COULOMB’S LAW

Colonel Charles Coulomb (an officer in the French army engineer) performed an elaborate series of
experiments using a delicate torsion balance, invented by himself, to determine quantitatively the force
exerted between two objects each having a static charge of electricity. His published result is now known
to many high school students and bears a great similarity to newton’s gravitational law (discovered
about a hundred years earlier).

Coulomb force law states that the magnitude of electrostatic force between two-point charge separated
in a vacuum or free space is proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges in each and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹=𝑘 𝑅2
1

Where 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 are the positive or negative quantities of charge, 𝑅 is the separation and 𝑘 is the
proportionality constant.
If the International System (SI) of unit is used, 𝑄 is measured in Coulombs (𝐶), 𝑅 is measured in meters
1
(𝑚) and 𝐹 is measured in Newton (𝑁), the constant of proportionality 𝑘 = . The constant 𝜀𝑜 is
4𝜋𝜀𝑜
called the permittivity of free space and has the magnitude measured in Farads per meter (𝐹/𝑚).
1
𝜀𝑜 = 8.854 × 10−12 = × 10−9 𝐹/𝑚 2
36𝜋

Therefore, Coulomb’s law is now

𝑄 𝑄2
𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜀1 2 3
𝑜𝑅

In order to write the vector form of equation (3), we need the additional fact (furnished also by Colonel
Coulomb) that the force acts along the line joining the two charges and is repulsive if the charges are
alike in sign and attractive if they are of opposite sign. Let the vector 𝑟̅1 locate 𝑄1 while 𝑟̅2 locate 𝑄2 .
Then the vector 𝑅̅12 = 𝑟̅2 − 𝑟̅1 represents the directed line segment from 𝑄1 to 𝑄2 , as shown in the
Figure 14.

Figure 14: Coulomb vector force on point charges 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 ,

The vector 𝐹̅12 is the force in 𝑄2 and is shown for the case where 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 have the same sign. The
vector form of Coulomb’s law is
𝑄 𝑄
𝐹̅12 = 1 22 𝑎̅12
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅12
4

Where 𝑎̅12 is a unit vector in the direction of 𝑅12 , or

𝑅̅ 𝑟̅ −𝑟̅
𝑎̅12 = |𝑅̅12 | = |𝑟̅2 −𝑟̅1 | 5
12 2 1

The vector force in equation (4) can also be written as

 𝑄1 𝑄2 (𝑟̅2 −𝑟̅1 )
𝐹̅12 = 6
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 |𝑟̅2 −𝑟̅1 |3

Example: A charge of 𝑄1 = 3 × 10−4 𝐶 is located at 𝑀(1,2,3) and a charge 𝑄2 = −10−4 𝐶 at 𝑀(2,0,5)

in a vacuum. Find the force exerted in 𝑄2 by 𝑄1 .

Solution
We shall make use of equations (4) and (5) to obtain the vector force.
𝑅̅12 = 𝑟̅2 − 𝑟̅1 = (2 − 1)𝑎̅𝑥 + (0 − 2)𝑎̅𝑦 + (5 − 3)𝑎̅𝑧

𝑅̅12 = 𝑎̅𝑥 − 2𝑎̅𝑦 + 2𝑎̅𝑧

|𝑅̅12 | = √12 + (−2)2 + 22 = √9 = 3

𝑅̅12 𝑎̅𝑥 − 2𝑎̅𝑦 + 2𝑎̅𝑧

𝑎̅12 = =
̅
|𝑅12 | 3

3 × 10−4 × (−10−4 ) 𝑎̅𝑥 − 2𝑎̅𝑦 + 2𝑎̅𝑧

𝐹̅12 = ×( )
1 3
4𝜋 × (36𝜋 × 10−9 ) × 32

𝑎̅𝑥 − 2𝑎̅𝑦 + 2𝑎̅𝑧

𝐹̅12 = −30 ( )𝑁
3
The magnitude of the force is 30𝑁 and the direction is specified by the unit vector which has been left
in parenthesis to display the magnitude of the force. The force in 𝑄2 may also be considered as those
components forces i.e.,
𝐹̅12 = −10𝑎̅𝑥 + 20𝑎̅𝑦 − 20𝑎̅𝑧 𝑁

The force expressed by Coulomb’s law is a mutual force for each of the two charges experiences a force
of the same magnitude, although of opposite direction. We might equally well have written
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹̅12 = −𝐹̅21 = 2 𝑎̅12 =− 2 𝑎̅21 6
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅12 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅21

Coulomb’s law is linear, for if we multiply 𝑄1 by a factor 𝑛, the force in 𝑄2 is also multiplied by the same
factor 𝑛.

Superposition Principle
It is also true that the force on a charge in the presence of several other charges is the sum of the forces
on that charge due to each of the other charges acting alone i.e., force on a charge 𝑄1 due to 𝑛 − 1
other charges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , … . , 𝑄𝑁 is the vector sum of the individual forces.

The principle states that if there are 𝑛 charges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , … . , 𝑄𝑁 located, respectively at 𝑟̅1 , 𝑟̅2 , … . , 𝑟̅𝑁 , the
resultant force 𝐹̅1𝑁 on a charge located at point 𝑟 is the vector sum of the forces exerted on charge 𝑄
by each of the charges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , … . , 𝑄𝑁 .
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝐹̅1𝑁 = 4𝜋𝜀1 𝑅22 𝑎̅12 + 4𝜋𝜀1 𝑅32 𝑎̅13 + ⋯ + 4𝜋𝜀1 𝑅𝑛2 𝑎̅1𝑁 7
𝑜 12 𝑜 13 𝑜 1𝑁

𝑄 𝑄𝑘 𝑄 𝑄𝑘 (𝑟̅1 −𝑟̅𝑁 )
𝐹̅1𝑁 = 4𝜋𝜀1 ∑𝑁 ̅1𝑁 = 4𝜋𝜀1 ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 𝑅2 𝑎 𝑛=1 |𝑟̅ −𝑟̅ |3 8
𝑜 1𝑁 𝑜 1 𝑁

Example: Point charges 1𝑚𝐶 and −2𝑚𝐶 are located at (3,2, −1) and (−1, −1,4), respectively.
Calculate the electric force on a 10𝑛𝐶 charge located at (0,3,1).

Solution
From Coulomb’s law,
𝑛
𝑄1 𝑄𝑘 (𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅𝑘 )
𝐹̅1𝑘 = ∑
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 |𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅𝑘 |3
𝑘=2
𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅1 = (0 − 3)𝑎̅𝑥 + (3 − 2)𝑎̅𝑦 + (1 − (−1))𝑎̅𝑧 = −3𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑦 + 2𝑎̅𝑧 for 𝑄1 = 1𝑚𝐶

|𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅𝑘 | = √(−3)2 + 12 + 22 = √14

𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅1 = (0 − (−1))𝑎̅𝑥 + (3 − (−1))𝑎̅𝑦 + (1 − 4)𝑎̅𝑧 = 𝑎̅𝑥 + 4𝑎̅𝑦 − 3𝑎̅𝑧 for 𝑄2 = −2𝑚𝐶

|𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅𝑘 | = √12 + 42 + (−3)2 = √26

𝑄 𝑄1 (𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅1 ) 𝑄2 (𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅2 )

𝐹̅ = [ + ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 |𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅1 |3 |𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅2 |3

10 × 10−9 1 × 10−3 (−3𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑦 + 2𝑎̅𝑧 ) (−2 × 10−3 )(𝑎̅𝑥 + 4𝑎̅𝑦 − 3𝑎̅𝑧 )
𝐹̅ = [ 3 + 3 ]
1
4𝜋 × ( × 10−9 ) (√14) (√26)
36𝜋
𝐹̅ = −6.507𝑎̅𝑥 − 3.817𝑎̅𝑦 + 7.506𝑎̅𝑧 𝑚𝑁

Exercise
1. A charge 𝑄𝐴 = −20𝜇𝐶 is located at 𝐴(−6,4,7) and a charge 𝑄𝐵 = 50𝜇𝐶 is located at 𝐵(5,8, −2)
in free space. If distances are given in meters, find:
a. 𝑅̅𝐴𝐵
b. 𝑅𝐴𝐵
c. The vector force exerted in 𝑄𝐴 by 𝑄𝐵 .

Electric Field Intensity

If we now consider one charge fixed in position say 𝑄1 and move a second charge slowly around, we
note that there exists everywhere a force on the second charge. In other words, the second charge is
displaying the existence of a force field. Let the second charge be a test charge 𝑄𝑡 .
The force on it is given by Coulomb’s law,
𝑄 𝑄
𝐹̅ = 4𝜋𝜀1 𝑅𝑡2 𝑎̅1𝑡 9
𝑜 1𝑡

Rating this force in a force per unit charge gives

𝐹̅ 𝑄1
= 2 𝑎̅1𝑡 10
𝑄𝑡 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅1𝑡

The quantity on the right side of equation (10) is a function of 𝑄1 and the direct line segment from 𝑄1
to the position of the test charge. This describes a vector field and is called the electric field intensity.
Electric field intensity is defined as the vector force on a unit positive test charge. It is measured in
Newtons per Coulomb (𝑁/𝐶) or Volts per meter (𝑉/𝑚).
Therefore, using a capital letter 𝐸̅ for electric field intensity, we have;
𝐹 ̅
𝐸̅ = 𝑄 11
𝑡

𝑄
𝐸̅ = 4𝜋𝜀 1𝑅2 𝑎̅1𝑡 12
𝑜 1𝑡

Equation (11) is the defining expression for electric field intensity, and equation (12) is the expression
for the electric field intensity due to a single point charge 𝑄1 in a vacuum. Let us disperse/neglect with
most of the subscripts in equation (12), reserving the right to use them again anytime, there is a
possibility of misunderstanding
𝑄
𝐸̅ = 4𝜋𝜀 1𝑅2 𝑎̅𝑅 13
𝑜

We should remember that 𝑅 is the magnitude of the vector 𝑅, the directed line segment from the point
at which the point charge 𝑄 is located to the point at which 𝐸̅ is desired, and 𝑎̅𝑅 is a unit vector in the
𝑅̅ direction.
Let us arbitrarily locate 𝑄1 at the centre of the spherical coordinate system. The unit vector 𝑎̅𝑅 then
becomes the radial unit vector 𝑎̅𝑟 , and 𝑅 is 𝑟. Hence,
 𝑄
𝐸̅ = 4𝜋𝜀1 𝑟2 𝑎̅𝑟 14
𝑜

𝑄1
𝐸𝑟 = 15
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2

The field has a single radial component, and its inverse square law relationship is quite obvious.

Electric Field Intensity in Rectangular Coordinate

Writing these expressions in rectangular coordinate for a charge 𝑄 at the origin, we have
𝑅̅ = 𝑟̅ = 𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑧𝑎̅𝑧 16
and
(𝑥𝑎̅𝑥 +𝑦𝑎̅𝑦 +𝑧𝑎̅𝑧 )
𝑎̅𝑅 = 𝑎̅𝑟 = 17
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
Therefore,
𝑄 (𝑥𝑎̅ +𝑦𝑎̅ +𝑧𝑎̅ )
𝐸̅ = (𝑥 2 2 2 )
( 𝑥 2 𝑦2 2 𝑧 ) 18
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 +𝑦 +𝑧 √𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧

𝑄 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝐸̅ = 4𝜋𝜀 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 ) ( 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑎̅𝑧 ) 19
𝑜 (𝑥 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

If a charge 𝑄 at the origin, in this case, the field no longer possess spherical symmetry (nor cylindrical
symmetry). Rectangular coordinate may also be used.
For a charge 𝑄 located at the same point 𝑟̅ ′ = 𝑥 ′ 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑦 ′ 𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑧 ′ 𝑎̅𝑧 as shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15:
We find the field at a general field point 𝑟̅ ′ = 𝑥 ′ 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑦 ′ 𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑧 ′ 𝑎̅𝑧 by expressing 𝑅̅ as 𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅ ′ and then
𝑄 𝑟̅−𝑟̅ ′
𝐸̅ (𝑟) = 4𝜋𝜀 ′ 2 × |𝑟̅−𝑟̅ ′ | 20
𝑜 |𝑟̅ −𝑟̅ |

𝑄(𝑟̅−𝑟̅ ) ′
𝐸̅ (𝑟) = 4𝜋𝜀 |𝑟̅−𝑟̅ ′ |3 21
𝑜

𝑄((𝑥−𝑥 ′ )𝑎̅𝑥 +(𝑦−𝑦 ′ )𝑎̅𝑦 +(𝑧−𝑧 ′ )𝑎̅𝑧 )

𝐸̅ (𝑟) = 3 22
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 ((𝑥−𝑥 ′ )2 +(𝑦−𝑦 ′ )2 +(𝑧−𝑧 ′ )2 ) ⁄2

Earlier, we defined a vector field as a vector function of a position vector, and this is emphasized by
letting 𝐸̅ be symbolized in functional notation by 𝐸̅ (𝑟).

Electric Field Intensity Due to Two Point Charge

Since the Coulomb force are linear, the electric field intensity due to two-point charge 𝑄1 at 𝑟̅1 and 𝑄2
at 𝑟̅2 is the sum of the forces on 𝑄𝑡 caused by 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 acting alone i.e.,
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐸̅ (𝑟) = 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎̅1 + 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎̅2 23
𝑜 |𝑟̅ −𝑟̅1 | 𝑜 |𝑟̅ −𝑟̅2 |

Where 𝑎̅1 and 𝑎̅2 are unit vectors in the direction of 𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅1 and 𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅2 , respectively.
The vectors 𝑟̅ , 𝑟̅1 , 𝑟̅2 , 𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅1 , 𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅2 , 𝑎̅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎̅2 are shown Figure 16.
 Figure 16:

The vector addition of the total electric field intensity at 𝑃 due to 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 is made possible by the
linearity of Coulomb’s law.
If we add more charges at other positions, the field due to a point charge is
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄𝑛
𝐸̅𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎̅1 + 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎̅2 + ⋯ + 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎̅𝑛 24
𝑜 |𝑟̅ −𝑟̅1 | 𝑜 |𝑟̅ −𝑟̅2 | 𝑜 |𝑟̅ −𝑟̅𝑛 |

𝑄𝑚
𝐸̅𝑟 = ∑𝑛𝑚=0 4𝜋𝜀 2𝑎
̅𝑚 25
𝑜 |𝑟̅ −𝑟̅𝑚 |

Example: Given four identical 3 𝑛𝐶 charges located at 𝑃1 (1,1,0), 𝑃2 (−1,1,0), 𝑃3 (−1, −1,0) and
𝑃4 (1, −1,0) as shown. Find the electric field intensity 𝐸̅ at 𝑃(1,1,1).

Solution
𝑟̅ = 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑎̅𝑧
𝑟̅1 = 𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑦
𝑟̅2 = −𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑦
𝑟̅3 = −𝑎̅𝑥 − 𝑎̅𝑦
𝑟̅4 = 𝑎̅𝑥 − 𝑎̅𝑦

|𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅1 | = √(1 − 1)2 + (1 − 1)2 + (1 − 0)2 = 1

|𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅2 | = √(1 − (−1))2 + (1 − 1)2 + (1 − 0)2 = √5
|𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅3 | = √(1 − (−1))2 + (1 − (−1))2 + (1 − 0)2 = √9 = 3
|𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅4 | = √(1 − 1)2 + (1 − (−1))2 + (1 − 0)2 = √5

(𝑎̅𝑥 −𝑎̅𝑥 )+(𝑎̅𝑦 −𝑎̅𝑦 )+(𝑎̅𝑧 −0)

𝑎̅1 = 1
= 𝑎̅𝑧
(𝑎̅𝑥 −(−𝑎̅𝑥 ))+(𝑎̅𝑦 −𝑎̅𝑦 )+(𝑎̅𝑧 −0) 2𝑎̅ +𝑎̅
𝑎̅2 = = 𝑥5 𝑧
√5 √
(𝑎̅𝑥 −(−𝑎̅𝑥 ))+(𝑎̅𝑦 −(−𝑎̅𝑦 ))+(𝑎̅𝑧 −0) 2𝑎̅𝑥 +2𝑎̅𝑦 +𝑎̅𝑧
𝑎̅3 = =
3 3
(𝑎̅𝑥 −𝑎̅𝑥 )+(𝑎̅𝑦 −(−𝑎̅𝑦 ))+(𝑎̅𝑧 −0) 2𝑎̅𝑦 +𝑎̅𝑧
𝑎̅4 = =
√5 √5

𝑄 3 × 10−9
= = 26.96𝑉
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 4𝜋 × 8.854 × 10−12
 𝑄𝑚
Using 𝐸̅𝑟 = ∑𝑛𝑚=0 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎̅𝑚 ,
𝑜 |𝑟̅ −𝑟̅𝑚 |

1 1 1 1
𝐸̅𝑟 = 26.96 ( 𝑎
̅1 + 𝑎
̅ 2 + 𝑎
̅ 3 + 𝑎̅ )
|𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅1 |2 |𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅2 |2 |𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅3 |2 |𝑟̅ − 𝑟̅4 |2 4

1 1 2𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑧 1 2𝑎̅𝑥 + 2𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑎̅𝑧 1 2𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑎̅𝑧

𝐸̅𝑟 = 26.96 ( 2
(𝑎̅𝑧 ) + 2 ( )+ 2( )+ 2( ))
1 √5 √5 3 3 √5 √5

2𝑎̅𝑥 + 𝑎̅𝑧 2𝑎̅𝑥 + 2𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑎̅𝑧 2𝑎̅𝑦 + 𝑎̅𝑧

𝐸̅𝑟 = 26.96 (𝑎̅𝑧 + + + )
5√5 27 5√5
2 2 2 2 1 1 1
𝐸̅𝑟 = 26.96 (( + ) 𝑎̅𝑥 + ( + ) 𝑎̅𝑦 + (1 + + + ) 𝑎̅𝑧 )
5√5 27 27 5√5 5√5 27 5√5

𝐸̅𝑟 = 26.96 ((0.17 + 0.074)𝑎̅𝑥 + (0.074 + 0.17)𝑎̅𝑦 + (1 + 0.089 + 0.037 + 0.089)𝑎̅𝑧 )

𝐸̅𝑟 = 26.96(0.244𝑎̅𝑥 + 0.244𝑎̅𝑦 + 1.215𝑎̅𝑧 )

𝐸̅𝑟 = 6.58𝑎̅𝑥 + 6.58𝑎̅𝑦 + 32.75𝑎̅𝑧 𝑉/𝑚

Exercise
1. A charge of 0.3 𝜇𝐶 is located at 𝐴(25, −30,15) 𝑐𝑚 and a second charge of 0.5 𝜇𝐶 is at
𝐵(−10,8,12) 𝑐𝑚. Find the electric field intensity at:
a. the origin
b. 𝑃(15,20,50) 𝑐𝑚
2. Evaluate the sums
1+(−1)𝑚
a. ∑5𝑚=0 𝑚2 +1
4 (0.1)𝑚 +1
b. ∑𝑚=1
(4+𝑚2 )2

Field due to a Continuous Volume Charge Distribution

If we now visualize a region of space filled with a tremendous number of charges separated by minute
distance, the distribution of very small particles can be replaced with a smooth continuous distribution
described by a volume charge density.
We denote the volume charge density by 𝜌𝑣 having a unit of Coulomb per cubic meter (𝐶/𝑚3 ). The
small amount of charge ∆𝑄 in a small volume ∆𝑉 is
∆𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑉
𝜌𝑣 is mathematically defined using a limiting process
∆𝑄
𝜌𝑣 = lim
∆𝑉→0 ∆𝑉

The total charge in the same finite volume is obtained by integrating throughout that volume

𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑣𝑜𝑙

Field of a Line Charges

Up to this point, we have considered two types of charge distribution, their point charge and charge
distribution throughout a volume with a density 𝜌𝑣 𝐶/𝑚3. Let us assume a straight-line charge
extending along the z-axis in a cylindrical coordinate system from −∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞ as shown Figure 17.
 Figure 17:
̅
We desire the electric field intensity 𝐸 at any and every point resulting from a uniform line charge 𝜌𝐿 .
A line charge of length 2𝑎 has a linear charge density 𝜌𝐿 (𝐶𝑚−1 ). The elemental length 𝑑𝑧 of the line
has a charge 𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑧 producing an electric field 𝑑𝐸̅ at a point 𝑃 given by
𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝐸̅ = 𝑎̅
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 𝑟
Where 𝜌𝐿 is the charge per unit length (𝐶𝑚−1 ). The field component in the direction 𝑟 (perpendicular
to the line) is
𝑟
𝑑𝐸̅𝑟 = 𝑑𝐸̅ cos 𝜃 = 𝑑𝐸̅
√(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )
𝜌𝐿 𝑑𝑧 𝑟
𝑑𝐸̅𝑟 = 2 2
×
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑧 ) √(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )

Symmetry should always be considered first in order to determine two specific factors:
i. With which coordinates the field does not vary.
ii. Which components of the field are not present.
From symmetry, the positive and the negative 𝑧 components add to zero and the radial field at 𝑃 from
the line is then the integral of 𝑑𝐸̅𝑟 over the length 2𝑎 of the line.
𝜌𝐿 𝑟 +𝑎 𝑑𝑧
𝐸̅𝑟 = ∫
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 −𝑎 (𝑟 + 𝑧 2 )3⁄2
2

after the integration, using integration table or change of variable 𝑧 = 𝑟 cot 𝜃

𝑎
𝜌𝐿 𝑟 1 𝑧
𝐸̅𝑟 = ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 √𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 −𝑎

Therefore, for a long line, (𝑎 >> 𝑟), the equation reduces to

𝜌𝐿
𝐸̅𝑟 = 𝑎̅
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟

Field of a Sheet of Charge: Infinite Plane Charge

This is another basic charge configuration known as the infinite sheet of charge having a uniform density
of 𝜌𝑠 (𝐶/𝑚2 ). Such a charge distribution may often be used to approximate that found on the
conductors of a strip transmission line or a parallel plate capacitor. Static charge resides on conductor
surfaces and not in their interior. For this reason, 𝜌𝑠 is commonly known as surface charge density.
The charge distribution fairly now is complete - point, line, surface and volume or 𝑄, 𝜌𝐿 , 𝜌𝑠 and 𝜌𝑣 ,
respectively as shown in Figure 18.
 Figure 18:
Now, let us develop an expression for 𝐸̅ due to charge uniformly distributed over an infinite plane with
density 𝜌𝑠 . The cylindrical coordinate system will be used with the charge in the 𝑧 = 0 plane as shown
in Figure 19.

Figure 19:

𝜌𝑠 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 −𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝑧𝑎̅𝑧

𝑑𝐸̅ = 2 2 ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑧 ) √(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )

Symmetry about the z-axis results in cancellation of the radial components.

−𝑟𝑎̅𝑟 + 𝑧𝑎̅𝑧
= 𝑎̅𝑧
√(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )
Therefore,
𝜌𝑠 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝐸̅ = 𝑎̅
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 𝑧
The field component in the direction z (perpendicular) to the surface is given as
𝑧
𝑑𝐸̅𝑟 = 𝑑𝐸̅ cos 𝜙 = 𝑑𝐸̅
√(𝑟 2 + 𝑧2)
2𝜋 ∞
𝜌𝑠 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙 𝑧
𝐸̅𝑟 = ∫ ∫ 2 2
0 0 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑧 ) √(𝑟 + 𝑧 2 )
2

2𝜋 ∞
𝜌𝑠 𝑟𝑧𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜙
𝐸̅𝑟 = ∫ ∫ 𝑎̅𝑧
0 0 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )3⁄2
∞
𝜌𝑠 𝑧 −1
𝐸̅𝑟 = [ ] 𝑎̅𝑧
2𝜀𝑜 √(𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )
0
𝜌𝑠
𝐸̅𝑟 = 𝑎̅
2𝜀𝑜 𝑧
This result is for points above the 𝑥𝑦 plane. Below the 𝑥𝑦 plane the unit vector changes to −𝑎̅𝑧 . The
generalized form may be written using 𝑎̅𝑛 , the unit normal vector
 𝜌𝑠
𝐸̅ = 𝑎̅
2𝜀𝑜 𝑛
The electric field is everywhere normal to the plane of the charge and its magnitude is independent of
the distance from the plane. For general volume charge distribution in free space is

𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝐸̅ = ∫ 𝑎̅ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
2 𝑅
𝑣𝑜𝑙 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅

𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣
̅=∫
𝐷 𝑎̅
2 𝑅
𝑣𝑜𝑙 4𝜋𝑅

Gauss’s Law
̅𝑠 makes an angle 𝜃 with ∆𝑆
If we consider a closed surface, let ∆𝑆 be an incremental element 𝐷

̅𝑠 and ∆𝑆.
The flux crossing ∆𝑠 is the product of the normal component of 𝐷
∆𝑄 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∆𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑆
= 𝐷𝑠 cos 𝜃 ∆𝑆
̅𝑠 ∙ ∆𝑆̅
=𝐷
The total flux passing through the closed surface is obtained by adding the differential contributions
crossing each surface element ∆𝑆.

𝜙 = ∫ 𝑑𝜙 = ∮ ̅𝑠 ∙ 𝑑𝑆̅
𝐷
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓.

The resultant integral is a closed surface integral and since the surface element 𝑑𝑆̅ always involves the
different of the coordinate such as 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦, 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝜌 or 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙. The integral is a double integral.
Any closed surface, real or imaginary may be called a Gaussian surface. Thus, the double or surface
integral with the circle (∮𝑠 ) implies a Gaussian or closed surface.

∮ ̅𝑠 ∙ 𝑑𝑆̅ = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄

𝐷
𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓.

When the charge enclosed several point charges in which case

𝑄 = ∑ 𝑄𝑛

Or a line charge 𝑄 = ∫ 𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙

Or a surface charge 𝑄 = ∫𝑆 𝜌𝑆 𝑑𝑆

Or a volume charge distribution 𝑄 = ∫𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉

Gauss’s law may be written in terms of the charge distribution as

 ̅𝑠 ∙ 𝑑𝑆̅ = ∫ 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜙
∮ 𝐷
𝑆
𝑉𝑜𝑙

Example: A surface line charge infinite in extent with 𝜌𝑙 = 20 𝑛𝐶/𝑚 lies along the z-axis. Find electric
field 𝐸̅ at (6,8,3)𝑚.
Solution
In cylindrical coordinates,

𝑟 = √62 + 82 = 10 𝑚 the field is constant with z. Thus,

𝜌𝑙
𝐸̅ = 𝑎̅
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟
20 × 10−9
𝐸̅ = −9 𝑎̅𝑟 = 36𝑎̅𝑟 𝑉/𝑚
2𝜋 × (10 ⁄36𝜋) × 10

Example: On the line described by 𝑥 = 2 𝑚, 𝑦 = −4 𝑚, there is a uniform charge distribution of density

𝜌𝑙 = 20𝑛𝐶/𝑚. Determine the electric field 𝐸̅ at (−2, −1,4)𝑚.
Solution
𝜌𝑙
𝐸̅ = 𝑎̅
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟
The vector 𝑅̅ = (−2 − 2)𝑎̅𝑥 + (−1 − (−4))𝑎̅𝑦

𝑅̅ = −4𝑎̅𝑥 + 3𝑎̅𝑦

|𝑅̅ | = √(−4)2 + (3)2 = 5 𝑚

20 × 10−9 −4𝑎̅𝑥 + 3𝑎̅𝑦
𝐸̅ = −9 ×
2𝜋 × (10 ⁄36𝜋) × 5 5

𝐸̅ = −37.6𝑎̅𝑥 + 43.2𝑎̅𝑦 𝑉/𝑚

Example: Given the figure below, two uniform line charges of density 𝜌𝑙 = 4 𝑛𝐶/𝑚 lie in the 𝑥 = 0
plane at 𝑦 = ±4 𝑚. Find the electric field 𝐸̅ at (4,0,10)𝑚.

Solution
The magnitude of the field at 𝑃 would be
𝜌𝑙
𝐸=
2𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
𝑟̅ = (4 − 0)𝑎̅𝑥 + (0 − (±4))𝑎̅𝑦 = 4𝑎̅𝑥 + 4𝑎̅𝑦

|𝑟̅ | = √(4)2 + (4)2 = 4√2 𝑚

 4 × 10−9 18
𝐸= −9 = 𝑉/𝑚
2𝜋 × (10 ⁄36𝜋) × 4√2 √2

The field due to both line charges is superposition

18
𝐸̅𝑟 = 2 ( cos 45) 𝑎̅𝑥 = 18𝑎̅𝑥 𝑉/𝑚
√2

In an example of the evaluation of a volume integral, we shall find the total charge contained in a 2 𝑐𝑚
long of the electron beam shown in figure below.

Solution
From the illustration, we see that the charge density is
5
𝜌𝑣 = −5 × 10−6 𝑒 −10 𝜌𝑧 𝐶/𝑚3
The volume differential in cylindrical coordinates is given in the coordinate systems. Therefore,
0.04 2𝜋 0.01
5 𝜌𝑧
𝑄 = ∫ ∫ ∫ −5 × 10−6 𝑒 −10 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧
0.02 0 0

We integrate first with respect to 𝜙, since it is so easy

0.04 0.01
5 𝜌𝑧
𝑄 = ∫ ∫ −10−5 𝜋𝑒 −10 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑧
0.02 0

And then with respect to 𝑧, because this will simplify the last integration with respect to 𝜌
0.01 0.04
−10−5 𝜋 −105 𝜌𝑧
𝑄=∫ [ 𝑒 𝜌𝑑𝜌]
−10𝜌 0.02
0
0.01

𝑄 = ∫ −10−10 𝜋(𝑒 −2000𝜌 − 𝑒 −4000𝜌 ) 𝑑𝜌

0
Finally,
0.01
−10
𝑒 −2000𝜌 𝑒 −4000𝜌
𝑄 = −10 𝜋[ − ]
−2000 −4000 0

1 1 𝜋
𝑄 = −10−10 𝜋 ( − )=− = 0.0785 𝑝𝐶
2000 4000 40