Experiment No.

: 6
Aim:

To compute and analyze the engine output characteristics for a 4-stroke Spark ignition
engine using Diesel –RK Software

Objectives
1. To familiarize students with the advanced software in order to compute and optimize
internal combustion engine parameters and performance.
2. To demonstrate the characteristic change of key indicators and processes in the internal
combustion engine affected by the change of engine operating regimes.

Additional objectives:
1. To demonstrate the sequence of actions to optimize the engine valve timing.
2. To demonstrate the sequence of actions to optimize ignition timing.

Required engine input data and operating parameters:

1. Number of cylinders and engine type (in-line, V-type, boxer, etc).
2. Bore and stroke dimensions
3. Compression ratio* (typically 10 ... 12)
4. Maximum RPM
5. Cooling system (liquid, air)
6. Engine application area
7. Boosting system (it is usually recommended to use a naturally aspirated engine without exhaust
gas recirculation).
8. Number of valves per cylinder

It is recommended that the above parameters be selected based on the existing engine specification.
Students can select the engine specification on their own, provided that the above-mentioned
engine parameters are given. The compression ratio can be assigned in consultation with your
instructor. Usually, all required data can be found on the internet.
48
 Software:
The engine performance computation and optimization should be conducted using DIESEL-RK
software developed by Moscow Bauman Technical University. You have to download and install
DIESEL-RK software on your personal PC or laptop from www.diesel-rk.bmstu.ru website and use
it when you work outside the campus. You will be able to remotely connect to an external server of
the software provider via the Internet.

The sequence of student actions for the project after the launch of the software

Step 1

Click button and create a new project using Wizard of New Project Creation.

Step 2
Answer all the questions in Wizard of New Project Creation, assign engine geometric parameters,
and operational parameters, and select supercharging/turbocharging scheme. Wizard of New
Project Creation will generate an input file, set required empirical coefficients, and compute and
set basic dimensions for the air and fuel intake based on the statistical data and experience in engine
design accepted in the industry. Further, the available data can be edited or used as default if some
engine design and operation data are not fully available.

Step 3

Click button and save the project in the working directory (folder). Save the data for each
engine in a separate folder. Include the name of the manufacturer and engine specification while
giving a name for folders. This will help to easily identify the engine type.

Step 4

Click button and edit the table for engine operation modes in accordance with the engine
49
performance characteristics. Place the engine’s maximum power in column 1 and further gradually
lower the RPM values in the next columns with the RPM for the idling mode placed in the last
column.

- Set the RPM value at different operating modes with equal incremental change. Set the RPM
for each mode as shown in Fig 1.

- Set the air-fuel equivalence ratio for each mode. For simplicity, it can be set as ∝ = 1 for all
modes.

∝ Engine type
1.0 Petrol engines with fuel injection and 3-stage catalytic converter
0.95 … Carbureted engines
1.05
0.75 … Aviation engines during intake mode
0.85

- Set the ignition timing for each mode as shown in Fig 1.

- Set the ambient temperature (standard temperature for aviation engines: Т0 = 288 К; for others:
293 К or 298 К).

- Set the inlet pressure losses and differential pressure in the exhaust for each mode as shown in Fig
1. The maximum losses in the exhaust occur at full power and usually reach 0.04 bar. Inlet pressure
loss is a controlling parameter for required engine power. This parameter for each model will be
corrected at the later stages.

- For engines with direct fuel injection, the same injection timing can be set for all the operating
modes.

50
- Units of injection timing: crank angle degrees before TDC, for intake and power strokes.

- Initially the same injection duration can be applied to all modes.

Make sure to give an appropriate name to a specific mode. This will help with identification of a
needed mode.

Fig 1. Operating mode table

Note that the preprocessor has internal logic and required windows and input spaces appear only if
the relevant data are needed for the calculation of the selected type of theengine.
If you struggle with the selection of empirical coefficients then use the default values of Wizard of
New Project Creation.
51
Step 5 First calculation of maximum power mode

Click button that starts the computation. In appeared window click "ICE
simulation" button (only the mode for maximum power should be activated).

To verify the correctness of the input data, perform the first calculation for one mode of "Maximum
power".

For the computing of one mode (only this regime should be marked with a tick in the table of Fig
1) the following results are obtained:

- The table of integral parameters for an engine

- 1D graphs of various parameters versus time (crank angle degree)

- Visualization of spray in the combustion chamber for diesel engine

To investigate the individual operating modes the optimization and 1D and 2D scanning options can
also be used.

In the case of calculating the engine characteristics (if two or more modes marked with a tick in
the table in Fig. 1) engine output results are plotted vs RPM. Optimization and scanning for several
modes simultaneously is not possible.

Therefore, at first, the analysis will be performed for each individual mode and then the entire
engine performance characteristics can be determined.

52
Step 6
Computation results can be viewed and printed in Results section. For fast access to some sections
of menu use the following buttons:

To view engine integral parameters

To view results in 1D format: the rate of heat release, gas exchange parameters,
1D scanning results, engine characteristics, etc.

When calculating the engine characteristics integral indicator table is not displayed. The table is only
used to display the parameters of the engine on an individual mode.

To plot and view the engine characteristics use 1D view button or option <Results => Engine
Performance>

To construct functions listed in the left pane, select the parameter and drag it using the left button of
the mouse on one of the panels on the right side of the screen.

Plotting instructions are provide in the software tutorials. (<Help> or button )

Check the calculated maximum engine power. If it differs from the one declared by the engine
manufacturer more than 3% you should consult with your instructor and correct the following:

- configuration of intake and exhaust valves, see Appendix 1;

- intake and exhaust valve timing (intake and exhaust valve timing should be optimized at
maximum torque);
- spark advance angle;
- air equivalence ratio;
- empirical coefficients for combustion, heat transfer, gas exchange, and mechanical losses.

Step 7
Calculation of Maximum Torque
53
Set the parameters in Operating Mode (Fig 1) for “Maximum Torque” mode
RPMMaxTorq ≈ (0.48 …0.6) RPMMaxPower (usually 2500 … 3500 RPM).
Inlet pressure losses: dрint_MaxTorq ≈ 0.6 dрint_MaxPower
Differential pressure in the exhaust: dрexh_MaxTorq ≈ 0.25 dрexh_MaxPower
Compute the case at “Maximum Torque”.
Step 8 Optimization of the engine intake valve closing at the Maximum Torque
(RPM=3500)
Select 1D scanning: <Optimization => Scanning => Radio button 1D scanning>. Select an
argument for scanning: IVC (Intake Valve Closing).
Click [>>] button and in appeared window insert:
- Min. Value IVC: 5° after BDC,
- Max. Value IVC: 65° after BDC,
- Number of calculating points: 7.
Click OK close the window and perform scanning.

Plot the volumetric efficiency (Eta_v) vs. IVC. Fix this as an optimum result, i.e. insert IVC value at
maximum Eta_v as an input parameter for intake valve closing:
<Gas Exchange System => Inlet valve Timing>.
Explain why curve Eta_v (IVС) has a defined maximum.

54
 Fig 2. Volumetric efficiency Eta_v vs. Intake Valve Closing (IVC)

The optimum value of volumetric efficiency at maximum Torque is Eta_v = 40° after BDC.
Step 9
Optimization of the engine intake valve opening at the Maximum Torque(RPM=3500)

Select 1D scanning: <Optimization => Scanning => Radio button 1D scanning>. Select an
argument for scanning: EVO (Exhaust Valve Opening).
Click [>>] button and in appeared window insert:
- Min. Value EVO: 15° after BDC,
- Max. Value EVO: 75° after BDC,
- Number of calculating points: 7.
Click OK close the window and perform scanning.

Plot Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP), Pumping Mean Effective Pressure (PMEP) and
Break Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP) vs. EVO.

Fix this as an optimum result, i.e. insert EVO value at maximum BMEP as an input parameter for
exhaust valve opening:
<Gas Exchange System => Exhaust Valve Opening> Explain why
55
 curve BMEP (EVO) has a defined maximum.

Fig 3. Break Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP), Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) and Pumping Mean
Effective Pressure (PMEP) vs. Exhaust Valve Opening(EVO).

The optimum exhaust valve opening at maximum Torque is EVO = 57°. before BDC.

Step 10 Optimization of the spark advance angle at the Maximum Power

Select 1D scanning: <Optimization => Scanning => Radio button 1D scanning>. Select an
argument for scanning: Theta_i (Ignition Timing).
Click [>>] button and in appeared window insert:
- Min. Value Theta_i: 15 deg. before TDC,
- Max. Value Theta_i: 35 deg. before TDC,
- Number of calculating points: 7.
Click OK close the window and perform scanning.

Plot Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) vs Theta_i.

56
Fix this as an optimum result, i.e. insert Theta_i value at the minimum SFC as an input parameter for
Theta_i in the table of Fig 1:
<Gas Exchange System => Exhaust Valve Opening> Explain why
curve DFC (Theta_i) has a defined maximum.

Fig 4. Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) vs. Spark Advance Angle (Theta_i).

The optimum spark advance angle at Maximum Power is Theta_i = 25° beforeTDC.

Step 11
Assign a spark advance angle in Fig 1 for all engine operation regimes (RPM) in accordance
with the correlation shown in Fig. 5.

30
Theta_i, CA deg. BTDC

Theta_i
20

15

10
0.0 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.4

57
 Fig 5. Correlation of spark advance angle (Theta_i) vs. RPM/RPMmax

Step 12
Select the Inlet Pressure Loss value at engine idling such that the computed power does not exceed
5kW. For this, compute only for the required mode. You can do the mode selection either by
selecting in the table of Fig 1 or by using Run window asshown in Fig 6.

Fig 6. "Run" window.

Select the Inlet Pressure Loss values for other remaining regimes to achieve a smooth increase of
power and torque as shown in Fig 7a and 7b, avoiding knocking conditions. The calculated Octane
Number should not exceed (Fuel Octane Number - 10) as shown in Fig 8.

58
 Fig 7a. Break Mean Effective Pressure vs. RPM

Fig 7b. Engine Power and Minimum Octane Number of Fuel vs RPM

59
 Fig 8. Induction Differential Pressure vs. RPM

Plot the Break Torque, the Maximum Cylinder Pressure, and the Specific Fuel Consumption vs.
RPM as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig 9. Brake Torque, Maximum Cylinder Pressure, and Specific Fuel Consumption vs. RPM
60
Step 13
Analyze the engine operation at maximum power (RPM=5500) and low power (RPM=1500) with
optimized valve opening and closing and compare in-cylinder pressure trends (bar) vs. RPM and vs.
Cylinder Volume (m3), as shown in Fig 10.

Fig 10. Cylinder Pressure vs Crank Angle Degree and vs. Cylinder Volume

61
 Experiment No.: 7

Aim:
To Compute and analyze engine output characteristics for a 4-stroke turbocharged diesel
engine using Diesel–RK software

The main objectives of the work:

1. To familiarize students with the advanced software for computing and optimizing diesel
engine parameters and performance.
2. To demonstrate the characteristic change of key indicators and processes in the diesel
engine affected by the change of engine operating regimes.

Additional objectives:
1. To demonstrate the sequence of actions for optimizing the engine boost pressure, combustion
chamber configuration and nozzle geometry.
2. To demonstrate the sequence of actions for optimizing injection timing.

Required engine input data and operating parameters:

1. Number of cylinders and engine type (in-line, V-type, boxer, etc).
2. Bore and stroke dimensions

3. Compression ratio* (typically 13 ... 17)

4. Maximum RPM
5. Cooling system (liquid, air)
6. Engine application area
7. Boosting system (for simplicity it is usually recommended to use single-step turbocharging with
cooling and without exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)).
8. Number of valves per cylinder
9. Maximum injection pressure (this is required for the assessment of engine robustness; combustion
chamber configuration and injector nozzle geometry all depend on the level of injection pressure).

62
 It is recommended that the above parameters be selected based on the existing engine specification.
Students can select the engine specification by their own, provided that the above-mentioned engine
parameters are available. The compression ratio can be assigned in consultation with your instructor.
Usually all required data can be found in the internet.

Software:
The engine performance computation and optimization should be conducted using DIESEL-RK
software developed by Moscow Bauman Technical University. You have to download and install
DIESEL-RK software on your personal PC or laptop from www.diesel-rk.bmstu.ru website and use it
when you work outside the campus. You will be able to remotely connect to an external server of the
software provider via the Internet.

The sequence of student actions for the project after the launch of the software
Step 1

Click button and create a new project using Wizard of New Project Creation. Answer all the
questions in Wizard of New Project Creation, assign engine geometric parameters, and operational
parameters, and select supercharging/turbocharging scheme. Wizard of New Project Creation will
generate the input file, set required empirical coefficients, compute and set basic dimensions for the
air and fuel intake based on the statistical data and experience in engine design accepted in the industry.
Further, the available data can be edited or used as default if some engine design and operation data are not
fully available. To implement this step general engine information and/or specification is required. The engine
specification example is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. JCB TCAE-129 engine specification

Parameter Value
Number of cylinders and type 4 in-line
Bore and Stroke, (D/S) 106 / 135 mm
Compression ratio 17
Number of valves per cylinder 4

63
Cooling system Liquid
Max power at nominal RPM 129 KW @ 2050 min-1
Break mean effective pressure (BMEP) at nominal RPM 16.2 bar
Max Torque at RPM 690 Nm @ 1500 min-1
Idling RPM 850 min-1
Max rail pressure More than 1000 bar

The value of the compressor pressure ratio at nominal RPM can be chosen from Figure 1 based on
break mean effective pressure (BMEP).
PR c

10 15 20 25 30 35 40
BMEP, bar

Figure. 1. Dependence of the compressor pressure ratio PRc at nominal RPM on BMEP.

When choosing the compressor pressure ratio, it is recommended to assign higher values for modern
engines with high maximum cycle pressure, as well as for the engines with strict restrictions on soot
and NOx emissions. If the Miller cycle is used, then the boost pressure should be increased by
approximately 25%. An additional increase in boost pressure is required by the EGR system:
approximately 0.4 bar for every 10% EGR.

Wizard of New Project Creation will generate an input file, set required empirical coefficients,
compute and set basic dimensions for the air and fuel intake based on the statistical data and
experience in engine design accepted in the industry. Further, the available data can be edited or used
64
 as default if some engine design and operation data are not fully available.

The Wizard of New Project Creation does not take into account the Miller cycle and the EGR
system; the parameters for implementing these technologies must be set manually. It should be known
that for EGR> 0.06 NOx emission should be calculated using a detailed chemical kinetics mechanism
that is not included in the online version of the DIESEL-RK, but implemented only in the local version
of the software. Also, the fuel multiple injection option is supported by the online version of the
DIESEL-RK software (No.143) in a limited scope. It is recommended to set multiple injection function
manually.

Step 2 Saving the project

Click button and save the project in the working directory (folder). Save the data for each engine
in a separate folder. Include the name of manufacturer and engine specification while giving a name
for folders. This will help to easily identify the engine type.

Step 3 Setting the engine operating regimes

Click button and edit the table for engine operation modes in accordance with the engine
performance characteristics. Place the engine maximum power in column 1 and further gradually
lower the RPM values in the next columns with the separate RPM for the maximum torque and RPM
for the idling mode placed in the last column.

- For a given JCB TCAE-129 engine, the RPM increment should be set as: 2050; 1800;
1500; 1200; 850.

- Under the Way of In-Cylinder Process Simulation that is located in the upper left corner of the
Operating Mode table shown in Figure 2, select the "Specify Cycle Fuel Mass, [g]".

- Calculate in the first approximation the cyclic fuel supply of a 4-stroke engine at full power mode
according to the formula:

𝑆𝐹𝐶 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑚𝑓 = ; [g]
𝑅𝑃𝑀𝑖𝑐𝑦𝑙 30
65
where, SFC - specific fuel consumption [g/kWh] that can be selected from Table 2 based on the
engine type; Power – engine power [kW], RPM – revolutions per minute of a crankshaft [min-
1
], icyl – number of cylinders per engine. Insert the obtained cyclic fuel supply value in the
Operating Mode table in Figure 2. The cyclic fuel supply for other regimes will be specified later.

- In the first approximation, for the max power regime set the fuel injection timing at 6 ÷ 8 deg.
BTDC.

- Set the ambient air conditions (standard air temperature for aviation engines: To = 288 K, for other
types of engines: 293 K or 298 K).

- Set the inlet pressure losses and differential pressure in the exhaust for the regime of max engine
power. The maximum losses in the exhaust usually happen at full engine power regime and are
typically equal to 0.04 bar. The losses in the intake are equal to 0.02 bar. These quantities for other
regimes will be identified at a later stage.

Table 2. Approximate value of SFC and Turbocharger efficiency at max power for different
types of diesel engines.
Engine type SFC, g/kWh TC
Engine for light passenger cars 235 ÷ 245 0.47
Engine for trucks and lorries with D ≈ 130 mm and BMEP 230 ÷ 235 0.49
≈ 12
Heavy duty engine with D ≈ 130 mm and BMEP ≈ 16 225 ÷230 0.51
Locomotive diesel with D ≈ 230 mm and BMEP ≈ 17 208 ÷ 215 0.53 ÷ 0.6
Generator diesel with D ≈ 130 mm and BMEP ≈ 22 203 ÷ 208 0.53 ÷ 0.57
Ship engine with BMEP ≈ 23 200 ÷ 210 0.58 ÷ 0.63

66
Figure 2. Operating Mode table

67
 - Set in the first approximation the value for pressure before the turbine as equal or slightly less than
the pressure after the compressor. The accuracy of the chosen value only affects the counting time.
The pressure before the turbine will be determined by the program in an iterative calculation if the
turbine and compressor power balance regime is given. This regime is given as default.

- Set the turbocharger efficiency ηTC for full power regime based on the value in Table 2.
The compressor efficiency can be calculated as ηC = . Efficiency for other regimes
will be specified later.

Do not forget to write in the comment line a characteristic feature of each engine regime, this will help
in the future. An example table of operating modes is shown in Figure 2.

Remember that the preprocessor has an internal logic and the necessary windows and input spaces
appear only if the relevant data is necessary for calculation of a selected type of engine.

Step 4 Check the correctness of the nozzle configuration and the shape of the combustion
chamber.

Click: and open Fuel Injection System, Combustion Chamber window.

- In the Piston Bowl Design window, check the settings for the combustion chamber configuration.
Input the actual configuration of the piston cavity for the investigated engine, if available. If you don’t
have piston cavity configuration data then check the accuracy of pre-selected piston design made by
the Wizard of New Project Creation. The optimum shape of the combustion chamber depends on
the cylinder diameter and the degree of engine forcing. As the cylinder diameter and BMEP increase,
the piston cavity becomes more shallow and open. Please see Table 3.

Table 3. The change of piston cavity based on different cylinder diameter of cylinder and BMEP.

BMEP Dcyl < 100 mm 115 mm < Dcyl < 150 mm Dcyl > 200 mm

68
 10 bar

17 bar

25 bar

In addition to the trend presented in Table 3, engines with low BMEP level, the cylinder diameter of less
than 120 mm and the injection pressures of up to 800 bar may have deep piston cavities and alternative
combustion chamber configurations, as shown in Figure 3.

Fig. 3. Alternative combustion chamber configurations for naturally aspirated diesel engines with the cylinder
diameter of up to 120 mm and the fuel injection pressure of upto 800 bar.
- In the Injector Design window, set the nozzle diameter and the number of nozzle holes and their
orientation in the combustion chamber. The dependence of the nozzle number and orifice diameter on
the cylinder diameter is shown in Figure 4.

(a)

69
b)

Fig. 4. Dependence of (a) nozzle number, in, and (b) orifice diameter, dn [mm], on cylinder diameter Dcyl
[mm].
In modern high-speed diesel engines with a cylinder diameter less than 150 mm and injection pressure
1000 bar or higher, the nozzle orifice diameter can be reduced by 0.1 ÷
0.15 mm and the number of nozzle orifices increased to 6 or 7.
The best and optimal orientation of the nozzle orifice is the one that ensures the maximum length of
the jet development before the jet impinges the wall. You should change the spray angle to adjust
and ensure the free jet development.

Step 5 Check the correctness of the injection characteristics.

Click: and open Fuel Injection System, Combustion Chamber window.

- Select the Injection Profile tab and for the Mode # 1 set the same cyclic fuel mass as the one in
Operating Mode window. If the data on injection characteristics are available, set it on the shown
graph. If the data are not available, just leave the injection characteristic as default or specify it as
recommended for different fuel injection system shown in Table 4. Adjust the fuel injection duration
in such a way that the maximum injection pressure pinj corresponds to the fuel supply system of a
given engine, as shown in Table 4.

70
 Table 4. Fuel injection characteristics for different fuel supply systems
pinj ≈1200÷1600
bar, for modern
engines with
Common Rail
system.

pinj ≈ 700÷1200
bar, for engines
with split fuel
delivery system.

pinj ≈ 700÷1200
bar, for engines
with pump-
embedded
injector.

71
 In Table 4, the injection velocity scale on Y axis is conditional.

JCB TCAE-129 engine shown here as an example has a common rail fuel supply system, therefore, for
this engine for fuel injection characteristics we should select the first option in Table 4. The injection
pressure is set to 1550 bar.

Step 6 First calculation of full power mode

Click button that starts the computation. In appeared window click "ICE simulation"
button (only the mode for maximum power should be activated).

To verify the correctness of the input data, perform the first calculation for one mode of "Maximum
power".

For the computing of one mode (only this regime should be marked with a tick in the table of Figure 2)
the following results are obtained:

- The table of integral parameters for an engine

- 1D graphs of various parameters versus time (crank angle degree)

- Visualization of spray in the combustion chamber for diesel engine

To investigate the individual operating modes the optimization and 1D and 2D scanning options can also
be used.

In the case of calculating the engine characteristics (if two or more modes marked with a tick in the
table in Figure 2) engine output results are plotted vs RPM. Optimization and scanning for several
modes simultaneously is not possible.

Therefore, at first, the analysis will be performed for each individual mode and then the entire engine

72
 performance characteristics can be determined.

Step 7 Analysis of the full power mode parameters

Computation results can be viewed and printed in Results section. For fast access to some sections of
menu use the following buttons:

To view engine integral parameters

To view results in 1D format: the rate of heat release, gas exchange

parameters, 1D scanning results, engine characteristics, etc.

When calculating the engine characteristics integral indicator table is not displayed. The table is only
used to display the parameters of the engine on an individual mode.

To plot and view the engine characteristics use 1D view button or option <Results => Engine
Performance>

To construct functions listed in the left pane, select the parameter and drag it using the left button
of the mouse on one of the panels on the right side of the screen.

Plotting instructions are provided in the software tutorials.

Check the value of the excess air factor  obtained in calculating the total power:
• For the transport of diesel it must be within α = 1.75 ÷ 2.05.
• For the diesel generator α= 2 ÷ 2.2.
If no current data is available and α exceeds the specified limits, correct the boost pressure. The
volumetric efficiency ηv should be in the range of 0.93 ÷ 0.98. If ηv <0.92, use the recommendations
from the tutorial for computing the engine output characteristicsof a spark-ignition engine.

- Check the calculated combustion duration ϕz. The value should lie within 70 ÷ 90 degrees. The
combustion time can be adjusted by the value "y" in the "RK-model settings" window. If it is difficult
to choose the empirical coefficients, leave the default settings given in the Wizard of New Project
Creation.

73
Step 8 Optimization of the injection timing at the Maximum Power

Select 1D scanning: <Optimization => Scanning => Radio button 1D scanning>. Select an
argument for scanning: Theta_i (Injection Timing).
Click [>>] button and in appeared window insert:
- Min. Value Theta_i: 4 deg. before TDC,
- Max. Value Theta_i: 12 deg. before TDC,
- Number of calculating points: 5
Click OK close the window and perform scanning.

As a result, plot the effective power Peng [kW] vs. Injection Timing Theta_i and also the Maximum
Cylinder Pressure pmax [bar], the Maximum Rate of Pressure Rise dp/dTheta [bar/deg], and the Specific
Fuel Consumption SFC [kg / kWh] vs. Injection Timing Theta_i,as shown in Figure 5.

Choose the optimal injection timing angle guided by the following considerations:
• The maximum cycle pressure for a transport engine with BMEP ≈ 16 should not exceed 170
bar: pmax <170 bar.
• The fuel consumption should be minimum SFC => MIN.
• The rate of pressure rise should not exceed the limit: dp/dTheta < 6.0 ÷ 6.5bar/deg.

To satisfy these conditions 7 degrees before TDC is selected. The optimal injection timing angle at the full
power mode is Theta_i = 7 degrees BTDC.
Fix this result as optimal and insert Theta_i = 7 deg. BTDC, as initial condition, in the Operating
Mode table in Figure 2.

The power at such injection timing may exceed the required value of 129 kW. In such a case, to reduce
the power, adjust the cyclic fuel supply so that the calculated power corresponds to the required value.
To calculate the cyclic fuel supply, the following equation is used:

74
 mf = 0.118 (129/131) = 0.1162 [g]

Insert this value mf =0.1162 (g) in the Operating Mode table shown in Figure 2.

Figure 5. Dependence of the effective power Peng, the maximum cylinder pressure pmax [bar], the rate
of pressure rise dp/dTheta, and the specific fuel consumption SFC [kg/kWh] on the fuel injection
Theta_i at full power mode.

75
Step 9 Calculation of the Maximum Torque

Set the cycle fuel mass [g] in Operating Mode (Figure 2) for “Maximum Torque” regime
using the proportion:

𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 690
𝑚𝑓 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑓 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.97 = 0.1164 0.97 = 0.1298[𝑔]
𝑇𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 600

where, the coefficient 0.97 takes into account the ratio of the specific effective fuel consumption at the
maximum torque mode and at the maximum power mode; parameters Tmax and Pmax designate the
mode of maximum torque and maximum power; T is the torque.

Modern engines usually use controlled boost. Compressor pressure ratio PRc 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 at maximum
torque regime can be calculated as
𝑃𝑅𝑐 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.905𝑃𝑅𝑐𝑃

where PRc𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 – compressor pressure ratio at maximum power regime, 0.905 – empirical coefficient
that changes based on the boost control method.

The turbocharger efficiency at maximum torque regime exceeds that of maximum power regime by 1
÷ 2%. The pressure loss in the exhaust and intake at maximum torque regime is half of that at full
power. The initial pressure before the turbine can be set as 0.9 PRc Tmax. Set these values in the
Operating Mode table on Figure 2.
𝑅𝑃𝑀 1.244
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑗 [ ]
𝑅𝑃𝑀𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥

Set the injection characteristics for the maximum torque regime by analogy with Step 5, see above.
The maximum injection pressure in this regime can be assumed to be the same as in maximum power
regime if the engine has a common rail fuel system installed; Otherwise, the maximum injection
pressure at the non-nominal regime can be estimatedby the equation:

76
 where pinj Pmax – maximum injection pressure at maximum power.
Calculate the maximum torque regime.
Step 10 Optimization of the fuel injection timing at maximum torque
Select the 1D scanning: <Optimization => Scanning => Radio button 1D scanning> Select the
argument for scanning: Theta_i (Injection Timing).
Click [>>] and in the window that appears, specify:
- the minimum value of Theta_i: 4 degrees BTDC,
- the maximum value of Theta_i: 12 degrees BTDC,
- number of points: 5
Close the window by clicking OK button and perform the scanning.

As a result, plot the Specific Fuel Consumption SFC [kg/kWh] vs. Injection Timing Theta_i, and also
the Maximum Cylinder Pressure pmax [bar] and the Maximum Torque [Nm] vs. Injection Timing
Theta_i, as shown in Figure 6.

Choose the optimal fuel injection timing based on the following considerations:
• Maximum cycle pressure for a transport engine with BMEP ≈ 16 should not exceed 170
bar: pmax <170 bar.
• The fuel consumption should be minimum SFC => MIN.

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 Figure 6. Dependence of the specific fuel consumption SFC [kg/kWh], the maximum cylinder pressure pmax
[bar], and torque on fuel injection timing Theta_i at maximum torque regime.

Analysis of the data in Figure 6 shows that the optimal injection timing angle at maximum torque is
Theta_i = 8 degrees BTDC. (Although for Theta_i = 10 deg BTDC the fuel consumption is lower but
the maximum cylinder pressure is almost 10 bar higher. For the engine design factor of safety and
reliability, Theta_i = 8 degrees BTDC is chosen.
Fix this result as optimal, i.e. Theta_i = 8 degrees BTDC, and input them into the Operating Mode
table in Figure 2.

In this example, the torque at the optimum point is 697 Nm. To bring the torque to the required level
of 690 Nm, the cycle fuel mass mf should be reduced to:

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 690
𝑚𝑓 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.01298 = 0.1285[𝑔];
697
Insert this value to the Operating Mode table on Figure 2.

Step 11 Calculation of engine idling regime

Click on Operating Mode option as in Figure 2 and set the column for engine idlingregime.

Click Fuel Injection System, Combustion Chamber tab and set the current cyclic fuel mass
and injection characteristics at intermediate lower power regime, as shown in Figure 8. Adjust the
injection duration such that the maximum fuel pressure is equal to the one at maximum torque regime
(for Common Rail system). For split fuel injection systems, the maximum injection pressure should
be calculated using equation (1).
The fuel injection characteristics for different fuel supply systems should be set based onTable 4.

Figure 8. Injection characteristics for intermediate lower power regime (1200 RPM).

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 Calculate the intermediate lower power regime.

Step 13 Calculation of intermediate higher power regime

Click on Operating Mode option and set the column for engine intermediate regime as shown
in Figure 2

Click Fuel Injection System, Combustion Chamber tab and set the current cyclic fuel mass
and injection characteristics at intermediate higher power regime, as shown in Figure 9. Adjust the
injection duration such that the maximum fuel pressure is equal to the one at maximum torque regime
(for Common Rail system). For split fuel injection systems, the maximum injection pressure should
be calculated using equation (1).
The fuel injection characteristics for different fuel supply systems should be set based onTable 4.

Figure 9. Injection characteristics for intermediate higher power regime (1800 RPM).

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 Calculate the intermediate higher power regime.

Step 14 Calculation of engine output characteristics

Click Operating Mode option and set the columns for all engine regimes which have
been preset earlier as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Settings for all regimes to calculate the engine output characteristics.

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Calculate the engine output characteristics.

Construct the graphs for the following parameters vs. RPM as shown in Figure 11:
• Power, Peng [kW].

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 • Torque, Torque [Nm].
• Break mean effective pressure, BMEP [bar].
• Specific fuel consumption, SFC [g/kWh], (Figure 11).

Figure 11. The change of engine parameters vs. RPM: (1) Power, Peng [kW], (2) Torque, Torque [Nm], (3)
Break mean effective pressure, BMEP [bar], (4) Specific fuel consumption, SFC [g/kWh]

Construct the graphs for the following parameters vs. RPM as shown in Figure 12:
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• Compressor pressure ratio, PR_c
• Ait fuel equivalence ratio, A/F_eq.
• Fuel injection timing, Theta_i [deg. BTDC].
• Maximum cylinder pressure, pmax [bar]

Figure 12. The change of engine parameters vs. RPM: (1) Compressor pressure ratio, PR_c, (2) Air fuel
equivalence ratio, A/F_eq, (3) Fuel injection timing, Theta_i [deg. BTDC], (4) Maximum cylinder pressure,
pmax [bar]

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Step 13 Comparison of the results for the mixture formation, combustion and in- cylinder
processes
Compute separately the engine operating regime at maximum power (RPM = 2050), maximum torque
(RPM = 1500) and idling. Compare the in-cylinder pressure versus RPM and versus cylinder volume
as shown in Figure 13, and the fuel injection velocity and the rate of heat release versus crank angle
degree as shown in Figure 14.

Figure 15 shows the visualization results of the calculated fuel spray penetration at, (a) maximum
power, (b) maximum torque, and (c) idling.

Figure 13. Comparison of in-

cylinder pressure diagrams [bar]
as a function of RPM and
cylinder volume.

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 Figure 14. Comparison of the
rate of heat release, dx/CA, and
the fuel injection velocity, V_inj
[m/s], as a function of RPM.
The highlighted line
corresponds to the maximum
torque regime.

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а)

b)

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c)

Figure 15. The results of spray penetration at (a) maximum power, (b) maximum torque, and (c) idling

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