of machine
systems, such as optimizing network type communications, as shown in
communication, employing energy- Figure 1 [2]. According to experts,
harvesting technologies, and utilizing the IoT has the potential to
low-power sensors. Additionally, the revolutionize different smart zones
paper explores case studies and including modern healthcare
emerging trends in Green IoT, applications, smart homes and smart
highlighting successful cities [3]. In particular, the
implementations and future healthcare industry is expected to see
directions for research. By promoting annual global economic growth of
environmentally responsible between USD 1.1 trillion and 2.5
practices, Green IoT seeks to ensure trillion by 2025 [4] due to IoT
that the benefits of IoT advancements
technology. significant research in the field of
GIoT, energy conservation schemes
have yet to be thoroughly
investigated. Reference [2]
conducted a comprehensive analysis
of green IoT techniques and
proposed five principles for the
GIoT. Additionally, the authors
emphasized the use of case studies,
specifically citing smart phones as an
1.2. Related Works and Contributions example, as a valuable tool for
understanding IoT. However, the
There has been an increase in the
aforementioned studies were
number of survey papers on green
somewhat lacking in their depth of
IoT that have garnered attention in
explanation. In the rapidly evolving
recent times [2,10,12–15]. Reference
field of green IoT, it is important to
[12] conducted an analysis of
highlight new developments and
different approaches for achieving
provide clear insights to researchers
green IoT; however, they did not
in order to enable them to settle on
consider the use of specific green IoT
the best solutions that promote eco-
models in their analysis. Reference
sustainability with attention to green
[13] examined energy consumption
IoT. This study covers the following
under several cloud deployment
sub-domains within the field of
scenarios, but their models did not
green IoT: (i) energy-efficient M2M
take into account Quality of Service
communications, (ii) energy-
(QoS) metrics in some certain
efficient and eco-sustainable WSN,
scenarios. Reference [14] conducted
(iii) energyefficient RFID, and (iv)
a thorough analysis of energy
energy-efficient integrated circuits
harvesting in wireless sensor
and microcontroller units. M2M
networks (WSNs) using distinctive
communication is a foundational
environmental sources. However,
aspect of IoT and sensor networking
using a different storage medium for
and serves as a crucial element in
the harvested energy than the device
current systems, along with RFID
itself may incur an energy loss,
technology.
which would require additional
effort to address. Reference [15]  A Discussion of key design choices
suggested that implementing energy- and features for RFID and WSNs
efficient measures in heating, air that are considered to be among the
highest priorities within green IoT
conditioning and ventilating systems
networks.
would result in a significant amount
of energy savings. Despite
  A review of current research on future massive green IoT networks, a
the green IoT ecosystem, systematic process was used to gather
including recent industry information.
developments and embedded
 RQ1: What are the energy-
systems, key areas of application,
efficient techniques that can be
deployment, challenges, and key
used to implement massive
players focusing on RFID, WSN,
processors, MCUs, and ICs.
green IoT networks ?
This question aims to identify the
various energy-efficient techniques
 An exploration of the limitations
and challenges that need to be
mentioned in the literature, evaluate
overcome to fully realize the their advantages, and examine their
potential of a green IoT, including trends to aid the implementation of
issues related to interoperability, massive green IoT networks.
security, and privacy, and
recommendations for future
research to support the efforts in
 RQ2: How can energy
developing hardware for green IoT consumption be reduced in
that promotes eco-sustainability. IoT devices without
compromising performance
Paper Organization
and functionality?
The structure of this study is as The objective of this question is to explore
follows: Section 2 presents the the integration of various software and
research methodology of the article. hardware techniques and approaches to
Section 3 provides an overview of minimize energy wastage caused by
the four (4) green hardware IoT inefficient resource utilization.
frameworks that are considered in  RQ3: What are the key
this study. In Section 4, energy- challenges in designing and
efficient solutions for M2M implementing green IoT
communication are discussed. networks?
Section 5 presents a detailed analysis
of energy-efficient and eco- This question aims to investigate the
sustainable WSNs. Section 6 symmetry between energy efficiency
discusses energy-efficient RFID. and key performance indicators,
The topic of energyefficient MCUs, such as coverage and sig questions,
ICs, and processors is covered in nal strength, in IoT networks.After
Section 7. Potential future research identifying the research the
directions are outlined in Section 8. following keywords were
Finally, Section 9 concludes the established to create the research
paper, summarizing key insights. string (RS): “Green IoT”, “Energy
efficiency”,
Methodology “GreenCommunications”,
To write this literature review on energy- “Energy harvesting”, and “Low-
efficient and eco-sustainable strategies for power design”.
 classifications in Figure 3. The
following sections cover more
detailed information on these topics.
Machine-to-Machine (M2M):
M2M technology refers to the
ability of smart devices to
communicate with each other and
exchange data without the need for
human intervention. It forms the
basis of IoT and allows for the
creation of smart systems that can
operate and make decisions
independently [16]. One of the key
applications of M2M technology is in
the field of smart cities [11], where it
can be used to optimize the
performance of infrastructure such as
traffic systems, public transportation,
and utilities.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs):

WSNs are networks of small,

energy--efficient devices equipped
with sensors that are capable of
wirelessly communicating with each
other and with a central hub. WSNs
can be used to monitor and collect
data from various environments and
are commonly deployed in a broad
range of applications, including
industrial monitoring, healthcare, and
environmental monitoring. In order
to make WSNs more energy-
efficient, various strategies can be
employed. These may include the use
of energy-efficient communication
3. Green Hardware IoT protocols, the implementation of
Framework energy-harvesting techniques to
power the sensors, and the use of
This section represents a brief energy-efficient storage and data
overview of the four (4) green processing methods.
hardware IoT frameworks and Radio-Frequency Identification
(RFID): RFID is a wireless
includes a summary of proposed
technology that identifies and tracks
energy-saving technology
objects using radio waves. It consists field of MCUs and ICs is the use of
of a small chip, known as an RFID ML algorithms to optimize their
tag, which is associated with an performance and reduce energy
object and a reader that is able to consumption [19]. Another area of
detect and communicate with the tag.
RFID technology has a wide range of focus is the emergence of more
applications, including inventory energy-efficient materials and
tracking, supply chain management, intelligent manufacturing processes
and asset management. The for these devices.
technologies for improving energy
efficiency may include the use of
low-power communication
protocols, the implementation of
energy-efficient data processing
techniques, and the use of energy-
harvesting methods to power RFID
devices. One promising area of
research in the field of RFID is the
development of passive RFID tags,
which do not require an energy
source and can operate indefinitely as
long as they are within range of an
RFID reader [18].

Microcontroller Units (MCUs) and

Integrated Circuits (ICs): Energy-Efficient M2M
Communications
MCUs and ICs are key M2M communication involves the
components of many electronic exchange of data between devices or
devices, including those used in the sensors without the need for human
IoT. MCUs are small computers that intervention [16], and these devices
are used to control and monitor the often have limited energy resources
operation of a device, while ICs are due to their small size and/or reliance
electronic circuits that are used to on batteries [11]. Techniques that can
process and transmit information. help M2M communication systems
The strategies for enhancing the use less energy are, therefore,
energy efficiency of MCUs and ICs inevitable. As a result, techniques
may include the use of low-power that can reduce the energy
design techniques, the consumption of M2M
implementation of energy-efficient communication systems are of
data processing algorithms, and the significant interest. The proposed
incorporation of energy-harvesting methods for enhancing the energy
methods to power the devices. One efficiency of M2M in the IoT
promising area of research in the
environment are outlined in Figure 4. straightforward to use and
The amount of energy saved for each have low computational
approach/technique relies on a requirements often use less
number of key factors, including the energy [20]. However, the
specific technique being used, the balance between the amount of
type of M2M communication system, data that is compressed and the
the device hardware and software, energy needed can be
and the operating environment. Thus, complex, as techniques that
it is difficult to accurately quantify compress data more may
the amount of energy that can be require more energy [21].
saved through the use of various Table 1 provides a summary of
techniques for energy-efficient M2M data compression techniques,
communication. A detailed highlighting their respective
discussion of the potential advantages and disadvantages.
approaches to improving the EE of Based on information from
M2M is given in the following existing reviews or research in
subsections. the field [22–24], these factors
were determined by the
authors of this article.

(ii) Cooperation between devices:

M2M devices can collaborate in
the transmission of data and share
resources such as power,
bandwidth, and processing
capabilities to lower energy
consumption and enhance system
performance [25–30].

Energy-Efficient Data (iii) ML algorithms:

Transmission ML algorithms can be used to
The approaches to improving the minimize data redundancy and
energy efficiency of M2M data optimize the rate of data
transmission that are listed in the transmission in multicell
literature can be summarized as networks. The type of algorithm
follows: depends on the specific needs of
the M2M application, including
(i) Data compression: the amount and complexity of
Compressing data before available data and the required
transmission can reduce the accuracy. Testing different
amount of energy used to algorithms and evaluating their
transmit it. Data compression performance can help determine
techniques that are the most suitable one for a
 specific M2M application [31– which can be summarized into two
34]. points: (i) downsize the energy
(iv) Power control: By consumption of M2M devices while
carefully adjusting the transmission still satisfying the required
power of M2M devices, it is possible performance objectives. These
to reduce the energy required for data
transmission. There are several algorithms can consider various
techniques that can be implemented factors, such as the remaining battery
to control power and improve energy life of the M2M device, the
efficiency performance in M2M data importance of the data being
transmission, such as power-aware transmitted, and the energy efficiency
routing, adaptive modulation and of the transmission technology [36];
coding, and duty cycling [35]. (ii) use power-saving modes in M2M
devices to reduce energy
(v) Energy-efficient protocols: consumption during periods of low
There are numerous activity. These modes can include
communication protocols that have sleep modes, in which the device
been designed specifically to shuts down non-essential
improve the EE of data transmission components to save power, and idle
modes, in which the device reduces
each of these protocols has its own its operating frequency to conserve
unique set of advantages and energy.
disadvantages, and the most suitable
protocol can be chosen based on the Offloading Computation/Task
specific requirements of the M2M Offloading
application. Details of the
Offloading computation refers to
transmission protocols and
the process of transferring
technologies are discussed in the
computation-intensive tasks from
following sections.
M2M devices to external resources in
Power-Aware Scheduling order to reduce energy consumption.
This can be achieved through the use
Power-aware scheduling is an
of edge, fog, or cloud computing,
important aspect of energy-efficient
which allows M2M devices to access
data transmission in M2M
the resources of a remote server or a
communications. By carefully
nearby edge device to perform
managing the energy consumption of
complex tasks. There are several
M2M devices, it is possible to extend
benefits to offloading computation
the longevity of battery life of these
for energy-efficient data transmission
devices and improve their overall
in M2M communications. One
performance and reliability. There are
significant advantage is that
several approaches to power-aware
lessening the workload on the M2M
scheduling in M2M communications,
device’s processor can lower the
device's energy consumption [37].
Another benefit is that offloading
computation can allow M2M devices
to perform tasks that they would not
be capable of performing on their
own, due to limited resources such as
processing power or memory [38].
This can enable M2M devices to
perform more complex tasks, such as
data analysis and machine learning,
which can improve the overall
functionality of the M2M system.
There are several ways in which
offloading computation for energy-
efficient data transmission in M2M Another way to classify offloading is
communications can be classified. based on the types of tasks that are
offloaded [39]:
(i)Edge-based offloading:
(i)Data-intensive offloading:
In this type of offloading,
In this type of offloading, tasks
computation-intensive tasks are that involve large amounts of data,
transferred to a nearby edge device, such as data analysis and machine
such as a gateway or a fog node. This learning, are transferred to external
can be done over a local area network resources.
(LAN) or a wireless network. (ii)Computation-intensive
(ii)Fog-based offloading: offloading:
A decentralized computing
In this type of offloading, tasks
paradigm that gathers computing
that require significant processing
and data storage closer to the power, such as image processing and
devices and users that need them, video encoding, are transferred to
enabling more efficient and external resources.
effective use of resources.
Energy-Efficient Hardware
(iii)Cloud-based offloading:
In this type of offloading, Energy-efficient hardware is
computation-intensive tasks are important in M2M communication,
transferred to a remote server or where the IoT devices may require
cloud computing infrastructure. This operating for long duration on a
can be done over the internet or a small battery or other limited power
wide area network (WAN).
sources. Several hardware
components are used to boost the
energy efficiency of green M2M
networks. Some of these Wireless sensors are small,
components include: inexpensive devices that run on
(i)Energy-efficient sensors (Green batteries and are able to detect
WSNs): specific events or send regular
Some sensors including, updates about their surroundings.
temperature and humidity sensors, They are an important component of
are known to be very power-hungry smart applications that utilize IoT
devices. Therefore, using energy- technology. The deployment of a
efficient sensors is the best way to
reduce the power consumption in group of interconnected wireless
M2M systems. Details are given in sensors is referred to as a WSN. A
Section 5. typical WSN consists of multiple
(ii)Energy-efficient radios (Green source nodes (wireless sensors)
RFID): connected to a base station (sink
Radio transceivers are a major node). In WSN topology, one of the
source of power consumption in sensor nodes acts as the network
M2M devices. Thus, using an energy- coordinator and assumes the role of
efficient radio can improve the power
consumption in M2M networks. the base station (BS) or head node
Details are given in Section 5. (HN). The HN performs important
(iii)Low-power microprocessors network functions such as
(Green MCUs and ICs): scheduling, resource allocation,
By using a low-power interference management, and
microprocessor, the overall power routing, and acts as a gateway to the
expenditure of an M2M device can be larger network [40]. A summary of
considerably reduced. Details are low-power wireless communication
presented in Section 6. technologies for sensors can be found
M2M technology primarily involves in [41]. In addition, Table 2 compares
the use of sensors and RFID to collect various wireless technologies using
data and transmit information over key parameters such as standard,
the network channel. These two energy consumption, frequency band,
components, RFID and sensor data rate, transmission range, and
networking, are essential to the cost. Table 3 shows how well these
functioning of M2M systems. technologies are suited for IoT
Accordingly, the following sections applications.
deal with discussing the role and
importance of these two pillars in
M2M technology.

Energy-Efficient and Eco-

Sustainable Wireless Sensor
Networks
 Cooperative communications among
neighboring sensor nodes can address
the delay problem by creating a
virtual multiple-antenna
environment, providing spatial
diversity and enabling retransmission
of data. Cooperative communications
among neighboring sensor nodes can
improve the quality of the received
signal by reducing the effects of
Radio Optimization Techniques multi-path fading and shadowing,
The radio unit is the main reason for extending the communication range
the battery drain on sensor nodes. The among sensor nodes, and providing
energy consumption of the radio unit better energy savings and smaller
can be attributed to two factors: (i) end-to-end delays over certain
power required for the circuit itself to transmission range distances. This
function and (ii) power needed to has been reported in studies such as
transmit the signal. It is well-known Cui et al. [48] and Jayaweera [49],
that for shorter distances, the power who have compared the energy
required for the circuit itself to consumption of single input single
function is greater than the power output and virtual multiple-antenna
needed to transmit the signal. (multiple input and multiple output)
However, for longer distances, the systems and found that the virtual
power required for the transmitted multiple-antenna system offers better
signal becomes the dominant factor energy savings and smaller end-to-
in energy consumption. There have end delays under certain conditions.
been several studies that have On the other hand, Cui et al. [50]
explored ways to improve energy have studied the relationship between
efficiency by dynamically adjusting energy consumption, transmission
the transmission power level [45,46]. time, and bit error rate. The results
The authors in [47] proposed an showed that optimizing the
energy-saving cooperative topology transmission time can minimize the
that allows nodes with higher energy consumption needed to meet a
remaining energy to increase their given bit error rate and delay
transmission power, which allows requirement. In addition, the authors
other nodes to decrease their in [51] conducted a comparison of the
transmission power. This can reduce energy efficiency of three different
interference and improve modulation schemes to determine the
connectivity, but may also potentially optimal modulation scheme that
increase the delay as more hops may achieves the lowest energy
be needed to forward a packet.
consumption at various distances important to consider coverage in this
between sensor nodes. approach, and ensure that it is still
sufficient by the remaining active
Sleep/Wake-Up Techniques nodes. Misra et al. [52] proposed a
Turning off (entering sleep solution that aims to minimize the
mode) unused wireless resources and energy consumption of the network
devices has become a widely used while maintaining network coverage
method for reducing power by activating only a subset of nodes
consumption in the field of with minimal overlap in their
information and communications coverage areas. Karasabun et al. [53]
technology because it can save a modeled the issue of energy
significant amount of energy. To efficiency as a subset selection
determine the system’s average problem for collecting correlated data
power consumption, we need to use payload from active connected
Equation (1), which involves sensors. This approach takes
multiplying the sleep power by the advantage of spatial correlation to
percentage of time the system is in gather sensor information from non-
sleep mode, multiplying the active active nodes through active nodes,
power by the percentage of time the making it a useful strategy.
system is active, and then adding the Duty cycle-based protocols are
two products together before dividing generally considered to be very
the result by 100. energy-efficient [54,55]. The duty
(P× time asleep) + (P ×time active) cycle approach, which switches a
P= sensor node on and off depending on
100 network activity, can be categorized
The idea behind the proposed into three types: (i) on-demand, (ii)
approach is to take advantage of the asynchronous, and (iii) scheduled
dense deployment of sensor nodes in rendezvous. However, it is important
a small coverage area, to make sensor to keep in mind that while a lowduty
nodes more energy efficient with cycle can save a significant amount
extended battery life by turning of energy, it may also result in
sensor nodes on and off. When a lengthy communication delays. To
system has a large sleep power minimize delays, protocol parameters
compared to its active power, in this can be adjusted before deployment
case, the system can be saving a large for simplicity, although this approach
amount of energy. However, in some may lead to reduced flexibility, or
cases, the active power may be much they can be dynamically altered to
larger than the sleep power, either reflect current traffic conditions.
because the power per event is high Moreover, to optimize power
or because active power events occur consumption, the active period of
frequently. However, in all cases, it is
nodes may depend on various factors It is difficult to determine whether a
such as traffic load, buffer overflows, specific IoT device would be a good
candidate for energy harvesting without
delay requirements, or harvested
knowing more about its intended
energy, as discussed in application and how it will operate in the
Energy Harvesting, Batteries, and system. However, there are certain
categories of devices that are generally
Wireless Charging Techniques more or less suitable for energy harvesting,
Energy Harvesting Sources based on technical considerations, if not
necessarily cost-effectiveness.
Advances in renewable energy technology
can help to achieve the key features of Overall, to efficiently manage the
wireless sensor energy sources, such as available power, renewable energy
sustainability, reliability and reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions [57]. In addition,
technology often relies on energy
the utilization of renewable energy prediction schemes. However, to
technology holds great potential for achieve high reliability, energy-
enhancing the energy efficiency of saving mechanisms, in addition to
wireless sensor networks situated in renewable energy technology, may
rural and remote regions where battery still be necessary. Sensors need to
replacement may be problematic due to
geographical barriers, such as challenging
estimate the evolution of energy in
terrain that restricts access to these areas order to adjust their behavior
[58]. Solar cells are known for their high dynamically and survive until the
reliability and low maintenance next recharge cycle. As a result, they
requirements, and they can last for up to can optimize key parameters such as
20–30 years. Moreover, novel technologies sampling rate, transmit power, and
have been introduced that enable sensors
to collect energy from their environment,
duty cycling to adapt their power
including wind and kinetic energy [59], consumption to the periodicity and
and convert it into electrical energy that magnitude of the harvestable energy
can be used directly or stored for later use. source.
The characteristics and performance of
renewable energy sources can vary Battery Technologies for
significantly depending on the IoT/Sensor Devices
environment in which they are used. For
example, outdoor renewable energy
There are many different types
sources differ from those used indoors in of batteries that can be used in IoT
industrial and commercial settings. A devices, each with its own
summary of indoor and outdoor energy advantages and disadvantages. It is
sources and their properties is presented in important to consider the specific
Table 4. Nevertheless, it is essential to requirements of the IoT device when
acknowledge that sensor nodes may
exhibit an unequal distribution of
selecting a battery, such as power
remaining energy owing to variations in consumption, size, and operating
the amount of energy collected, and this temperature. Other factors to
must be taken into account when creating consider include safety, cost, and the
protocols [60]. ability to replace or recharge the
battery. Figure 7 summarizes some of to implement hardwired functionality
the most common batteries used in to get around the performance loss in
IoT devices. ultra-low voltage devices is a popular
way to solve this issue. With
frequencies of tens to hundreds of
KHz and power consumption ranging
from a few to hundreds of
microWatts, digital processing
systems are capable of meeting the
performance requirements of
applications even at extremely low
operating voltage by using
specialized circuits. These
specialized systems, which are
developed as system-in-package
(SiP) or system-onchip (SoC)
devices, combine analog signal
processing, analog front end, digital
signal processing, and power supply
circuits (batteries, harvester, or both),
resulting in highly compact designs
[124]. The traditional fields of ultra-
However, many commercially low power device applications, such
available low-power as wearable or implanted sensors for
microcontrollers are not able to cater health monitoring, have made
to the performance needs of certain extensive use of this dedicated ASIC
applications within the limitations of approach [125–127]. While these
small coin batteries and energy- devices greatly reduce power
harvesting devices [120]. The latest consumption, they lack flexibility
CMOS ICs have the capability to because their functionality is limited
significantly enhance energy to the specific service. Additionally,
efficiency by delivering the required their performance cannot be adjusted,
functionality while maintaining a as they are created with a particular
compact size and extremely low use case in mind. However, these
voltage. A major challenge with restrictions can be lessened by
operating at low voltage levels is a introducing some runtime
decrease in performance, which can reconfigurability to the integrated
restrict the extent to which voltage circuits and by extending the working
scaling can be employed for a given range through voltage and frequency
processing need. Using application scaling when the intended algorithms
specific integrated circuits (ASICs) are more general and can be
employed for numerous applications. singlecore processors (blue line) are
There are numerous examples of this more power-efficient than multi-core
type of device, including vision processors (red line). This is because
sensors, where fundamental single-core processors can enter low-
operations executed with specialized power states more easily than
processors or dedicated accelerators multicore processors. When idle,
can be shared among various single-core processors can enter sleep
applications [128,129]. However, it is states, which significantly reduces
crucial to note that sequential power consumption, whereas multi-
instruction execution and low core processors often have to keep at
operating frequencies may result in least one core activity to manage
performance that is insufficient for system tasks [131]. However, as the
the requirements of applications operating point increases, multi-core
when operating at low voltage. The processors become more power-
utilization of software parallelism is a efficient. This is because the clock
key component to enhance the frequency of single-core processors
performance of ultra-low power increases linearly with the operating
processors while preserving a high point, while the power consumption
level of flexibility. As it has been increases quadratically. In contrast,
demonstrated that under some the clock frequency of multi-core
circumstances parallel processing at processors increases less steeply with
low voltage can be more energy- the operating point, and power
efficient than sequential computation consumption increases at a slower
at a higher voltage, using multicore rate [132]. In conclusion, the power
platforms can benefit high efficiency of multi-core processors
application workloads [130]. High- vs. single-core processors at various
end embedded applications, where operating points is a complex topic
multi-core architecture has become that depends on several factors. At
the standard, have made full use of low operating points, single-core
this concept. Table 7 summarizes processors are more power-efficient,
recent processors that are energy- but as the operating point increases,
efficient in terms of different multi-core processors become more
features. Additionally, Figure 17 power-efficient. The number of
compares the power efficiency of cores, cache size, workload, and
multi-core processors vs. single-core power management techniques all
processors at various operating play significant roles in the power
points. Each operating point is efficiency of multi-core processors.
dependent on the workload as well as
the frequency and voltage required to
achieve the performance shown. At
low operating points (workload),
 Best 2 5 6 2 1 3 enables the deployment of
Energy eff. 6 6 4 1 3 1
autonomous and sustainable IoT
networks. The use of self-sustaining
power sources can alleviate the
challenge of battery replacement or
recharging, which is a significant
concern in IoT systems. One
important consideration in designing
IoT devices that can leverage self-
sustaining power sources is the
selection of appropriatje energy-
harvesting technologies. These
technologies must be capable of
harvesting energy from the
Potential Future Directions surrounding environment and
We have identified several converting it into electrical energy
aspects for future research areas that can be used to power the IoT
extracted from our study that are device. Examples of such
outlined in Figure 18. These research technologies include photovoltaic
directions are further discussed and cells for solar energy harvesting,
elaborated on in the following piezoelectric materials for kinetic
paragraphs. energy harvesting, and small wind
turbines for wind energy harvesting.
In addition to energy harvesting
technologies, the design of IoT
devices that can leverage self-
sustaining power sources must also
take into account the power
consumption of the device itself. IoT
devices are typically designed to be
energyefficient to maximize battery
life. However, when self-sustaining
power sources are used, power
consumption becomes less of a
concern. As such, IoT devices
designed for selfsustaining power
(i) Zero energy sources may be designed to consume
more power, enabling them to
Designing IoT devices to be powered
perform more computationally
by self-sustaining power sources
intensive tasks or transmit data more
such as solar, wind, or kinetic energy
frequently. Another important
is an important area of research, as it
consideration when designing IoT technology. Energy storage solutions
devices to be powered by self- may require additional space and may
sustaining power sources is the add weight to the device, which can
placement of the device in relation to be a concern for devices that need to
the energy source. For example, be small and lightweight.
solar-powered IoT devices must be Additionally, the selection of an
placed in locations with sufficient appropriate energy storage
exposure to sunlight to ensure technology may impact the overall
adequate energy harvesting. cost of the device, as well as the
Similarly, kinetic energy harvesting complexity of the device design.
devices must be placed in locations Despite these considerations, the use
where they can effectively capture of energy storage solutions can
kinetic energy. provide numerous benefits for IoT
devices. For example, the use of
On the other hand, exploring the
batteries or supercapacitors can
implications of energy storage
enable IoT devices to operate without
solutions, such as batteries or
a constant power source, reducing the
supercapacitors, to enable IoT
need for frequent charging or
devices to operate without a constant
replacement. Additionally, energy
power source is an important area of
storage solutions can improve the
research, as it can help to address the
reliability and performance of IoT
challenges of limited battery life and
devices, providing a more stable
the need for constant charging or
power supply and improving overall
replacement. Batteries and
device longevity.
supercapacitors are two types of
energy storage solutions that can be (ii) Routing schemes
used to power IoT devices. Batteries The development of “smart”
store energy chemically and are a routing schemes that can
common choice for many IoT devices dynamically adjust routes based on
due to their availability, low cost, and network conditions, traffic patterns,
high energy density. Supercapacitors, and energy availability is an
on the other hand, store energy important area of research for the
electrostatically and have a lower future of IoT networks. Traditional
energy density than batteries but are routing schemes in IoT networks are
capable of providing higher power typically static and do not adapt to
densities and faster charge and changing network conditions or
discharge rates. One important energy availability, which can lead
consideration when exploring the use to inefficient use of network
of energy storage solutions for IoT resources and increased energy
devices is the selection of an consumption. “Smart” routing
appropriate energy storage schemes aim to address these
challenges by utilizing real-time data
and algorithms to dynamically adjust combination of metrics, including
network routes based on network residual energy levels and link
conditions, traffic patterns, and quality, to determine the optimal
energy availability. These schemes routing path for data packets.
can be implemented at various levels Another example of a “smart”
of the network, from the sensor routing scheme is the traffic-aware
nodes to the edge devices and energyefficient routing (TEER)
gateways. At the sensor node level, protocol, which is designed for IoT
“smart” routing schemes can be used networks with limited energy
to optimize the energy consumption resources. TEER utilizes a
of individual nodes by dynamically centralized approach to dynamically
adjusting their transmission power adjust network routes based on
and frequency based on the energy traffic patterns and energy
availability and network conditions. availability. The protocol uses a
For example, nodes with low energy combination of metrics, including
levels can reduce their transmission traffic density and residual energy
power and frequency to conserve levels, to determine the optimal
energy, while nodes with high routing path for data packets.
energy levels can increase their Overall, the development of “smart”
transmission power and frequency to routing schemes that can
improve network coverage. At the dynamically adjust routes based on
edge device and gateway level, network conditions, traffic patterns,
“smart” routing schemes can be used and energy availability is an
to optimize the routing of data important area of research for the
packets based on the network future of IoT networks. These
conditions and traffic patterns. For schemes can help to improve
example, packets can be routed network efficiency, reduce energy
through nodes that have higher consumption, and increase the
energy levels or better connectivity longevity of IoT devices.
to reduce packet loss and improve (iii) Adaptive AI and ML
network efficiency. One example of The development of AI-based
a “smart” routing scheme is the energy management systems and
energy-aware routing protocol machine learning algorithms for IoT
(EARP), which is designed for IoT devices is a rapidly evolving field
networks with energy harvesting that can significantly improve the
capabilities. EARP utilizes a energy efficiency and sustainability
decentralized approach to of IoT networks. The algorithms can
dynamically adjust network routes learn from historical data and make
based on the energy availability and predictions about future energy usage
network conditions of individual to adjust power usage in real-time.
nodes. The protocol uses a One application of AI-based energy
management systems is in the energy consumption while still
optimization of energy usage in smart maintaining comfort levels. In
homes. These systems can analyze summary, the development of
data from sensors, smart appliances, AIbased energy management systems
and energy storage systems to and machine learning algorithms for
optimize energy usage in real-time. IoT devices is an important area of
For example, these systems can research that can significantly
adjust the temperature in a room improve the energy efficiency and
based on occupancy patterns, sustainability of IoT networks. These
weather conditions, and energy systems and algorithms can
availability. They can also optimize dynamically adjust and optimize
the charging of energy storage power usage based on usage patterns,
systems to take advantage of lower network conditions, and energy
energy prices or higher renewable availability, leading to reduced
energy availability. Another energy consumption, lower costs and
application of AI-based energy increased longevity of IoT devices.
management systems is in the (iv) Intelligent sleep modes
optimization of energy usage in smart The development of intelligent
cities. These systems can analyze sleep mode algorithms for IoT
data from sensors, traffic patterns, devices is an important area of
and energy consumption to optimize research that can significantly
energy usage in real-time. For improve the energy efficiency of
example, they can adjust the timing these devices. Sleep mode is a power-
of traffic lights based on traffic saving state in which a device uses
patterns to reduce energy less power but remains operational.
consumption and improve traffic By developing intelligent sleep mode
flow. They can also optimize the use algorithms, IoT devices can
of energy storage systems to take dynamically adjust power usage
advantage of renewable energy based on usage patterns, network
availability. Machine learning conditions, and energy available to
algorithms can also be used to achieve the optimal balance between
optimize power usage in individual power consumption and
IoT devices. These algorithms can
performance. Intelligent sleep mode
learn usage patterns and adjust power algorithms use machine learning
usage to minimize energy techniques to analyze data from the
consumption while still meeting the device and predict usage patterns. For
device’s operational requirements. example, the algorithm can learn
For example, a machine learning when the device is typically used and
algorithm can learn the usage patterns when it is idle. Based on these data,
of a smart thermostat and adjust the the algorithm can adjust the device’s
temperature settings to minimize power usage accordingly. If the
device is likely to be idle for an technologies have some limitations,
extended period, the algorithm can including their energy efficiency.
switch the device to a deeper sleep Another approach to improving the
mode to conserve more power. efficiency of wireless charging is to
Another important aspect of increase the distance over which
intelligent sleep mode algorithms is charging can occur. This can be
their ability to adapt to changing achieved through the use of resonant
network conditions. For example, if wireless charging technologies that
the device is experiencing poor use magnetic resonance to transfer
network connectivity, the algorithm power over a greater distance. This
can reduce power consumption by technology can be used to charge
reducing the frequency of network multiple devices simultaneously,
communications. This might include making it ideal for charging in public
reducing the brightness of the display spaces such as airports and coffee
or turning off non-essential features. shops. In addition to improving the
Overall, the development of efficiency of wireless charging,
intelligent sleep mode algorithms is research is also ongoing to develop
an important area of research that can more sustainable wireless charging
significantly improve the energy technologies. For example, some
efficiency of IoT devices. By researchers are investigating the use
dynamically adjusting power usage of solar-powered wireless charging
based on usage patterns, network systems, which use photovoltaic cells
conditions, and energy availability, to convert sunlight into electrical
these algorithms can help to achieve energy. These systems can be used to
the optimal balance between power charge devices even in remote or off-
consumption and performance, grid locations, making them ideal for
leading to longer battery life and outdoor and wilderness
improved sustainability. environments.
(v) Wireless charging
The development of more efficient
Conclusions
wireless charging technologies is an Undoubtedly, the IoT will transform
important area of research that can the whole ICT sector, alter the
significantly improve the energy trajectory of technological
efficiency of charging electronic development globally, and have a
devices, leading to a reduction in substantial effect on the economy in
environmental impact. Wireless the years to come. This study
charging is becoming increasingly provided a vision for eco-friendly and
popular, as it allows users to charge sustainable IoT and presents four (4)
their devices without the need for principles/frameworks to achieve
cables or connectors. However, that vision by tackle the energy
traditional wireless charging efficiency issues related to hardware
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